Chapter VI: Part II: The Northern Territories (2)

1. Black Rattler 82·5 36·36 1·3 in. 6⅝—6¾_d_.
2. Richmond 140 28·5 1·1 „ 6⅝-6¾_d_.
3. Eponkon 525 24·7 1·2 „ no demand
4. Abassi 210 31 1·5 „ 7⅛_d_.
5. Ashmouni 300 33·3 1·3 „ 6¾_d_.
6. Jannovitch 120 33·3 1·0 „ 6⅝-6¾_d_.
7. Kidney 340 41 1·2 „ 6¾_d_.
8. Georgia 150 36·6 1·1 „ 6⅝-6¾_d_.
9. Ogudu 490 28·5 1·5 „ 7_d_.
10. Sea Island 60 33·3 1·4 „ 6¾_d_.
11. Allen’s Improved 195 30·7 1·6 „ 7⅛_d_.
12. Culpepper B. Boll. 150 33·3 1·2 „ 6⅝-6¾_d_.
13. Jannovitch 240 33·3 1·5 „ 7_d_.
14. Peruvian 400 17·5 1·2 „ 6-6¾_d_.
15. Abassi 320 34·4 1·4 „ 7½_d_.
16. Jones’ improved 82·5 36·36 1·4 „ 6_d_.
17. Russell’s B.B. Crop entire failure
18. Hawkins’ Extra Prolific „ „ „
19. Sunflower Box Staple „ „ „

Of the above Nos. 1, 2, 8, 10, 11, 12, 14, 16, 17, 18, and 19 are American varieties, and were grown from seed supplied by the British Cotton Growing Association; Nos. 4, 5, 6, 13 and 15 are Egyptian; No. 9 is a Northern Nigerian variety from North Ilorin, and Nos. 3 and 7 appear to be local kinds. These cottons are referred to in Professor Dunstan’s Report (1907), “British Cotton Cultivation.”

In addition to the susceptibility of the American varieties to the attacks of the local insect pests, the seed produced from plants grown in the country is often sterile. In the districts in the vicinity of the British Cotton Growing Association’s ginneries American and native cottons are often seen growing in the same field, but as the time of reaching maturity differs in the various forms, and the cotton is not easily kept separate in the native methods of harvesting, a mixed crop is obtained. Experimenting at the Moor Plantation at Ibadan, the British Cotton Growing Association have obtained occasionally satisfactory results from the American plots, as appeared to be the case in the 1908-9 season, when an American “Upland” variety is said to have yielded 800 lbs. of seed cotton per acre. In the previous year an indigenous variety called “Meko” is recorded as having produced over 900 lbs. to the acre. These results are largely dependent upon the season and the time of sowing.

Artificial pollination of the female flowers of the local forms with pollen taken from American kinds has not yet succeeded in producing a permanent hybrid, although the result in the first generation has frequently shown great promise. There is no doubt that the establishment of a hybrid which would carry the lint of the best American kind and retain the hardiness and blight-resisting powers of the indigenous forms would be very desirable, but such a type could only be evolved after careful experiment and selection for a prolonged period. Such work may probably be undertaken by the Agricultural Department in the future. Until this can be scientifically taken up, the improvement of the existing forms by a more gradual means should be attempted, namely by a careful selection of seed and elimination of undesirable forms of plants in the field.

Where cotton is planted by natives, the cultivation is usually carefully carried out. Planting takes place in June, July, or August, and the crop is harvested from January until April. For the most part cotton is grown by the Yorubas as a separate crop, although occasionally it may be found in conjunction with maize. No manuring is carried on, but the crops are generally fair, except in the proximity of the Niger, for an unexplained reason. No estimate can be made of the yield per acre from native cotton fields, but from 60 to 80 bolls are frequently found upon a single plant.

Before passing to other matters in connection with the condition of the cotton plant in the country, and the appliances in use for the preparation of the lint for export, it seems advisable to emphasise the main points which require attention in the field. 1. Improvement of the indigenous forms, by the careful selection of seed at the ginneries, for distribution, and the subsequent elimination of undesirable types of plant in the field. 2. Demonstration to the native farmer of a useful method of combination of cotton with the existing field crops, and especially the advantage of introducing leguminous crops into the rotation with cotton. 3. Special efforts to be made in those countries outside the oil palm districts, where the natives have little else capable of being produced for barter for imported material. Alter a series of experimental trials it was decided in 1915 to encourage the planting of Georgia cotton in the Western Province. In the year mentioned this American variety had yielded 800 lbs. of seed cotton per acre at Ibadan.

A number of insect pests of a more or less serious nature attack the plant at different periods of growth. The American boll-worm (_Chloridea obsoleta_) does some damage annually in the Central Province (Ugboha, Agbede and Ishan); _Earias insulana_, F., the Egyptian boll-worm; _E. imbricata_, an allied species, and _Diparopsis castanea_ Hamp., the Sudan boll-worm, are common at Ibadan. The immature boll is often punctured by a scarlet and brown bug, identified as _Dysdercus superstitiosus_, Fabr., which enters the opened bolls also, and exudes a yellowish liquid, which stains the lint. The opened boll is also infested with three species of cotton-seed bugs—_Oxycarenus hyalinipennis_, _O. gossipinus_, and _O. Dudgeoni_—which do a large amount of damage in sapping the juices from the seed and rendering it unproductive. The most satisfactory method of dispersing this insect is to place the seed-cotton in a hot sun for several hours. Both _Oxycarenus_ and _Dysdercus_ may be trapped by placing piles of seed in the field at intervals, and treating them with kerosene when the insects have collected on them. A small caterpillar belonging to the family _Gelechiadæ_[4] is often found in the boll feeding on the seed, and a leaf-blistering blight, probably _Chlorita flavescens_, appears to be common in several places. A malady, chiefly on stems of exotic cottons, and known as “black-arm” in Georgia, U.S.A., is seen occasionally. The affection is not attributed to any animal or vegetable parasite.

