Chapter XI: Section III: The Nervous System (1)

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.

LITERATURE.

*Ahlborn, F.*, Ueber die Bedeutung der Zirbeldrüse. Zeit. f. wiss.
Zool. 1884. Vol. XL, pp. 331–337.

*Allen, H.*, The Spinal Cord in Batrachia and Reptilia. Proc. Acad.
Nat. Sci. Philadelphia. 1883, pp. 56–57.

*Arndt, A. W.*, Untersuchungen über die Ganglienkörper des Nervus
sympathicus. Arch. f. mikrosk. Anat. 1874. Vol. X, pp. 208–241.

*Arndt, R.*, Untersuchungen über die Endigung der Nerven in den
quergestreiften Muskelfasern. Arch. f. mikrosk. Anat. 1873.
Vol. IX, p. 481.

*Arndt, R.*, Untersuchungen über die Ganglienkörper der
Spinalganglien. Arch. f. mikrosk. Anat. 1875. Vol. XI, p. 140.

*Arnold, J.*, Zur Histologie der Lungen des Frosches. Virchow’s Arch.
1863. Vol. XXVIII, p. 433.

*Arnold, J.*, Histologische Verhältnisse des Frosch-Sympathicus.
Centralbl. f. d. med. Wiss. 1864, p. 657.

*Arnold, J.*, Ueber die feineren histologischen Verhältnisse der
Ganglienzellen in dem Sympathicus des Frosches. Virchow’s Arch.
1865. Vol. XXXII, p. 1.

*Arnold, J.*, Die Spinalfasern im Sympathicus des Frosches. Arch. f.
Anat. und Physiol. 1866, p. 398.

*Arnold, J.*, Das Gewebe der organischen Muskeln. Leipzig, 1869; and
Chap. IV in Stricker’s Handbook.

*Arnstein, C.*, and *Gonjaew*, *K.*, Ueber die Nerven des
Verdauungskanals. Bericht. f. Physiol. u. Histologie. Mittheilung.
aus. d. 4 Vers. wissensch. Naturforsch. zu Kasan. Pflüger’s Arch.
d. ges. Physiol. 1874. Vol. VIII, pp. 614–615.

*Aubert, H.*, Die Innervation der Kreislaufsorgane, Hermann’s
Handbuch der Physiologie. Leipzig, 1880. Vol. IV, Pt. I, p. 377.

*Axmann*, De Gangliorum systematicis structura persitiori eiusque
functionibus. Berolini, 1847.

*Axmann*, Beiträge zur mikroskopischen Anatomie und Physiologie des
Ganglien-nervensystems. 1853, p. 20.

*Baculo, B.*, Nuove ricerche intorno l’apparechio ganglionare
intrinseco dei cuori linfatici. Naples, 1885.

*Balfour, F. M.*, Treatise on Comparative Embryology. London, 1880.

*Balfour, F. M.*, Handbuch der vergleichenden Embryologie. Aus dem
Englischen von B. Vetter. Jena, 1880.

*Beale, L. S.*, On the Structure and Formation of the so-called
Apolar, Unipolar, and Bipolar Nerve-cells of the Frog. Phil.
Trans. 1863, p. 543. (Hyla arborea.)

*Beale, L. S.*, Further observations in favour of the view that
nerve-fibres never end in voluntary muscle. Proc. Roy. Soc. 1863.
Abstract in Quart. Journ. Micros. Sci. 1863. Vol. XII, p. 668.

*Beale, L. S.*, New observations upon the structure, etc. of certain
nervous centres. Proc. Roy. Soc. 1860. Vol. III.

*Beale, L. S.*, On the Distribution of Nerves to the elementary
fibres of Striped Muscle. Phil. Trans. 1864, p. 611.

*Beale, L. S.*, Of very fine nerve-fibres ramifying in certain
fibrous tissues and trunks, and plexuses consisting entirely
of very fine nerve-fibres in the bladder of the frog. Beale’s
Archives of Medicine, 1864. Vol. IV, pp. 19–251.

*Beard, J.*, The Ciliary or Motor-oculi ganglion and the Ganglion
of the ophthalmicus profundus in Sharks. Anatom. Anzeiger. 1887.
Vol. II, p. 565.

*Beck, K.*, Zur Kenntniss der Herznerven. Arch. f. mik. Anat. 1885.
Vol. XXIV, pp. 11–19.

*Bellonci, G.*, Intorno alla struttura e alle connessioni dei
lobi olfattorii negli arthropodi superiori e nei vertebrati.
Atti Accad. Lincei Ann. 279 Mem. Accad. Bologna, Vol. XIII,
pp. 555–564: and in Arch. Ital. Biol. 1883; Vol. III, pp. 191–196.

*Bellonci, G.*, Sulla terminazione centrale del nervo ottico nei
mammiferi. Mem. Accad. Bologna, Vol. VI, pp. 199–205: and in Arch.
Ital. Biol. 1884, Vol. VI, pp. 405–411.

*Bidder, F. H.*, Die Endigungsweise der Herzzweige des N. vagus beim
Frosch. Arch. f. Anat. u. Physiol. 1839, p. 1.

*Bidder, F. H.*, Zur Lehre von dem Verhältniss der Ganglienkörper
zu den Nervenfasern. Nebst einem Anhange von Dr. A. W. Volkmann.
Leipzig, 1847.

*Bidder, F. H.*, Zur Lehre vom Verhalten der Ganglienkörper, u. s. w.
Leipzig, 1847.

*Bidder, F. H.*, Ueber functionelle verschiedene und räumlich
getrennte Nerven-centra im Froschherzen. Arch. f. Anat. u.
Physiol. 1852, p. 163.

*Bidder, F. H.*, Endigungsweise der Herzzweige des N. vagus beim
Frosch. Arch. f. Anat. und Physiol. 1868, p. 1.

*Bidder, F. H.*, Zur näheren Kenntniss des Froschherzens und seiner
Nerven. Arch. f. Anat. u. Physiol. 1866, p. 1.

