Chapter XII: Part 12

That _cast_, or tribe, of _nuts_, known by the name of _bauzeegurs_, generally affect to follow the Mahomedan faith, but the _purneah peeries_, or _budeea_ tribe, follow either that, or the doctrines of Brahma, just as may suit their purposes, or their locality. Either sect have so very few religious ceremonies, as to render it doubtful whether they profess more than may serve to screen them from the imputation of atheism; a charge which would sink them even lower in the estimation of every inhabitant of Asia. They inter their relations in a very slovenly manner, and may often be found lying drunk about the grave: their marriage forms are extremely simple, the bride and bridegroom mutually mark each other’s faces with red ochre, after which, they lock their little fingers together, and avow their union: the ceremony is usually concluded by a sacrifice to the muddled deity, in which all bear their parts with great eagerness, and devotion!

It is a rule among the _nuts_ never to go to law, nor to submit their differences to any arbitrators, except of their own profession: owing to the extreme jealousy of the men, and the frequent excesses of both sexes in the use of _gaunjah_, and other intoxicating draughts, such differences are by no means rare, and contribute partly to the support of their rulers, who receive a fourth part of whatever is earned, or perhaps begged, borrowed, or stolen, by the several _sets_ which ramble over the country, according to their own fancies, or as they may be ordered.

Such regular debauchery, added to the violent exercise undergone during their early years, reduce the period of life among these people to a very short compass. Few live beyond the age of forty, and by far the larger portion fail of attaining their thirtieth year; the women generally fall victims after having borne four or five children.

With respect to dancing, which is a part of the duties of a female _nut_, much encomium cannot be justly bestowed: their style of performance is vulgar, and they generally study that kind of lewd display, which renders their performances too indelicate to be described. Tumbling head-over-heels, walking upon their hands, Catherine-wheel, &c., &c.; all come within the display afforded for a trifling gratuity!

The traveller will sometimes be visited by sets of _nautch-girls_, who either reside in some of the principal towns, and make a point of offering their services towards the amusement of _gentlemen_ traversing the country; or who are itinerants, that pick up a livelihood by rambling about, chiefly among the villages inhabited by Mahomedans, whose dispositions are more prompt than those of the Hindus to receive gratification from voluptuous exhibitions. Besides, the latter are generally more penurious, and are so rigidly tied down, both by tenet, and by the vigilance of their neighbours, as to have but little scope for indulgence in those sensualities, which the followers of the Prophet, who anxiously look forward to the enjoyment of the _houris_, are less scrupulous to conceal.

The greater part of the individuals composing the _taffah_, or set of female dancers, are either attached by family connections, such as marriage with the _oostauds_ and _surmaunjahs_, who are the instructors and musicians; or they are slaves obtained by purchase during times of scarcity: some, indeed, are kidnapped when very young, on account of their promising features; these rarely are able to give any account of their parentage, and do not always know the districts in which they were born.

Whatever may be their origin, or their connection, the dancers, who are likewise vocal performers, are entirely subservient to some person, whether male or female, who is considered the proprietor of the _set_, and on whose application to any court of law, or to any _soubah_, or person in power, any run-away is immediately pursued, and restored to the _taffah_; whether the obligation be peremptory, such as in the case of a _baundy_, or actual slave; or merely implied, as in the case of a _paulah_, or person preserved from famine, &c., and reared in the capacity of a menial.

The Mahomedan law barely recognizes actual slavery, but makes a great distinction in favor of those who purchase, or thus adopt, children that would otherwise, in all probability, perish from want. The latter are considered to be the property of the patron, until arrived at their full growth, which is understood to be about the age of eighteen; but this affords easy evitation to such proprietors of _taffahs_ as feel an interest in the detention of any particular girls under their authority.

To say the truth, very little cause of complaint seems to exist on such occasions: the girls are usually well cloathed, and well fed; they are rarely limitted in regard to paramours, and, on the whole, experience as much comfort as their habits, and those envious traits ever to be seen among persons of the same profession, admit. Where these _taffahs_ are found in the vicinity of our camps, and stations, whether civil or military, it is common to see the dancers attach themselves to some particular European gentlemen, of whose friendship they make much boast: the profits of such a speculation cannot be wholly reserved by any one of the party; they are supposed to be surrendered, without diminution, to the proprietor, for the general benefit of the _set_.