The ginneries erected by the British Cotton Growing Association are probably some of the best equipped in the world. The Marlborough Ginnery at Ibadan (Fig. 23) has at present the largest output, although the Jones Ginnery at Oshogbo is larger, and is expected to receive a greater quantity of cotton for treatment in the future. The third, which is working in the Western Province, is the Churchill Ginnery at Lafenwa, near Abeokuta. Smaller ginneries have been erected at Eruwa Road, Iwo, Oyo, and Agege in the Western Province, but are at present unused. In the Central Province the Illushi Ginnery on the Niger is capable of treating all the cotton of the adjoining districts. A photograph of cotton bales at Ibadan is reproduced (Fig. 23).

At Ibadan an oil mill has been erected in connection with the Marlborough Ginnery, and the expression of oil from the seed is regularly carried on. The seed cake which is turned out is found to be of rather inferior quality for European consumption, as the excess of woolly seed renders it undesirable for cattle food. A very economical local use for this cake has recently been discovered—namely the employment of it to generate gas to drive the machinery of the ginnery. It has been found that 6 cwt. of cotton-seed cake is sufficient to generate gas to drive the 30 h.p. oil-mill engine for nine and a half hours. This discovery suggests the possibility of doing without coal entirely at the ginneries, which would mean a very large saving in the cost of production of cotton.

The cotton ginned by the British Cotton Growing Association is baled for the most part in rectangular oblong form, each bale weighing approximately 400 lbs. The production of the country has shown a rapid increase, especially in the earlier years, though more recently one of the seasons proved a short one owing to adverse climatic conditions.

Weight cwts. Weight cwts. Weight cwts.
1902 110 1908 20,485 1914 no figure given
1903 2,588 1909 44,937 1915 24,081
1904 10,255 1910 22,128 1916 66,555
1905 12,275 1911 19,984 1917 47,137
1906 24,071 1912 39,043 1918 13,214
1907 36,513 1913 56,796 1919 60,221

The exports of cotton-seed in 1912 and 1913 reached 4,058 tons and 5,887 tons respectively. (“Cotton Varieties,” cf. _Bull. Imp. Inst._, vol. xv. [1917]). Much is expected from this new development.

=MAIZE.=—In the last few years the cultivation of a short-season “white” maize has been taken up, especially among the Yorubas, in the Western Province, although the variety is also found in the fields farther to the east. (See _Bulletin of the Imperial Institute_, vol. vii. [1909], pp. 145-8.)

Tons Value £ Tons Value £
1907 9,891 28,520 1913 11,841 40,349
1908 15,529 51,695 1914 — 5,803
1909 10,917 34,335 1915 272 941
1910 5,096 16,689 1916 981 5,064
1911 867 3,128 1917 876 4,367
1912 7,899 28,713 1918 405 3,696

A difficulty has arisen in connection with the preparation of the crop for shipment; it having been found that very large quantities arrive in Europe in a weevilly condition. Various methods have been suggested to remedy this, including disinfection with carbon bisulphide, but the use of this last is dangerous.

A restriction with regard to the time of buying the July—August crop is recommended for adoption by the merchants, in order to prevent immature, insufficiently dried corn being shipped. It is insisted, however, in some quarters, that, until the holds of ships are systematically cleaned out before loading, no amount of precaution on shore will prevent shipments becoming weevilled during the voyage. (See article on “The Cultivation and Marketing of Maize” in the _Bulletin of the Imperial Institute_, vol. vi. [1908], pp. 261-77.)

Experiments were carried out in 1911, 1912 and 1913 to determine the most profitable time for sowing maize. The results were, however, conflicting, and no definite recommendation could be made owing to the irregularity of rainfall.

=CASSAVA.=—Among the more important field crops, cassava has to be reckoned. Two well-marked forms occur, which are readily recognised by the different characters of their leaves, one having the leaflets digitate and pointed, and the other digitate and spathulate, with the central leaflet shortened. Cassava forms an important food in many parts of the country, and is widely cultivated, especially in the Western Province. No tapioca is prepared from the root in Southern Nigeria, such as is the case in the West Indies and elsewhere.

=YAMS.=—In many parts of the country, more especially in the Central and Eastern Provinces, the various forms of yam (_Dioscorea_) are extensively cultivated alone or with maize, but the presence of five or six other crops growing upon the heightened yam mounds is not uncommon, in the Cross River districts particularly. From the latter locality quantities of yams are sent by river canoes to the large ports in the vicinity of which cultivated land is often scarce.

The Koko yam (_Colocasia antiquorum_) is also common in the wet zone.

=GROUNDNUTS.=—The cultivation of groundnuts (_Arachis hypogea_), upon a more extensive scale than at present, is to be recommended, as there are too few leguminous crops grown in the local rotation. The colour of most of the Southern Nigerian nuts is probably an obstacle to their ready sale in Europe; the shell being usually a dirty greyish instead of a light straw colour. The kernels are, however, satisfactory. It would, perhaps, therefore be advantageous to ship decorticated nuts, as is done in the Northern Provinces. Although new seed and instructors have been brought recently from the Gambia, very little more is grown than formerly.

The variety seen in the Western Province is a larger one than that of the Gambia, and has generally two kernels. The market price for groundnuts at Lapita near Oyo was 200 for 1_d_., which will indicate the scarcity of the product.

=SHEA NUTS AND BUTTER.=—The export trade in shea nuts (_Butyrospermum Parkii_) was expected to develop with the extension of the railway through Ibadan and Ilorin to the Northern Provinces, but the exported product still has its main source from localities north of the Niger. The demand does not seem sufficient to induce expansion to a great extent (_Bull. Imp. Inst._, vol. vi. [1908]).

The butter or fat is much appreciated in the country for culinary purposes, and has been found of value in Europe for soap and candle-making, as well as for the manufacture of vegetable butter.