*Bidder, F. H.*, and *Kupffer*, Untersuchungen über die Textur des
Rückenmarks. Leipzig, 1857.

*Bidder, F. H.*, and *Volkmann*, *A. W.*, Die Selbständigkeit des
sympathischen Nervensystems, durch anatomische Untersuchungen
nachgewiesen. Leipzig, 1842.

*Bidder* and *Gregory*, Beiträge zur Physiologie der Herzbewegung
beim Frosche. Dorpat, 1865.

*Bikfalvi, K.*, Ueber die Hornscheide der markhaltigen Nervenfasern.
Orvoster-meszettudomanyi Ertesito, 1884, p. 133. Abstract in
Centralbl. f. d. med. Wiss. 1886, p. 34.

*Biroege, E. A.*, Die Zahl der Nervenfasern u. der motor.
Ganglienzellen im Rückenmark des Frosches. Arch. f. Anat. u.
Physiol. 1882. Physiol. Abth., p. 435.

*Bischoff*, Nervi accessorii Willisii anatomia et physiologia.
Heidelberg, 1832.

*Blasius, G.*, Gerardi Blasii Anatomia Animalium. Amstelodami, 1681.

*Blattmann, A.*, Mikrosk. anatom. Darstellung der Centralorgane des
Nervensystems bei den Batrachiern. Dissert. Zürich, 1850.

*Boll, F.*, Studj sulle immagini microscopiche della fibra nervosa
midollare. Atti della R. accademia dei Lincei, 1876–1877. Vol. II.

*Boll, F.*, Ueber Zersetzungsbilder der markhaltigen Nervenfasern.
Arch. f. Anat. u. Physiol. 1877, p. 288.

*Bojanus*, Testudinis anatomia. 1819.

*Bosse*, De ganglior. spinal. vi in nutr. radic. poster. nervor.
spinal. Dissert. 1859.

*Boveri, T.*, Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Nervenfasern. Abhandl. d.
bayr. Akad. d. Wiss. 1885. Vol. XV, p. 421.

*Bremer, D. L.*, Die Nerven der Capillaren, der kleinen Arterien und
Venen. Arch. f. mik. Anat. Vol. XXI. 1882, p. 663.

*Bremer, L.*, Ueber die Muskelspindeln sowie über Structur,
Neubildung u. Innervation der quergestreiften Muskelfaser.
Waldeyer’s Arch. 1883. Vol. XXII, p. 2.

*Bremer, L.*, Ueber die Endigungen der markhaltigen und marklosen
Nerven im quergestreiften Muskel. Arch. f. mikrosk. Anat. 1882.
Vol. XXI, p. 165.

*Brenner, A.*, Ueber das Verhältniss des nervus laryngeus inferior
vagi zu einigen Aortenvarietäten des Menschen und zu dem
Aortensystem der durch Lungen athmenden Wirbelthiere überhaupt.
His u. Braune’s Arch. 1883, pp. 373–397.

*Budge, J.*, Ueber den Verlauf der Nervenfasern im Rückenmark des
Frosches. Arch. f. Anat. u. Physiol. 1844, p. 160.

*Budge, J.*, Ueber die Bewegung der Iris. (Concerning ganglia of
motor-oculi, p. 36.)

*Budge, J.*, Wagner’s Handwörterb. d. Physiologie. 1846. Vol. III,
p. 451.

*Burdon-Sanderson, J.*, Circulation of the Blood. Handbook for the
Physiological Laboratory. London, 1873.

*Calberla, E.*, Ueber die Endigungsweise der Nerven in den
quergestreiften Muskeln bei Amphibien. Zeit. f. wiss. Zool. 1874.
Vol. XXIV, p. 164.

*Calberla, E.*, Studien über die Entwicklung der quergestreiften
Muskeln und Nerven der Amphibien und Reptilien. Arch. f. mik.
Anat. 1875. Vol. XI, p. 442.

*Carus*, Versuch einer Darstellung des Nervensystems und Gehirns.
Leipzig, 1814.

*Champness, F.*, The septum atrium of the Frog and Rabbit. Journ. of
Anat. and Physiol. 1874.

*Christmas-Dirckinck-Holmfeld, J.*, Experimentaluntersuchungen über
den Bau der Regio olfactoria. Nord. med. ark. 1883. Vol. XV, No. 3.

*Ciaccio, G. V.*, On the nerves of the Cornea, and their distribution
in the corneal tissue of man and animals. Proc. Roy. Soc. 1863.
Abstract in Trans. Micros. Soc. London, 1863. Vol. XI, pp. 77–93.

*Ciaccio, G. V.*, On the distribution of nerves to the skin of the
frog, with physiological remarks on the ganglia connected with the
cerebro-spinal nerves. Quart. Journ. Micros. Sci. 1864. Vol. IV,
pp. 15–31.

*Ciaccio, G. V.*, Intorno alla minuta fabbrica delle pelle Rana
esculenta. Giornale di Scienze naturali ed economiche. Palermo,
1866. Vol. II, p. 103.

*Clarke, J. Lockhart*, Ueber den Bau des Bulbus olfactorius und der
Geruchsschleimhaut. Zeit. f. wiss. Zool. 1862. Vol. XI, p. 31.

*Cornil* and *Ranvier*, A Manual of Pathological Histology. London,
1880, p. 359, Fig. 199 (Ganglia of heart).

*Courvoisier, G.*, Beobacht. über den sympathischen Gränzstrang.
Arch. f. mik. Anat. 1866. Vol. II, p. 13.

*Courvoisier, L. G.*, Ueber die spinalen und sympathischen Zellen des
Frosches. Centralbl. f. d. med. Wiss. 1867, p. 897.

*Courvoisier, G.*, Ueber die Zellen der Spinalganglien, sowie des
Sympathicus beim Frosch. Arch. f. mikrosk. Anat. 1868. Vol. IV,
p. 125.

*Cuvier*, Leçons d’anatomie comparée. 2nd Edit. Vol. II.