That full surrender is not, however, always made; on the contrary, some contrive to redeem themselves from this species of demi-slavery, by means of sums accumulated in the course of years, and concealed, with extreme solicitude, from the scrutinizing eye of the proprietor. When such a redemption takes place, it is never done overtly, but by the pretended interference of some gentleman, or opulent native, who, either from love, or charity, feels disposed to pay the ransom: were the possession of the property to be acknowledged by the anxious female, it would instantly be seized as a _droit_, and she would probably undergo that severest of Hindostanee punishments, the loss of all her _kase_, or hair!

It is not uncommon for persons purchasing slaves, or rearing deserted children, to affix the badge of slavery immediately, and to cause it to be worn by the unfortunate being, thus devoted to tyrannical authority during life. This type of dependance consists simply of an iron ring, similar to those on light fetters, which is worn on either of the ankles, generally on the left: there it is rivetted in the usual manner, with the intention of being always seen. To remove the ring, is considered highly criminal on the part of all concerned, and should the slave be thereby enabled to abscond, would subject the abettors to payment of his or her value.

In every part of India the profession of a prostitute is devoid of that stigma annexed to it in Europe: persons following it are protected by law in certain privileges, and their persons are far from being held in abomination, such as we should suppose must be generated towards so impure a character among the moralists of the East. This is entirely owing to the profession being hereditary, the same as other sects, and not promiscuous, or arising from vicious propensities, as we see daily the case among us.

It is true the term _kusbee_ is used as a reproach; but that seems rather to refer to such as, like our wantons, degenerate in consequence of their libidinous dispositions, and are not attached to the two great divisions, the _meerasseens_, and the _puttareahs_, both of which have claims on the bounty of princes, and to exemptions from certain taxes; though, to make up for such indulgences, the _cutwals_, and other native officers, under whose authority they may reside, not only demand their attendance, whether to sing, dance, or what not, gratis, but impose upon them heavy assessments, in proportion to their repute and prosperity.

With the view to prevent the encrease of a certain disorder, which proceeds with rapid strides in that hot climate, it is customary to appoint a committee every month, at each great station, for the inspection of such dulcineas as may be resident within the bounds of the cantonments: such as appear to be diseased, are instantly confined to a small hospital, appropriated to their reception: a salutary measure, which doubtless prevents much mischief, and is superior to our Lock Institution, which only offers, but does not coerce to, a proper course of medicine.

Such women as, being married, or living _under the protection_ of any person, are found to indulge in variety, are designated _chinauls_, and are held in far greater disrepute than the professed _kusbee_, or common prostitute. As predestinarians constantly contradict, by their evasions of danger, the main principle of their creed, so do the good folks of Hindostan deviate widely from their system of ethics on this head; for, although adultery, under any circumstances whatever, is held up as a mortal sin, to be atoned for by death only; nevertheless, we find the males of all ages particularly bent on that kind of gallantry which comes within the letter of the law, and generally produces the contact of two persons whose _casts_ are thereby respectively polluted. In a former part, I explained more fully the deceptions practised by native women retained by European gentlemen; it remains for me to add, that such is the spirit of intrigue prevalent among the people at large, that we may at least conclude the ladies in that quarter to keep pace with _the most enlightened_ of our own population!

When a native, especially a Hindu, of high _cast_, suspects that his wife is guilty of infidelity, he generally proceeds to repudiate her in the most public manner; but it often happens that he is saved that trouble, either by the intervention of her father, brother, &c., who, under pretence of conducting her home, leads the offender to some lone spot, where, with his _tulwar_, he severs her head from her body, and deliberately leaves both to be devoured by jackals, &c. This office is likewise occasionally performed by the husband himself; who must, however, be careful not to betray his intention, lest a powerful dose, mixed among his _takorry_, (vegetable _curry_,) should prevent the completion of his design, or, possibly, cause him to fall a sacrifice to the lover’s resentment.

A very curious instance of this occurred in 1789, wherein a sepoy, of my own company, was principally concerned. He had long been in the good graces of a woman who was married to a _sonaar_, (goldsmith,) then absent in another part of the country. The lady’s father, who had no other child, on learning the particulars of the intrigue from one of her servants, remonstrated, but in vain. He then determined to sacrifice her, and ordered that she should quit her own home, for the purpose of being conducted to his house, which was in a village some miles distant.