=KOLA.=—Two species of kola (_K. acuminata_ and _K. vera_) are cultivated, the latter being the indigenous Gold Coast form, the fruit of which is said to be especially valued in the Haussa countries to the north. The local native names are, respectively, “Obi abatta” and “Obi gbanja.” In general appearance the trees are similar, except that the former has narrower and smaller leaves. The “gbanja” form of nut is generally pink and divisible into from two to three parts (cotyledons), whereas the “abatta” form may vary in colour from deep crimson to white and be separable into from three to five parts. The price paid for kolas in Lagos is said to vary from 1_s_. 3_d_. to 5_s_. per hundred.

Although a considerable number of trees have been planted and are bearing fruit in the Western Province, the demand for kolas for native consumption is so great that there is a large import trade from the Gold Coast.

The kola nut is chewed in much the same manner as the betel nut in the East. It is greatly appreciated for its sustaining qualities, and forms a token of friendship exchanged among high-grade natives, as a preliminary to an important discussion of any kind.

=FIBRE.=—Experiments have been made at the Olokemeji Botanic Station with indigenous fibres, and a small factory has been erected at Ilaro, where a machine capable of extracting fibre is said to have been instituted. The reports upon some of the local Hibiscus fibres have been satisfactory. These are capable of utilisation as jute substitutes, and it may be possible to grow them in the crop rotation of the country at some future time for the purpose of export. (See _Selected Reports from the Imperial Institute_, No. 1 “Fibres,” pp. 38, 52, 83, 89, and 114.)

Piassava (_Raphia vinifera_) fibre is prepared and shipped, especially from Uwet in the Eastern Province, the export amounting to 319 tons in 1910.

=LEATHER.=—A small trade in leather is done among the Yorubas, and tanners may be met with chiefly in the north of the Western Province. The process employed in the preparation of the goat and sheep skins used is similar to that of Northern Nigeria. (See Report on “Leather from Lagos,” _Bulletin of the Imperial Institute_, vol. iv. [1906], p. 366, and articles on “Native Leather of West Africa,” _Bulletin of the Imperial Institute_, vol. vi. [1908], pp. 175-81 and vol. viii. [1910], pp. 402.)

=TOBACCO.=—Tobacco is produced near Ibadan, and large quantities are sold in the King’s market of that town. It is probable that the curing of the leaf is done completely in the sun, as the prepared material is of a rather light colour and has a mild flavour. The leaves are apparently rather mixed, and old or immature examples are frequently included in the same grade.

Experiments will be taken in hand with a view to the improvement of the quality, but at present the local demand is so great that there is little prospect of an export trade becoming established. Recent work in Nyasa-land has shown that good pipe smoking tobacco, suitable for consumption in England, can be produced in Africa.

=SILK.=—The preparation of a silk yarn, carded and spun from the boiled cocoons of wild silkworms, is a common occupation of some of the women of Ibadan. The identity of the insects producing the silk has been determined to be _Anaphe infracta_ and _A. venata_, both of which form congregated masses of cocoons. The yarn is of a brown colour, and is woven with cotton into a cloth which is called locally “Saṉyaṉ.” It is much valued by the natives on account of its durability. The silkworms show some sign of becoming scarce owing to the utilisation of the pupæ as food. (See _Bulletin of the Imperial Institute_, 1910, p. 150; 1916, p. 168; and 1920, p. 319.)

=COCONUTS.=—The preparation of copra is carried on at Badagri, where a large coconut plantation exists. Great alarm was recently caused to the proprietors through the attack of a scale insect (_Aspidiotus destructor_), which destroyed the leaves of a very large number of trees. The advent of this pest was, however, quickly followed by the vast multiplication of the numbers of a species of large ladybird beetle, which soon checked the spread of the scale. The directions issued by the Forestry Department with regard to the means of destroying the infected leaves also assisted in the extermination of the blight.

=MAHOGANY AND EBONY.=—Among the valuable exported products from the country, mahogany and ebony must be regarded as occupying an important place. The largest proportion of the timbers exported to Europe and sold under the name of mahogany are obtained in the Central Province, and are cut from trees belonging to the genera _Khaya_, _Pseudocedrela_, and _Entandrophragma_, of the Natural Order _MELIACEÆ_. Mr. Thompson, Conservator of Forests, remarks that a fair number of logs cut from a species of _Guarea_, of the same Natural Order, have been shipped, and have obtained good prices in Europe.

A red wood, called locally “Iroko” (_Chlorophora excelsa_), which is in good demand in the country for making furniture, etc., has been shipped to Europe, but at present there is little demand for it. A photograph of another timber tree (_Terminalia superba_) is given (Fig. 24).

Mahogany cannot be relied upon as a product capable of permanent exportation, as trees are only useful for felling in the vicinity of creeks and rivers, whence the logs may be inexpensively transported to the sea. The rate at which the available trees are becoming worked out is much greater than that at which they can be replaced by nature.

The export values for some recent years are as under:—

1910 £60,191 | 1915 £54,559
1911 £55,575 | 1916 £49,361
1912 £78,007 | 1917 £21,282
1913 £105,440 | 1918 £68,480
1914 £86,522 | 1919 £116,820

The ebony exported from the country is chiefly obtained in the Cross River District of the Eastern Province, but during recent years the trade in it has diminished, and it is said that immature trees are frequently felled. The sources of ebony are two species of trees belonging to the genus _Diospyros_. The value of ebony exported during the two years 1909 and 1910 is stated to have been £1,298 and £166 respectively.

Several other trees have recently been examined for export value, most of them coming into the mahogany or red-wood class. (See articles on “Timbers from Southern Nigeria,” _Bull. Imp. Inst._, vol. vi. [1908], p. 144, vol. xviii. [1920], p. 199, and note on next page.)