*Cyon*, Ueber die Nerven des Peritoneum. Berichte über die
Verhandlungen d. königl. sächs. Gesellsch. d. Wissensch. zu
Leipzig. Math.-physik. Classe. 1868. Vol. XX, p. 119.

*Czermak, J. N.*, Ueber die Hautnerven des Frosches. Arch. f. Anat.
u. Physiol. 1849, p. 252. Leipzig, 1869.

*Czermak, J. N.*, Ueber die Herznerven des Frosches, Rana temporaria.
Arch. f. Anat. u. Physiol. 1851, p. 160.

*v. Darkschewitsch, L.*, Zur Anatomie der Glandula pinealis. Neurol.
Cent. Bl. 1886. Vol. V, p. 29.

*v. Deen*, De differentia et nexu inter nervos vitae animalis et
vitae organicae. Diss. inaugur. Lugduni-Bat., 1834.

*v. Deen*, Over de zijdelingsche Takken dar swervende zenuw van
den Proteus anguineus, aus Bijdragen tot de Naturkundige.
Wettenschappen, 1834.

*v. Deen*, Ueber den Ramus lateralis n. vagi bei den Batrachiern.
Arch. f. Anat. u. Physiol. 1834, p. 477 (abstract from Diss.
inaugur. De differentia et nexu inter nervos vitae animalis et
vitae organicae). Lugduni-Bat.

*Deiters, O.*, Untersuchungen über Gehirn und Rückenmark.
Braunschweig, 1865.

*Denissenko, G.*, Zur Frage über den Bau der Kleinhirnrinde bei
verschiedenen Klassen von Wirbelthieren. Arch. f. mikrosk. Anat.
1877. Vol. XIV, p. 203.

*Dietl, M. J.*, Beobachtungen über Theilungsvorgänge an Nervenzellen.
Wiener Sitzungsber. 1874. Vol. LXIX, Pt. III, p. 71.

*Dietl, M. J.*, Casuistische Beiträge zur Morphologie der
Nervenzellen. Wiener Sitzungsber. 1874. Vol. LXIX, Pt. III, p. 80.

*Dogiel, J.*, Die Ganglienzellen und Nerven des Herzventrikels beim
Frosche. Arch. f. mikrosk. Anat. 1877. Vol. XIV, p. 470.

*Dogiel, J.*, Die Ganglienzellen des Herzens bei verschiedenen
Thieren und beim Menschen. Arch. f. mikrosk. Anat. 1877.
Vol. XVII, p. 471.

*Dogiel, J.*, Die Nervenzellen und Nerven des Herzventrikels beim
Frosche. Arch. f. mikrosk. Anat. 1882. Vol. XXI, p. 21.

*Duméril, A. M. C.*, and *Bibron, G.*, Erpétologie générale ou
histoire naturelle complète des reptiles. Paris, 1841.

*Eberth*, Untersuchungen zur normalen und pathologischen Anatomie der
Froschhaut. Leipzig, 1869.

*Ecker, A.*, Icones physiologicae. Leipzig, 1851 to 1859.

*Eckhard, C.*, Beiträge zur Anatomie und Physiologie. Giessen, 1860.
Vol. II.

*Eckhard, C.*, Experimentale Physiologie des Nervensystems. Giessen,
1867, p. 208 (Ganglion cells of heart).

*Edinger, L.*, Nachtrag zu dem Bericht über Leistungen auf dem
Gebiete der Anatomie des Centralnervensystems. Schmidt’s Jahresb.
1887.

*Egorow, W.*, Ueber die Nervenzellen der Lungen. Centralbl. f. med.
Wiss. 1879. Vol. XVII, p. 305.

*Eichholtz*, De piscium atque amphibiorum nudorum lobis opticis atque
olfactoriis. Berolini, 1841.

*Engelmann, T. W.*, Zur Physiologie des Ureter. Pflüger’s Arch. f. d.
ges. Physiol. 1869. Vol. II, p. 243. (Treats also of histological
details of frog’s bladder.)

*Engelmann, T. W.*, Ueber die Discontinuität des Axencylinders und
den fibrillären Bau der Nervenfasern. Pflüger’s Arch. f. d. ges.
Physiol. 1880. Vol. XXII, p. 1.

*Engelmann, T. W.*, Der Bulbus aortae des Froschherzens. Pflüger’s
Arch. f. d. ges. Physiol. 1882. Vol. XXIX, p. 425.

*Fischer, E.*, Ueber die Endigung der Nerven im quergestreiften
Muskel der Wirbelthiere. Arch. f. mik. Anat. 1876. Vol. XIII,
pp. 365–390.

*Fischer, J. G.*, Amphibiorum nudorum neurologiae specimen primum.
Berlin, 1843; and Arch. f. Anat. u. Physiol. 1844, p. 57.

*Fowelin, C.*, De causa mortis post nervos vagos dissectos instantis.
Inaug. Dissert. Dorpati, 1851.

*Frenkel, S.*, Nerv und Epithel am Froschlarvenschwanze. Arch. f.
Anat. u. Physiol. 1886. Physiol. Abth., p. 405.

*Frey*, Handb. d. Histologie u. Histochemie d. Menschen. 3rd Edit.,
p. 341. (Ganglia of heart.)

*Friedländer*, Ueber die nervösen Centralorgane des Froschherzens.
Untersuch. aus d. physiol. Laborat. zu Würzburg. 1867.

*Frommann*, Ueber Structur der Nervenzellen. Virchow’s Arch. 1864.
Vol. XXXI, p. 129.

*Fubini, S.*, Gewicht des centralen Nervensystems im Vergleich zu
dem Körpergewicht der Thiere, bei R. esculenta u. R. temporaria,
Moleschott’s Untersuchungen zur Naturlehre d. Menschen. 1881.
Vol. XII, pp. 455–461.

*Gad, J.*, Ueber Centrum und Leitungsbahnen im Rückenmark des
Frosches. Verhandl. der Physiol. Gesellsch. zu Berlin, No. 10,
1884. Arch. f. Anat. u. Physiol. 1884, p. 304. Verhandl. d.
physick. med. Gesellsch. zu Würzburg. 1884. Vol. XVIII.