=CATTLE.=—The greater part of the moist zone is almost devoid of cattle, partly owing to the prevalence of “tsetse” fly, although mainly, perhaps, to the less advanced condition of the inhabitants. As soon as the intermediate and dry-zone country is entered, small herds are frequently seen. That the presence of tsetse fly is not entirely accountable for the scarcity of cattle in the forested region is shown by the occurrence of the peculiar dwarfed variety with short legs, which is found in Ondo, Ilesha, Ifon, Ishan, and even in the Bassa Province in Northern Nigeria, in all of which districts “tsetse” flies of at least two species are met with. (_Glossina palpalis_ and _G. pallidipes_.) It is stated by the natives that the dwarf cattle are immune from fly disease, but that introduced animals succumb to it. The appearance of these animals, an illustration of one of which is given, reproduced from a photograph taken at Illara (Fig. 25), is remarkable. The prevailing colours are black and white, black, and more rarely fawn-coloured. There is no dorsal hump, and the forequarters are generally lower than the hind. A second illustration, from a photograph taken at Owo (Fig. 26), gives an idea of the relative size of a full-grown animal compared with that of a boy. Another peculiarity of the above-mentioned districts is that the goats occurring there are similarly short-legged and diminutive; there is also said to be a stunted variety of horse, which is bred for use at Ondo. When the open country is reached, two varieties of cattle are seen, one of the Indian zebu type, with a large dorsal hump, the prevailing colour of which is white, and another with a straight back. The latter kind is seen as far south as Onitsha, on the east bank of the Niger.

Fig. 25, p. 119.]

Fig. 26, p. 119.]

Fig. 27, p. 125.]

=POTTERY.=—Earthen pots are made in several parts of the country, and are usually symmetrically formed, although no wheel is used in their preparation. The large earthen jars made at Abeokuta are used in the palm oil, native beer, and indigo industries.

=FOREST RESERVES.=—These are now being formed everywhere in order to replace the destruction of recent years. The irregular rainfall renders natural regeneration very poor, and artificial regeneration by means of planting by leaseholders for trees cut down has proved unsatisfactory. In 1913 some villages in the Central Province started small mahogany plantations, and trees for fuel are now being grown in several districts. The value of such trees as _Afzelia africana_ and _Triplochiton johnsoni_ has been recently demonstrated.

Territory held by Great Britain under Mandate is hatched in Red. [Legend]

_Stanford’s Geogl. Estabt., London._]

=NIGERIA-NORTHERN PROVINCES=

=INTRODUCTORY REMARKS=—Until 1914 the Northern Provinces of Nigeria were separately administered under the designation of Northern Nigeria, and were the largest as well as the most recent of our West African Colonies. They lie between 7° 3′ and 13° 54′ north latitude, and 2° 50′ and 14° 5′ east longitude, and are bounded on the north by the French Sudan, on the east by the Kameruns and on the west by Dahomey and French Guinea. The Southern Provinces of Nigeria almost completely adjoin the southern boundary.

The estimate of the populations and areas of the thirteen provinces given below is taken from the Colonial Office Report No. 821 for 1913:—

Area, sq. miles. Population.
Sokoto 32,600 1,300,000
Kano 29,500 3,500,000
Bornu 33,600 700,000
Central[5] 23,700 700,000
Zaria 13,320 402,000
Niger[5] 16,770 400,000
Kontagora 27,800 122,000
Ilorin 6,500 200,000
Muri 28,700 700,000
Nassarawa 16,710 600,000
Yola 11,600 300,000
Kabba 8,200 140,000
Bassa 6,700 205,000
------- ---------
255,700 9,269,000

The total population is thus nearly double that of the estimation of 1907-8. For convenience the Northern Provinces may in places still be referred to in this work by the old title of Northern Nigeria.

As will be seen below there is less variation in the rainfall of the different provinces than is found elsewhere in West Africa. The averages of the following centres for as many years as are available until 1913 are given for comparison:—

Av. inches. Av. inches.
Naraguta 50·28 Knepp 40·80
Ilorin 49·75 Yola 38·64
Kontagora 47·77 Kano 33·65
Zaria 46·59 Maifoni 27·85
Baro 46·56 Sokoto 24·86
Lokoja 45·77 Kataguni 19·87
Zungeru 41·67 Geidam 15·14

Of the places mentioned the highest single year’s rainfall was reached at Ilorin when 65·18 inches fell, and the lowest at Geidam in 1913 when only 5·76 were recorded. There are localities where the rainfall exceeds the highest given here and others where it is undoubtedly much lower, but no records are available. The highest shade temperatures have been at Dumjeri and Maifoni (North Bornu), where 120° was attained, the lowest being at Kano, where it fell to 39°. In Kano and Zaria rain seldom falls between November 1 and the end of March, but the distribution is more general in the south.

=Administration and Political Divisions.=—The administration of Northern Nigeria was taken over by the Crown in 1900, having previously been carried on by the Royal Niger Company. Protectorates were gradually assumed, and the country placed upon a secure footing by the suppression of raiding, which had constantly been carried on by the different Emirs, chiefly upon the pagan tribes. The devastation caused by these raids is still visible in the country to the south of Kontagora and elsewhere, and the fear of the raiders kept the inhabitants within or in close proximity to their walled towns, leaving large tracts of fertile country unexploited. The work accomplished by Sir Frederick Lugard, the first High Commissioner, was largely that of pacification and reassurance of the people, and until this had been completed, and facilities for transport provided, it could not be expected that the country could make much progress from a commercial standpoint.

The further opening up of the country by means of roads and railways, and the assessment of land revenue upon lines completely understood and recognised as fair by the natives, was effected by Sir Percy Girouard, who succeeded Sir Frederick Lugard’s first administration. Sir Frederick subsequently returned as Governor-General of the amalgamated Nigeria.

Until April 1907 the country was divided into fourteen provinces, one of which, Borgu, was absorbed in Kontagora at that time, making the thirteen mentioned above. By a later reconstruction the provincial limits of the two provinces of Bauchi and Nupe were reformed, and the provinces reconstituted under the names of the Central and Niger Provinces respectively. Groups of provinces were then placed under First-class Residents. Photographs are given of Kano and Zaria (Figs. 32 and 33).

=Natural Divisions.=—There is less apparent possibility of defining limits to the natural conditions of any part of the country than is found in the countries nearer the coast. There is no afforested zone in Northern Nigeria, although fairly densely wooded tracts occur in several places near the larger rivers. It may be said that grass land studded with well-separated trees is the condition of the country throughout, the trees becoming more stunted towards the northern and desert boundaries. To the north of the 11th degree of latitude, the botanical aspect becomes different; more trees of the Mimosa group, including the gum-bearing Acacias, becoming apparent. Cattle thrive well in this region, where the “tsetse” fly has not yet been observed.

Haussa Land, a term applied to the northern parts of the country, alone among the British West African territories, may be said to have been controlled by an ordered form of government from early times, and to have had a recorded history. Unfortunately these records were destroyed, wherever possible, by the Fulani conquerors, who came from the source of the river Senegal and overran the country at the beginning of the last century, and whose object seemed to be to endeavour to eliminate from the minds of the conquered people all recollection of their previous power. In spite of strenuous efforts in this direction, a few documents have been preserved, and these, combined with traditions, which have not had time to become completely distorted, show that, in spite of severe wars, famines, and other disturbing incidents, the Haussa has maintained his characteristic traits.

The origin of the Haussa race is still a matter of uncertainty, although there is some reason to suppose that it came from the east, and gradually penetrated the Western Sudan from the north. The Haussa language, which is claimed to be more in use than any other native language in West Africa, is said, by Lady Lugard, to be classed with Coptic among the Hamitic languages.[6]

History has established the fact that there were seven divisions or states in Haussa Land, the people of which, although regarded as having come from a common stock, were almost perpetually at war with one another. The mythical account of the formation of these states relates that each had particular duties assigned to it; those of Kano and Rano, to the north of Zaria, being specially industrial. At the beginning of the sixteenth century, when the Songhay kingdom was at the summit of its power, Kano and Gober, among other Haussa towns, were specially referred to by Leo Africanus on account of their cotton trade.[7]

Everywhere along the West Coast the name Haussa is associated with the idea of trade; the itinerant nature of the race inducing individuals to visit the remote parts of the pagan countries, thus creating trade routes in all directions. The Haussa trader of the present day does not necessarily bring goods from his own country for trading, but buys in one market to sell or exchange in another. It is by this means that many European manufactured goods penetrate into localities where no European trader has yet set foot.

The Haussa is also regarded as a good soldier, and is largely enlisted in the native regiments of West Africa under European officers.

The Nupes, Yorubas, Gwaris, Yauris, and others were constantly in contact with the Haussas, and to a small extent the Haussa language is spoken by them. Nupe is regarded as an ancient kingdom, occupying at one time a position of great importance. The Yorubas, who inhabit nearly the whole of the Ilorin Province and the Western Province of Southern Nigeria, trace their origin from the Phœnicians of the tribe of Nimrod, and claim that all the pagan tribes of Haussa Land are descended from them. The Gwaris, apparently, have no records, but are a scattered race living among the rocky hills and caves in the country lying to the south of Zaria.

Bornu was not evidently included in the Songhay kingdom or associated with the Haussa states, the inhabitants belonging to a distinct race with separate traditions. Their history in comparison with that of the Haussas is of recent date. In 1808, after the successful Fulani conquests of Zaria, Zanfara, Kano, Katsena, and Bauchi, Bornu was overrun. Shortly after this a sheikh, from the country extending eastwards from Lake Tchad, believing himself to be inspired to liberate the country, raised a small army, drove out the Fulani forces, and founded the present dynasty of Bornu. Some years later he attempted to expel the Fulanis from the Bauchi Province, but failed, and was compelled to come to terms.

The Haussas as well as the Bornuese are chiefly Mohammedans, but it is only among the higher ranks of the other tribes that a semblance of that religion has been adopted.

The tribes which had migrated from the East brought with them the agricultural knowledge of the Eastern nations. Among the noticeable evidences of this may be mentioned the “shaduf,” or dipping beam, used for irrigation in Egypt, which is similarly employed near Kano and Zaria. The absence of ploughs and the non-employment of cattle are, however, difficult to account for, as excellent cattle are common and thrive well in the most populous parts of the country. Tillage of the soil is still done entirely by hand, and, in those parts where the shallowest form exists, manure is extensively used. Among the many crops grown which are common to Oriental countries, as well as Northern Nigeria, are Guinea corn, maize, cotton, groundnuts, millet, benniseed, artichokes, wheat, and rice.

Agriculture shows the greatest development in the Province of Kano, where the population is dense, especially in the vicinity of the town from which the Province takes its name. The concentration of a large population in this locality was doubtless occasioned by the protection thus obtained against local enemies; and, as the realisation of the necessity for this becomes less each year, so will the inhabitants spread out into the richer lands towards the south. At a radius of thirty miles from Kano, it may be said that every available acre of ground is cultivated. It may also be said that nearly all the cultivation is continuous, and has been so for a long period, the renovation of the soil being secured each year by manuring. The mode of cultivation in these localities is for the most part shallow, and in many places the crops grown subsist entirely upon the manure applied. The Director of Agriculture, in the _Bulletin of the Imperial Institute_, vol. xi. (1913), p. 626, refers to the lack of fertility in the soil and to the common practice of cropping without a fallow for a number of years in succession. He also mentions, among other matters of interest, the recent expansion in cultivation of cowpeas and groundnuts; these being respectively third and fourth in order of importance among the cultivated crops.