*Gaskell, W. H.*, On the augmentor (accelerator) nerves of the heart
of cold-blooded animals. Journ. of Physiol. 1884. Vol. V, p. 46.

*Gaskell, W. H.*, and *Gadow*, On the anatomy of the cardiac nerves
in certain cold-blooded animals. Journ. of Physiol. 1884. Vol. V,
p. 362.

*Gaskell, W. H.*, The Structure, Distribution, and Function of the
Nerves which innervate the Visceral and Vascular System. Journ. of
Physiol. 1886. Vol. VII, p. 1.

*Gegenbaur, C.*, Grundzüge der vergleichenden Anatomie. 1870. 2nd
Edition, p. 728.

*Gerlach, J.*, Ueber das Verhalten der Nerven in den quergestreiften
Muskelfäden der Wirbelthiere. Sitzungsber. d. phys.-med. Societät
zu Erlangen. 1873. Vol. V, p. 97.

*Gerlach, J.*, Das Verhältniss der Nerven zu den willkürlichen
Muskeln der Wirbelthiere. Leipzig, 1874.

*Gerlach, J.*, Ueber die Nervenendigungen in der Muskulatur des
Froschherzens. Virchow’s Arch. 1876. Vol. LXVI, pp. 187–223.

*Gerlach, J.*, Das Verhältniss der nervösen und contractilen Substanz
d. querge-streiften Muskels. Arch. f. mikrosk. Anat. 1877.
Vol. XIII, p. 399.

*Giuliani*, Sulla struttura del midollo spinale della Lacerta
viridis. Memorie della R. academia dei Lincei. Roma, 1878.

*Goette, A.*, Kurze Mittheilungen aus der Entwicklungsgeschichte der
Unke. Arch. f. mik. Anat. 1873. Vol. IX, p. 396.

*Goette, A.*, Entwickelungsgeschichte der Unke. Leipzig, 1875.

*Golgi, C.*, Sulla fina anatomia degli organi centrali del sistema
nervoso. Milano, 1866.

*Golgi, C.*, Sui Nervi dei Tendini dell’ Uomo e di altri Vertebrati e
di un nuovo organo nervoso terminale muscolo-tendineo. Estr. dalle
Memoire della Reale Acc. di Torino. 1880. Vol. XXXII, p. 29.

*Gonjaew, K.*, Die Nerven des Nahrungsschlauches. Arch. f. mikrosk.
Anat. 1875. Vol. XI, pp. 479–496.

*de Graaf, H. W.*, Zur Anatomie u. Entwicklung d. Epiphyse bei
Amphibien u. Reptilien. Zool. Anz. 1886. Vol. IX, No. 219.

*de Graaf, H. W.*, Over den bouw der epiphyse bij de amphibien.
Tijdschr. der Nederl. dierkundige Vereeniging. 1886. Vol. II, p. 1.

*de Graaf, H. W.*, Bijdrage tot de kennis van der bouw ende
entwickkeling der epiphyse bij amphibiën en reptiliën.
Inaug.-Diss. Leiden, 1886. Abstract in Centralbl. f. d. med. Wiss.
1886, p. 706.

*Grant, R.*, Comparative Anatomy. London, 1839.

*Grant, R.*, Umrisse der vergleichenden Anatomie von R. E. Grant. Aus
dem Englischen von C. C. Schmidt, M.D. Leipzig, 1842.

*Gruenhagen, A.*, Ueber ein Endothelialelement der
Nervenprimitivscheide. Arch. f. mik. Anat. 1884. Vol. XXIII,
p. 380.

*Gscheidlen, R.*, Ueber Nervenendigung in den glatten Muskelfasern.
Arch. f. mik. Anat. 1877. Vol. XIV, pp. 320–332.

*Guillot*, Exposition anatomique de l’organisation des centres
nerveux dans les quatres classes d’animaux vertébrés. Paris, 1844.

*Hannover, A.*, Die Chromsäure, ein vorzügliches Mittel bei
mikroskopischen Unter-suchungen. Arch. f. Anat. u. Physiol. 1840,
pp. 549–556. (Describes the connection between fine fibres and
small ganglia in the central nervous system of fish, frogs, and
birds.)

*Hannover, A.*, Recherches microscopiques sur le système nerveux.
Recherches sur le cerveau de la grenouille, pp. 20–22. Kopenhagen,
Paris, and Leipzig, 1844.

*Harless, Ern.*, Ueber die Functionen verschiedener Parthien des
Rückenmarks der Amphibien. Arch. f. Anat. u. Physiol. 1846, p. 74.

*Hartmann, D. R.*, Ueber die Endigungsweise der Nerven in den
Papillae fungi-formes der Froschzunge. Arch. f. Anat. u. Physiol.
1863, p. 634.

*Heidenhain*, Disquisitiones de nervis organisque centralibus cordis.
Dissert. inaug. Berol. 1854; and in Arch. f. Anat. u. Physiol.
1858, p. 479.

*Hénoque*, Du mode de distribution et de la terminaison des nerfs
dans les muscles lisses. Arch. de l’Anat. et de la Physiol. 1870.

*Hensen, V.*, Ueber die Entwicklung des Gewebes und der Nerven im
Schwanze der Froschlarve. Virchow’s Arch. 1864. Vol. XXXI, p. 51.

*Hensen, V.*, Ueber die Nerven im Schwanz der Froschlarven. Arch. f.
mik. Anat. 1868. Vol. IV, p. 111.

*Hesse, F.*, Zur Kenntniss der peripherischen markhaltigen
Nervenfaser. His u. Braune’s Arch. f. Anat. u. Physiol. 1879.
Vol. VI, p. 89. Abstract in Centralbl. f. d. med. Wiss. 1880,
p. 324.

*His, W.*, Ueber die Endigung der Gefässnerven. Virchow’s Arch. 1863.
Vol. XXVIII, p. 427.

*Hjelt*, De nervis cerebralibus parteque cephalica nervi sympathici
Bufonis cinerei adnotata quaedam. Helsingforsiae, 1852.