=Implements.=—An illustration is given showing the method of using the three important agricultural implements employed by the Haussa cultivator (Fig. 27). The first of these is locally termed “Fatainya,” and is a curved-handled hoe with a blade of variable width. It is used for all operations of cultivation with the exception of turning up broad ridges and drilling. The implement shown in the centre is termed “Garma,” and is a broad, spade-like hoe, composed of an iron W-shaped frame, with several strips of iron riveted on the face, filling the interval between the arms. In the Zaria Province the iron strips are generally omitted, and the implement is called “Owya.” It is used for throwing up large spadefuls of soil in the preparation of the broad ridges which are made for nearly all kinds of crops. The last implement is the “Sangumi,” which is a thin rod with a small blade placed near one end and at right angles to it; its use is entirely for making drills for sowing seed.

All the fields for growing ordinary food crops, with the exception of cassava, rice, and sugar-cane, are prepared in ridge formation; the latter appearing to average about 8 in. high from the original surface. The furrows from which the loose soil has been removed increase the apparent height by the extent of their depth, and give the appearance of a good form of tillage having been practised. This is, however, seldom the case, as, except where irrigated crops are being treated, the ground is left untilled beneath the thrown-up soil. To compensate for the shallow state of the cultivation, manure is applied in large quantity, all animal refuse and ashes being carefully preserved, and often conveyed for long distances to the fields by men or donkeys.

The above conditions apparently apply only to the Haussa race, the pagan Gwaris and Bassas resorting to a much deeper form of cultivation and employing no manure. The Nupes and Yorubas do not know the use of manure for any crops except onions and tobacco, for both of which wood ashes are the chief substance applied.

The crops of the country may be roughly divided into rainfall, irrigated, and swamp kinds. The first are sown at the commencement of the wet season, and are greatly affected by the distribution of the rain, but include the most important sources of food. These are Guinea corn, millet, maize, groundnuts, cassava, sweet potatoes, etc. An inadequate or irregular rainy season often causes famine conditions. The irrigated crops are yams, Colocasia, onions, tobacco, peppers, rama-fibre, and wheat, the last being almost confined to the country north of the 11th degree. Cassava and sugar-cane are also frequently irrigated in the drier districts to the north. Irrigation is performed in the northern localities by means of the shaduf. The swamp crops are rice, Colocasia, and sugar-cane. The first is grown upon a flat-dug surface, the second upon high ridges made of swamp mud, and the third on low ridges bordering the rice fields. The villages north of Kano are often entirely built of the stalks of Guinea corn, and Fig. 31 represents a principal hut within such a structure. The fencing of the fields in this locality is generally made of the same material, but in the vicinity of Kano itself, Euphorbia or thorn hedges are more common.

Near Rogo, fences and hedges are usually dispensed with, paths forming the boundaries between fields.

The following table of value of exports shows the progress in the last five years before amalgamation with the Southern Provinces. The subsequent years are given at the end of this chapter.

VALUES OF EXPORTS

1908 1909 1910 1911 1912
£ £ £ £ £
Rubber 33,050 40,000 37,900 53,511 [8]
Shea nut products 70,900 93,050 43,150 40,496 51,409
Palm kernels 47,150 41,750 66,100 52,637 64,432
Groundnuts 13,650 16,350 8,150 10,377 18,930
Gum[9] 8,850 6,650 9,750 5,436 1,785
Cotton 1,300 4,400 1,850 945 [8]
Benniseed 2,000 4,000 2,300 2,582 2,972
Fibre 1,382 4,061 — — —
Livestock 2,600 1,300 3,750 6,357 9,132
Gutta percha (“Balata”) — — 2,262 6,695 4,267
Skins and hides[10] — — 5,214 37,809 68,832
Ostrich feathers — — 2,615 7,225 12,621

=RUBBER.=—The extent of the export of this commodity from the Northern Provinces was less generally recognised than that from the coast countries, for the reason that the Northern Nigeria’s exports are necessarily shipped from Southern Nigerian ports, and have been included in the statistical figures of that country.

Until 1907 no separate statement was furnished indicating the quantity of rubber actually originating from the Northern Provinces; the whole produce leaving the country by the Southern Nigerian ports made it difficult to ascertain this. The following imperfect records show, however, that the production was of significant extent:

1905. The value of the rubber exported by two of the leading
firms in the Northern Provinces was estimated at £101,207.

1906. The amount exported in the second half-year was given as
556,701 lbs., valued at £34,344. The year’s exports were
said to be 574 tons. Estimating the whole at the same
proportionate value as that given for the second
half-year we have:

1906. 1,283,520 lbs. £79,185

1907. 1,187,588 lbs. £91,074

The decrease in recent years is accounted for by the fall which occurred in the price of rubber, but is probably partly due to the extermination of the vines by the wasteful process of preparing root rubber.

=Sources.=—The following are the trees and plants which have been used for extracting rubber:—

1. _Funtumia elastica_.—This is only found in a wild state in Southern Kabba and Bassa Provinces, and is recognised under the Yoruba name of “Ire.” Small pieces of fairly well-prepared rubber from this tree are occasionally brought in to Lokoja for sale.

2. _Landolphia sp._ (probably _owariensis_).—A clean “red nigger” rubber is sold, and is probably obtained from this species. It is generally of good quality, but not plentiful. It appears to be collected as a scrap rubber, and is made up in small irregular balls.

3. _Landolphia sp._—“Root rubber,” termed locally “Attifufu,” and called by the trade “Brown cluster” or “Brown medium.” It is probable that several species of vines are used for this, which is not necessarily prepared from the root alone, the whole stem being pounded up. This seems to represent the commonest form of Northern Nigerian rubber, the preparation of which was at one time prohibited.

4. _Landolphia florida_ or _Thompsonii_ (?).—“Paste rubber,” called locally “Ebo,” is prepared from the latex of these vines by boiling with the admixture of “wood oil,” or the resinous exudation of _Daniellia thurifera_, until it reaches the consistency of bird-lime, when it is only capable of being handled in water, in which state it is sold to the merchants, who accumulate it in casks for shipment. It is inferior in quality, and only capable of export for cheap manufactures.