*Hoffmann, C. K.*, in Bronn’s Klassen und Ordnungen des Thierreichs.
Leipzig and Heidelberg, 1873–1878. Vol. VI. Amphibia.

*Holl, M.*, Ueber den Bau der Spinalganglien. Wiener Sitzungsber.
1876. Vol. LXXII, Pt. III, p. 31.

*Horn, H.*, Ueber die Endschlingen des Geruchsnerven (Nervus
olfactorius) in Rana temporaria. Arch. f. Anat. und Physiol. 1850.

*Huizinga, D.*, Untersuchungen über die Innervation der Gefässe in
der Schwimm-haut des Frosches. Pflüger’s Arch. f. d. ges. Physiol.
1875. Vol. XI, pp. 207–221.

*Huxley, T. H.*, Article Amphibia. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 9th
Edition.

*Isquierdo, V.*, Ueber die Endigungsweise der sensiblen Nerven. Arch.
f. mikrosk. Anat. 1880. Vol. XVII, p. 367.

*Jacubowitsch, M. N.*, Terminaisons des nerfs à la périphérie et dans
les différents organes ou terminaisons périphériques du système
nerveux en général. Comptes rendus. 1860. Vol. L, p. 859.

*Jantschitz, J.*, Materialien zur Anatomie der Nerven des
Pericardiums. Rudneff’s Journ. f. normale u. patholog. Histologie
u. klinische Med. St. Petersburg, 1874, pp. 417–442. (In Russian,
Abstract in Centralbl. f. d. med. Wiss. 1874.)

*Johnson, A.*, and *Sheldon, L.*, Note on the Development of the Newt
(Triton cristatus). Quart. Journ. Micros. Sci. 1886. Vol. XXVI,
p. 573.

*Kandarazki, M.*, Ueber die Nerven der Respirationswege. His u.
Braune’s Arch. f. Anat. u. Entwickelungsgesch. 1881, pp. 1–11.

*Kanhel, G.*, Studien über Innervation der Lymphherzen. Medic. Jahrb.
1886, pp. 392–420.

*Karabanowitsch, D.*, Ueber den Bau des Rückenmarkes vom Frosche.
Arbeiten der St. Petersburger Gesellsch. der Naturforscher. St.
Petersburg, 1872, pp. 402–421.

*Key, A.*, and *Retzius, G.*, Studien in der Anatomie des
Nervensystems. Arch. f. mikrosk. Anat. 1873. Vol. IX, p. 308.

*Klebs, E.*, Die Nerven der organischen Muskeln. Centralbl. f. wiss.
Med. 1863, p. 561.

*Klebs, E.*, Die Nerven der organischen Muskelfasern. Virchow’s Arch.
1865. Vol. XXXII, p. 168.

*Klein, E.*, Beiträge zur Anatomie der ungeschwänzten Batrachier.
Württemberger Jahreshefte. 1850, pp. 1–84.

*Klein, E.*, Auerbach’s Plexus in the Intestine of Frog and Toad.
Quart. Journ. Microsc. Sci. 1873. Vol. XIII, pp. 377–380.

*Klein, E.*, Some remarks on the finer nerves of the Cornea. Monthly
Micros. Journ. 1872. Vol. VII, pp. 156–164.

*Klein, E.*, On the peripheral distribution of non-medullated
nerve-fibres. Quart. Journ. Microsc. Sci. 1871. Vol. XI. New
Series, p. 405.

*Klug, F.*, Ueber die Herznerven des Frosches. Arch. f. Anat. u.
Entwicklungsgesch. 1881, pp. 330–346.

*Klug, F.*, Ueber die Beschleunigungsnerven des Froschherzens.
Centralbl. f. med. Wissensch. Berlin, 1881, pp. 945–948.

*v. Kölliker, A.*, Neurologische Bemerkungen. Zeit. f. wiss. Zool.
1849. Vol. I, p. 135.

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*Kollmann, J.*, and *Arnstein*, Die sympathischen Ganglienzellen des
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*Königstein, L.*, Beobachtungen über die Nerven der Cornea und ihre
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*Kühne, W.*, Widerlegen der Bemerkung E. du Bois-Reymonds über
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*Kupffer*, De medullae spinalis textura in Ranis. 1854. Dissert.
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*Küttner, C.*, De origine n. sympathici ranarum, ex nervorum
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*Leuret*, Anatomie comparée du système nerveux de l’homme et des
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*Longet*, Anatomie et Physiologie du système nerveux de l’homme et
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*Löwit, M.*, Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Innervation des
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*Löwit, M.*, Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Innervation des Herzens.
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*Luchsinger, B.*, Zur Innervation d. Lymphherzen. Pflüger’s Arch. f.
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*Ludwig, C.*, Ueber die Herznerven des Frosches. Arch. f. Anat. u.
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*Macallum, A. B.*, The Nerve Terminations in the Cutaneous Epithelium
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*Maddox*, On the apparent relation of Nerve to Connective-tissue
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*Maier, R.*, Die Ganglien in den harnabführenden Wegen des Menschen
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*Marchi, P.*, Beobachtungen über Wimper-Epithel. Arch. f. mik. Anat.
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*Marshall, A. M.*, The segmental value of the Cranial Nerves. Journ.
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*Marshall, A. M.*, The Frog: an introduction to Anatomy and
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*Masius* and *Vaulair*, De la situation et de l’étendue des centres
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*Mason, J. J.*, A new group of Nerve-cells in the Spinal Cord of the
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*Mason, J. J.*, Microscopic Studies on the Central Nervous System of
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*Mason, J. J.*, Minute Structure of the Central Nervous System of
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*Mayer, S.*, Zur Lehre der Struktur der Spinalganglien und der
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*Mays, K.*, Histo-physiol. Untersuchungen über die Verbreitung der
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*Mays, K.*, Ueber die Nervatur des Musculus rectus abdominis des
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*Mays, K.*, Nervenfasertheilungen in den Nervenstämmen der
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*Meckel, A.*, System der vergleichenden Anatomie. Halle, 1833.

*Meckel, J. F.*, Beiträge zur vergleichenden Anatomie. Leipzig, 1811.

*Michel*, Ueber den Bau des chiasma nervorum opticum. v. Gräfe’s
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*Müller, J.*, Beiträge zur Anatomie und Naturgeschichte der
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*Namias, M.*, Sui ganglii miocardici della Rana. Osservazioni ed
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*Niccolucci, G.*, Sul sistema nervoso e circolatorio della Salamandra
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*Niura, M.*, Untersuchungen über die motorischen Nervenendigungen
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*Obersteiner*, Ueber einige Lymphräume im Gehirne. Wiener
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*Odenias, M. W.*, Undersökungar öfver de sensibla muskelnervena.
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*Onodi, A. D.*, Ueber die Entwicklung des sympathischen
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*v. Openchowski, Th.*, Histologisches zur Innervation der Drüsen.
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*Osborne, H. F.*, Observations upon the Urodele Amphibian Brain.
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*Osborne, H. F.*, Observations on the presence of the corpus callosum
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*Osborne, H. F.*, Note upon the cerebral commissures in the lower
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*Pfitzner*, Nervenendigungen im Epithel. Morph. Jahrb. 1882.
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*Popoff, N.*, Die Nerven der Gallenblase. Rudneff’s Journ. f. normale
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*Ranvier, L.*, Appareil nerveux terminaux des muscles de la vie
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*Remak, R.*, Multipolare Ganglienzellen. Berliner Monatsberichte.
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*Weismann*, Ueber das Wachsen der quergestreiften Muskeln nach
Beobachtungen am Frosch. Henle und Pfeufer’s Zeitschr. 1860.
Vol. X, p. 264.

*Wiedersheim, R.*, Zur Anatomie des Froschgehirns. Zool. Anz. 1881.
No. 66, p. 497.

*Wiedersheim, R.*, Ueber das Parietal-Auge der Saurier. Anat. Anz.
1886, p. 148.

*Wiedersheim, R.*, Elements of Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates,
translated by W. Newton Parker. London, 1886.

*Wiedersheim, R.*, Lehrbuch der vergleichenden Anatomie der
Wirbelthiere auf Grundlage d. Entwicklungsgeschichte. Jena, 1886.
2nd Edit.

*Wolff, W.*, Ueber Nervenendigungen im quergestreiften Muskel. Arch.
f. mik. Anat. 1881. Vol. XIX, p. 331.

*Wolff, W.*, Die Innervation der glatten Muskulatur. Arch. f. mik.
Anat. 1882. Vol. XX, p. 361.

*Wolff, W.*, Ueber freie, sensible Nervenendigungen. Arch. f. mik.
Anat. 1882. Vol. XX, p. 377.

*Wyman, J.*, Anatomy of the nervous system of Rana pipiens.
Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. 1853. Vol. V.

*Wyman, J.*, Results of microscopical examination of the structure
of the brain and spinal cord in Frogs. Boston, Nat. Hist. Soc.
1851–1854. Vol. V, p. 107.

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.

I. THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM.

_(Re-written by the translator.)_

A. THE SPINAL CORD (Fig. 97).

*1.* *External form.* The spinal cord is, in comparison with the brain, somewhat small; the two organs are directly continuous, and present no distinct line of demarcation: the point of origin of the first spinal nerve is, therefore, arbitrarily accepted as the anterior limit of the spinal cord; posteriorly it terminates in the _filum terminale_.

The spinal cord is flattened dorso-ventrally, and is constricted at a point (_pars media_, Reissner) somewhat anterior to its middle: in consequence of this constriction the cord has two enlargements; an anterior smaller, and a posterior larger (_intumescentiae anterior v. posterior_), from which arise the nerves of the brachial and lumbar plexuses respectively. At about the sixth or seventh vertebra, the hinder enlargement diminishes rather abruptly to form the so-called _conus medullaris_; this is continued into the _filum terminate_, which enters the cavity of the urostyle. The hinder portion of the lumbar nerves forms a _cauda equina_, the constituent nerves of which surround the _filum terminale_.

A *dorsal longitudinal fissure* (_sulcus longitudinalis superior_) is well marked in the middle line of the dorsal surface of the posterior enlargement; anteriorly and posteriorly it rapidly fades away, its position being merely indicated by a small amount of connective-tissue and a blood-vessel.

The *ventral longitudinal fissure* (_sulcus longitudinalis inferior_) is well marked throughout the length of the cord. Neither fissure can be traced in the hinder part of the _conus medullaris_ or in the _filum terminale_.

Ten pairs of nerves arise from the spinal cord, each nerve arising by two roots, a ventral and a dorsal (anterior and posterior), from points near the ventral and dorsal longitudinal sinuses respectively: the two roots unite at their point of exit from the vertebral canal through the intervertebral foramen; each dorsal root possesses a ganglion.

The nervous system of _Rana esculenta_, from the ventral surface. (From Icones physiologicae by A. Ecker. Pl. XXIV, Fig. 1.)

_F_ Facial nerve.
_G_ Ganglion of pneumogastric nerve.
_He_ Cerebral hemisphere.
_Lc_ Optic tract.
_Lop_ Optic lobe.
_M_ Boundary between medulla oblongata and spinal cord.
_M1–10_ Spinal nerves.
_MS_ Connection between fourth spinal nerve and
sympathetic chain.
_N_ Nasal sac.
_Ni_ Sciatic nerve.
_No_ Crural nerve.
_o_ Eyeball.
_S_ Trunk of sympathetic.
_S1–10_ Sympathetic ganglia.
_Sm_ Rami communicantes of sympathetic.
_Sp_ Continuation of sympathetic into head.
_I_ Olfactory nerve.
_II_ Optic nerve.
_III_ Motor oculi nerve.
_IV_ Trochlear nerve.
_V_ Trigeminal and facial nerves.
_Va_ Ramus ophthalmicus of trigeminal.
_Vc_ Ramus maxillo-mandibularis of trigeminal.
_Vd_ Mandibular branch of trigeminal.
_Ve_ Hyomandibular branch of facial.
_Vg_ Gasserian ganglion.
_Vs_ Upper end of sympathetic trunk in connection with
Gasserian ganglion.
_VI_ Abducens nerve.
_VII_ Facial nerve.
_VIII_ Auditory nerve.
_X_ Glossopharyngeal and pneumogastric nerves.
_X1_ Ramus anterior of glossopharyngeal.
_X2_ Ramus Posterior of glossopharyngeal.
_X3–4_ Branches of pneumogastric.
]

*2.* *Internal structure.* As in other vertebrates, the spinal cord consists of white and grey matter, the latter being surrounded by the former; the relative amount of the one to the other varies in different parts of the cord.