5. _Carpodinus hirsutus_.—“Flake rubber,” called “Aribedda,” is said to be the product of this vine, which grows commonly in Bassa. It is without resiliency and somewhat resembles the exudations of some of the species of Ficus.

6. _Ficus platyphylla_.—“Red Kano rubber,” or “Ballata,” known to the Nupe people as “Ogbagba.” This is prepared by boiling, without the addition of any foreign matter, and attains the consistency of a hardened paste, similar to the “guttas” made from the latex of the Shea-butter tree (_Butyrospermum Parkii_). It is distinguished in the Kano Province by the name “Danko Gawi,” shea gutta being known as “Danko Kadainya.”

7. _Ficus trachyphylla_.—This tree is called in Ilorin by the Yoruba name “Oapottoa,” and yields a latex which is discoloured pink by the sap of the tree with which it becomes mixed in tapping. When boiled and allowed to cool, the product is a reddish hardened substance, somewhat resembling guttapercha in appearance.

8. _Ficus Vogelii_.—Scrap rubber from this tree is said to be collected. In appearance this rubber is often good, but the shreds break up easily.

It will be seen from the above, that several of the so-called rubbers are unlike the valuable kinds in appearance and composition, and as such are, perhaps, incapable of being used in a pure state and for the most important manufactures for which rubber is employed. All kinds, however, seem to be marketable at a price which is remunerative to the exporter, so that the trade has become an extensive one.

=Plantations.=—It has been urged that Para rubber (_Hevea brasiliensis_) might be grown upon a large scale in the moist and well-watered areas, and Ceara (_Manihot Glaziovii_) and _Funtumia elastica_ in the drier districts; but the country is not generally favourably adapted for growing the first and last mentioned. Ceara rubber seems to thrive well in climates similar to that of this country, and the rubber made from it is of the finest quality, but in many tropical countries it has shown great uncertainty in yield of latex, and often unaccountable cessation of flow. This has caused it to be less favourably regarded for plantation work. (Cf. _Bull. Imp. Inst._, 1913, 1916.)

Many parts of the country are suitable for Ceara cultivation, thriving as it does in localities susceptible to long periods of drought. In the German African Colonies the method of treating the tree seems advantageous, in view of the uncertainty of the yield after maturity is reached. In these places the plants are put out in extensive plots each year, and, after they have reached full growth, all the latex possible of extraction is taken out of them, and the exhausted trees are cut out, permitting the area to become renovated by the self-sown seedlings, which spring up in great profusion. Thus, each year a plot becomes completely renovated, without great expense being incurred. If Ceara planting should be adopted in Northern Nigeria, some such system as this might prove remunerative.

In the Lokoja forest reserve, about a hundred acres of _Funtumia elastica_ were planted in 1906, but these have not succeeded as well as was originally expected, owing, probably, to want of moisture. A few Ceara and even Hevea plants, have been grown at Zungeru and Baro, but, as yet, no plantations have been made.

=SHEA NUTS.=—The shea nut is the seed or kernel contained in the green fruit borne by _Butyrospermum Parkii_, called locally “Kadainya.” The fruit, which ripens about May, is of variable size, from that of a pigeon’s egg to as large as a hen’s egg where only one nut is contained, but is nearly twice the size where two nuts are present in the same fruit. The fleshy rind is not more than one-sixth of an inch in thickness, is sweet to the taste, and contains a white latex, which coagulates into a product called “gutta-shea.” The natives in some places seem to regard the fruit as a delicacy, and the roads and paths, in districts where the tree is plentiful, are strewn with the nuts which have been thrown away after the fruit portions have been eaten. The nut is quite smooth, and is readily separated from the fleshy part.

The butter, which is extracted by the natives, is appreciated less than palm oil or groundnut oil for cooking, but is used as a substitute. In Europe the kernels as well as the extracted “butter” are employed, especially on the Continent, for the manufacture of vegetable butter and in candle factories.

In some places the fruits are collected and put in heaps, until the fleshy parts have decomposed and left the nuts clean, after which the kernels are extracted, dried in earthen stoves, and pounded or ground into a fine flour. This is then pounded again, with the addition of a little water, previous to being mixed in hot water to separate the fat. The latter rises to the surface and solidifies on cooling, being melted again for clarification by skimming previous to being poured into moulds made from plantain leaves or maize-cob sheaths. In this form it is sold for export, and is then known as “shea-butter.” An illustration is given (Fig. 28) of some Shea nut collectors resting beneath a Shea tree in the Ilorin Province.

Fig. 28, p. 130.]

Fig. 29, p. 131.]

Fig. 30, p. 162.]

According to results obtained at the Imperial Institute (_Bulletin of the Imperial Institute_, 1908, p. 370; 1912, p. 290), the kernels contain from 40 to 50 per cent. of fat, as well as a small quantity of unsaponifiable matter resembling gutta-shea.

Where the nuts are very plentiful, and transport appears to be easy, the collection is often neglected, and the reason given is that there is some difficulty in removing the fruit from the nut, which makes the occupation unremunerative. But it is noticeable that the fleshy part quickly decomposes, and the clean nuts are frequently seen beneath the trees themselves, although in this situation the advent of heavy rain will often induce germination, and so spoil the kernel. This difficulty is obviated if the fruits are collected and placed under cover, being allowed to decompose without too much moisture.