A *transverse* section of the cord presents the same general characteristics as a similar section from a bird or mammal. The grey matter lies in the middle, surrounding the central canal, and is prolonged into each half of the section by ventral and dorsal horns or _cornua_. The grey matter is surrounded by the white, but is not so sharply marked off from this in amphibia as in birds and mammals.

A section through the *anterior enlargement* is almost quadrangular in outline, and somewhat broader below than above; the ventral longitudinal fissure is well marked and deep, while the dorsal is indistinct. The dorsal horns are narrow and short, the ventral longer and much broader. The space between the dorsal horns is narrow and deep, that between the ventral shallow; the outer boundary of the grey matter is almost straight, and the central canal is placed above the centre of the section.

In the *constricted portion* of the cord (_pars media_) the relative proportion of the white matter is increased at the expense of the grey; the horns are less distinct, the dorsal being directed outwards and the ventral somewhat flattened. The central canal is in the centre of the section.

The *posterior enlargement* shows the ventral horns projecting outwards, very much enlarged, and approaching the periphery; the space between them is semilunar. The dorsal horns are well developed, especially at their upper parts; the space between them is narrow and deep. The outer margin of the grey matter is again nearly a straight line. The central canal is below the centre of the section.

The arrangement of the parts in the _conus medullaris_ approaches that in the _pars media_: the horns are much diminished in size, and posteriorly they entirely disappear, the ventral horns persisting longer than the dorsal. The central canal approaches the lower surface.

No cornua can be recognised in the _filum terminale_ behind the origin of the last pair of spinal nerves. The grey matter has here a circular outline, with the exception of a very slight indentation below; the white matter is almost absent: the central canal is on the lower border of the section in the anterior part, while posteriorly it occupies almost the entire space below the _pia mater_.

The *Central Canal* lies in the median line, and always presents a distinct lumen; in the two enlargements this lumen forms a vertical ellipse[51], while in the _pars media_ it is circular. The canal is lined by a single layer of ciliated columnar epithelium, the cells of which are usually conical, with their bases directed towards the lumen; but other forms may be noticed. These cells average about 0·040 mm. in length and about 0·002 mm. in width at their broadest part. The peripheral extremities of the cells have processes, which, in the case of the cells above and below the cord, may often be traced as far as the _pia mater_; the processes of the lateral cells are less distinct and seem to be shorter. Anteriorly the central canal opens into the floor of the fourth ventricle. The termination of the central canal, posteriorly, has been described by Masius and Vanlair. According to these observers, the canal towards the hinder end of the _filum terminale_ increases very gradually in width, until its epithelial cells are immediately underneath the _pia mater_, its walls then converge somewhat more sharply to close the cavity. From the point where the canal commences to increase in width, a change takes place in its epithelial wall, which, instead of having a single layer of cells, now possesses two to three layers; towards the posterior end it is again thinned out to a single layer.

[Footnote 51: v. Kölliker states that the lumen is everywhere circular.]

The *grey matter* varies in different parts of the cord and in different parts of the same section. In a section through the anterior enlargement a portion of the grey matter, placed immediately above the central canal, is easily distinguished by its vertically-placed, elliptical outline, and by its transparency: it is known as the _substantia reticularis_. It consists of a mesh-work of branched cells, through which course distinctly contoured fine commisural fibres which are derived chiefly from the dorsal cornua, the vertical from the epithelial cells of the roof of the central canal. In a series of sections the _substantia reticulosa_ may be seen to originate indistinctly in the most anterior part of the cord; in the anterior enlargement it already possesses the elliptical form mentioned, and in the _pars media_ it commences to send off lateral processes to either side. In the posterior enlargement it reaches its greatest absolute development, as it here surrounds the central canal; while further backwards it encroaches until, together with the remaining grey matter, it constitutes almost the whole of the _filum terminale_.

Immediately underneath the central canal is a narrow band, which immediately connects the grey matter of the two sides; above it is bounded by the epithelium of the central canal, below by medullated fibres. This _septum medium_ (Reissner) may be traced backwards from the anterior extremity of the cord to the posterior enlargement. It consists chiefly of transverse fibres, together with vertical fibres derived from the epithelial cells on the floor of the canal, and like the _substantia reticulosa_, is distinguished by its greater transparency from the rest of the grey matter.

The grey matter consists of connective-tissue and nervous elements, which are very intimately united; each of these elements including its special cells and fibres. The *nerve-cells* vary much in size and appearance. A prominent group of large cells in the ventral cornua, the *lateral group* (Stieda), is very conspicuous. The individual cells are seldom rounded, but are usually spindle-shaped or angular, and each possesses one to five processes, which may often be traced through considerable distances. These cells have an average length of 0·040 mm., and are about 0·016 mm. broad; they are somewhat larger in the anterior enlargement than in the posterior, and are also more numerous in a section from the anterior enlargement than in a section from the posterior. In the terminal filament they gradually disappear. Some of their processes are continued into the lateral columns (Köppen).

Smaller, spindle-shaped or triangular cells are scattered irregularly throughout the grey matter, without forming distinct groups, though for descriptive purposes those of the centre have been named the *central group*. In a stained, transverse section of the cord are seen numerous *nuclei*; these undoubtedly belong both to small nerve-cells and to connective-tissue cells, but except under the most favourable conditions the two are indistinguishable. The larger nerve-cells present the usual characters of nerve-cells: more or less granular contents, nucleus, well-marked nucleolus, more or less marked fibrillation; their processes are usually more homogeneous. The cells are frequently pigmented.

The *processes* of the cells belonging to the lateral group radiate in all possible directions, but certain well-marked processes directed towards the middle line can always be made out. From the lowest part of this group a few processes may be traced into the ventral roots. The small cells seem to be chiefly arranged vertically, although their processes radiate in all directions (Stieda).

The *Fibres of the grey substance* are nearly all non-medullated. They may be traced in all directions, but the best-marked groups are either vertical or transverse. The vertical fibres appear to arise from the central grey matter, and to ascend in larger or smaller bundles towards the periphery. The transverse fibres are arranged chiefly in the two commissures: the dorsal commissure (_commissura superior_) is the smaller; the fibres are parallel, and show no trace of decussation; externally they radiate in various directions to the dorsal horns. The ventral commissure is composed of two layers, the upper grey (_commissura inferior grisea_), the lower white (_commissura inferior alba_): both are interrupted by the _septum medium_. A well-marked decussation of the fibres is seen in the middle line; the exact mode of termination of these fibres has not been made out, but many appear to communicate with the large cells of the ventral horns.

The *white matter* consists chiefly of longitudinal, medullated fibres, in which various columns may be distinguished. The dorsal columns are separated from the lateral by a process of neuroglia, continued from the general investment of neuroglia lying under the _pia mater_. The line of separation between the lateral and ventral columns is not well marked; it is about the line which would be formed by prolonging the ventral horns to the surface.

The fibres vary in size, and fibres of all sizes may be found in any particular part of a transverse section; still the fibres of the ventral columns have an average greater diameter than those of the lateral columns, and the fibres of the dorsal columns are finer than those of the lateral. The largest fibres of the ventral column are placed near the ventral fissure and on its lower border; they attain their greatest development in the posterior enlargement; these fibres frequently contain two or three axis-cylinders each. Köppen suggests that they may represent the _formatio reticularis_ of higher animals.

In the lateral columns the larger fibres are placed close to the grey matter, these columns also receive fibres from the cells of the lateral group.

In the dorsal columns the radiating root-fibres never reach the median plane, but leave an area of purely longitudinal fibres on each side of the dorsal fissure; these represent Goll’s columns, and have a club-shaped outline in transverse section.

The white matter is pierced in all directions by fine connective-tissue fibres and bundles of fibres which radiate from the grey matter; some branch and join with others to form a network, others pass almost uninterruptedly to the periphery. From the connective-tissue cells of the _pia mater_, processes pass into the white matter and assist in completing the connective-tissue matrix for the nervous elements.

*Dorsal roots* of the spinal nerves. Each root consists of a single bundle of nerve fibres, which suddenly bends at the periphery of the cord in order to descend vertically through the white matter towards the dorsal horn; the fibres divide into three sets, one to the dorsal commissure, a second to the upper horn itself, and the third helps to form the dorsal columns.

*Ventral roots* of the spinal nerves. Each ventral root consists of three or four delicate threads, which may be traced to the ventral cornua, which they reach after a vertical or very slightly oblique course through the white matter. Other fibres arise from the ventral columns, but these oblique fibres never extend to the median plane.

*Pigment* is found distributed irregularly through a section from any part of the spinal cord; it is increased in amount in those parts in which there is an increased amount of grey matter. The pigmentation is always found more marked in the lower parts of the ventral horns than in other parts.

B. THE BRAIN (Figs. 98, 102, 103, and 105).

*1.* *General description.* From behind forwards, the *dorsal* surface of the brain presents the following parts for examination: the _medulla oblongata_, the _cerebellum_, the optic lobes, the thalamencephalon, the cerebral hemispheres, and the olfactory lobes.

The _medulla oblongata_ is a direct continuation of the spinal cord; it is wider anteriorly than posteriorly, and is separated in front from the optic lobes by a vertical plate of nervous matter, the _cerebellum_. The optic lobes are two symmetrical ovoid bodies touching each other in the median plane, and together forming the widest part of the brain. In front of the optic lobes is the thalamencephalon, with a thick vascular membrane, the choroid plexus, lying on its upper surface, and connected with the pineal gland; the thalamencephalon extends forwards between the posterior ends of the cerebral hemispheres. The cerebral hemispheres are two symmetrical ovoid bodies, narrow in front, wider and slightly diverging behind: each hemisphere is prolonged forwards to form an olfactory lobe.

The *ventral* surface has in front the olfactory lobes, then the cerebral hemispheres, behind these the _lamina terminalis_, the _tuber cinereum_, the optic chiasma, the pituitary body, the _crura cerebri_, and lastly the _medulla oblongata_, in the order here given.

The various *cranial nerves* (Figs. 102 and 103) may be seen to arise as follows:--The olfactory nerve (_I_, _I_′, _L.ol_′) arises directly from the anterior end and outer side of the corresponding olfactory lobe, and from the cerebral hemisphere. The optic nerve (_To_ and _II_) arises, as the optic tract, from the side of the brain below the optic lobe, whence it passes to the chiasma on the under surface of the brain. The oculo-motor (_III_) takes its origin from the ventral surface close to the median line and between the _crura cerebri_. The pathetic or trochlear nerve (_IV_) is attached to the dorsal surface between the optic lobes and the _cerebellum_. The trigeminal nerve (_V_) arises from the side and anterior part of the _medulla oblongata_. The _abducens_ (_VI_) arises behind the pituitary body close to the median line from the ventral surface of the medulla halfway between the _sulcus_ and the origin of the _vagus_. The facial and auditory (_VII_ and _VIII_) nerves arise from the _medulla oblongata_ behind the trigeminal nerve, the facial being in front of the auditory nerve. The glossopharyngeal (_IX_) nerve arises, in common with the pneumogastric nerve (_X_), behind the auditory nerve.

*2.* *The several parts of the brain.*