Throughout the Ilorin and Nupe Provinces the nuts are at present collected for sale to the factories, but in size those grown in the Zaria Province are larger, and are now quite accessible. In this latter locality the double fruit, above referred to, appears to be common. In the tract of country through which the Baro-Kano railway now proceeds, after crossing the Kogin-Serikin-Pawa river, as far Zaria, localities containing very large and prolific trees are frequently met with, but the population is scanty, and collection is scarcely made for export purposes. Trees growing in cultivated areas are generally recognised as the property of the cultivator, forest trees only being common property. Women are the chief collectors of the nuts in the districts whence the supplies at present come, and their inability to penetrate far into the forests has sometimes been urged as a reason for larger quantities not being brought in to the factories. Now that the railway is present, it is probable that regular collectors will commence to exploit the forests for some distance on each side of the line, and that people from the more populous districts will be induced to visit them for the same purpose.

No record is available to show the amount of nuts and butter exported previous to 1905, but it must have been considerable, as the High Commissioner in his annual report for 1905-6 says: “The Shea nut export trade, which formerly constituted the staple of Northern Nigeria, continues to decrease in an unaccountable way, and is now an almost negligible amount.” Various reasons are given to account for a partial or gradual decrease, the most important of which is, that the people who used to rely on the collection of sylvan produce for a livelihood, have found a more lucrative employment in growing foodstuffs for the troops and Government staff, or in working upon the Government roads and railways. But, in spite of this, the value of Shea nuts and butter exported in 1907-8 reached a high figure, and placed these products second in order of value among those exported during the year. The export of Shea nuts in the two years following showed a further increase, being 3,922 and 9,085 tons for 1908 and 1909 respectively. There is a growing demand for Shea butter in Europe, and the supply is at present inadequate.

=PALM OIL AND KERNELS.=—The oil palm (_Elæis guineensis_) is almost absent from a large part of the country, and is rarely seen north of Zungeru, being chiefly confined to the vicinity of the rivers and the forests on the boundaries of Southern Nigeria.

An insignificant amount of palm oil is exported, as the local demand absorbs practically all that is produced, the kernels remaining being alone exported.

Only one variety is recognised in the country, and is that with a thin pericarp and thick-shelled kernel. It is similar to the form termed “Abe-pa” in the Gold Coast. Among the Haussa-speaking races the palm is called “Quaqua,” and in the Nupe language “Yi-ku-niche.”

Extraction of the oil for local use is generally done by boiling the fresh fruits, and a limpid product is obtained.

=GROUNDNUTS.=—The groundnut (_Arachis hypogea_), called “Geda” by the Haussas, is seen in two forms in Northern Nigeria, dependent, probably, on differences in soil and climate in the localities in which they are grown.

The form seen commonly in the vicinity of Bida, from which most of the exported nuts are procured, has a light-brown shell, and is similar to the ordinary Gambian kind. The soil in which this is grown is red, and, to some extent, this colour is imparted to the shell. The nuts growing in the northern districts near Kano, where the soil is sandy and light, resemble the kind which is considered the finest in the French Colonies, and is largely cultivated in Senegal. In this the shell is pale straw-coloured. Large exports have been made from Kano since railway facilities were provided.

Groundnuts are chiefly employed as a terminal crop in the cultivation adopted by the Nupes and Yorubas, but in the Kano and Zaria Provinces, where land is retained for long periods in cultivation and renovated annually by manure, they are often the first crop grown on opening new land, and are seldom planted later.

From an interesting article contributed by Mr. Lamb, the Director of Agriculture (_Imperial Institute Bulletin_, vol. xi. [1913]), entitled “Agriculture in Haussaland,” it appears that leguminous crops have recently been introduced more generally in the rotation employed among the Haussa cultivators. The author remarks that the cowpea (_Vigna catjang_) is now almost invariably grown with cereals, and that there is such an increase in groundnut cultivation that this has come into great prominence as an exported crop. This condition has been brought about entirely by the establishment of railway transport—a result which was foretold in the first edition of this work.

All the nuts exported at the present time are in a decorticated form, and the reason given for decortication is that there is a large saving in weight in carriage thereby. It is, nevertheless, generally admitted that in an undecorticated form the nuts are better preserved in transit, and it often happens that the price for undecorticated nuts is higher than for decorticated. It is, however, recognised that if the appearance of the shell is rusty or dirty, it should be removed before shipment, as this condition adversely affects the market value. The demand for undecorticated nuts is for confectionery, and is relatively small as compared with the amount used, chiefly in France, for the expression of oil. The weights of groundnuts exported in 1917 and 1918 were respectively 50,334 and 57,555 tons.

The Kano nuts appear to be of such a clean type that it might be found more advantageous to ship them in an undecorticated state, but this can be ascertained when transport has been facilitated sufficiently to establish a continuous trade with a particular market.

The chief markets for the product were Marseilles and Hamburg, where it was employed for the expression of oil, used principally for admixture with, or as a substitute for, olive oil. Although formerly almost entirely sent to the German port, they now come mostly to England. (Cf. _Bull. Imp. Inst._, vol. xvi. [1918].)

=GUMS.=—In the drier regions Acacia trees of several species become plentiful, but many of these do not seem to produce gum.

Some of the gum in the Sudan is said to be derived from _A. arabica_, Willd., which is not uncommon in certain localities, but is almost entirely unproductive in this country.

The tree known in Haussa as “Gawo,” identified as _A. Albida_, Delile, is perhaps the commonest species near Kano, and one which produces a small amount of reddish gum. None, however, is apparently collected from the tree in the district.

The species from which most of the gum is collected in Bornu is said to be identical with that called “Karu” in Kano, of which only immature specimens have as yet been examined. This is probably referable to _A. Verek_, Guill. & Perr., which is the most important source of the Senegal product, and to which Bentham refers _A. Senegal_, Willd.

In Kontagora a good quality of gum is obtained from a tree which has been identified as _A. Caffra_, Willd. This tree does not appear to occur plentifully here, but further investigation is necessary with regard to it in the dry uninhabited regions where it is found. An illustration of this tree is given (Fig. 29).

Another species which has been recorded by Barter from the Niger, and is said by him to yield “a gum like gum-arabic,” is _A. mellifera_, Bentham, and may be one of those from which the present exported product is collected.