Suspecting his intention, the adultress communicated the circumstance to her lover, who advised her to follow her father, and promised to prevent his doing her any injury. Accordingly, she allowed her parent to precede her, as usual, (for no woman ever walks before a man, especially if it be her husband, or any relative,) until they arrived at a small jungle, when, as he was about to draw his _tulwar_ to _sauf-kur_ (literally, ‘to make clean,’ but, in the accepted sense, to kill, or destroy,) her, the lover darted forth, and, at one blow, took off his head.

The lady and her lover were both apprehended, and tried before the _zemindary court_ at Benares, within whose jurisdiction the crime was perpetrated: against the woman nothing could be urged, she was therefore acquitted; the man was convicted, and condemned; but the woman, being next of kin to the deceased, and having the right, according to the law, of pardoning his murderer, instantly gave him her absolution in open court, and, to the great surprize and mortification of the whole court, returned homewards with her paramour, to persevere in the adulterous intercourse.

It was in vain that Marquis Cornwallis, on receipt of the intelligence, used every endeavor to obtain a revision of the proceedings: the Court were inflexible, and the parties could not, legally, be apprehended. His Lordship was, therefore, left without that redress he thought due to the public, and could only cause the sepoy to be dismissed from the Company’s service, and to be banished from the Company’s dominions.

Where the law gives so absurd a power, it might be expected that scarce a husband would be safe; but that is not the case; for they, in general, act very decidedly, whenever they are made acquainted with the existence of offences against conjugal propriety. The caution used in conducting an amour is not always very great, but there is, in fact, only one difficulty to be overcome, viz. the obtaining admission to the interior while the husband is absent: that being effected, detection is not very easy, because, the immured state in which women are kept, offers the best screen against the curiosity of prying neighbours.

What with the dark color of the mud walls, the sombre complexion of the people themselves, and the shade commonly cast by heavy foliages, standing in the vicinity of villages in general, as well as by the over-hanging thatches, &c., it is not very easy, even for a neighbour, to ascertain, after night-fall, whether a person, having a cloth on the head, entering the sacred enclosure, be male or female.

About the year 1786, a laughable story was current, regarding a young officer who had a very pretty Hindoo girl in keeping, but who, being of a very salacious disposition, always endeavored to prevail with such young women as came to vend fruits, or to sell _choories_, &c., to be his inmate. One of these daily visitors held out against every temptation, which so roused the youth’s passions, that he resolved to obtain that by force which money could not purchase. The struggle made a terrible discovery; the supposed damsel proving to be a young Portugueze drummer!!!

The ordinary mode of conveyance adopted by the generality of _nautch-taffahs_, is the common _hackery_, called a _g’horry_, which has two wheels, with a square body, as has been already described; in one of these, four or five crowd together, sitting almost back to back, and allowing their legs to hang down on every side. The generality are of very decent behavior, but, when they get a little _majoom_ (a sweatmeat prepared with _b’haug_) into their noddles, it is not uncommon to see them proceed in high style, singing away in full chorus, and, occasionally, exhibiting specimens of their profession, by attitudes corresponding with the words of songs purely Cyprian!

The baggage, if any, is commonly carried on some hired bullock, or in a _hackery_; some _sets_ are, however, so opulent, as to be able to keep one or two camels, and to purchase a tolerably good Hindostanee tent, that is, without walls, and supported by two bamboo poles, each about eight or nine feet long.

The baggage of Europeans is, ordinarily carried on elephants, camels, bullocks, _hackeries_, or _coolies_: of late years, a great improvement has been made, by taking off the body of a gig, with its shafts, and substituting a frame, made on such a plan as may serve to contain several trunks and liquor chests below, while a cot, with all the necessary bedding, having over them a painted canvas canopy, covers the whole, and keeps every part compact and dry. Such a conveyance, with a tolerably stout horse, is found to get on far more expeditiously than any of the others.

With respect to elephants, it may be said, that they are either the best, or the worst, carriage: in the low countries, where the soil is often soft for the greater part of the year, the elephant is certainly a most useful animal; his feet being broad, and his power so great as to enable his acting with decision and energy at the moment of difficulty, qualify him, almost exclusively, for the transportation of tents, and heavy baggage, in such parts of the country as remain heavy or swampy during the more settled part of the year.

Though we may suppose, that, previous to the plains of Bengal being cultivated, they were over-ran with elephants, the same as other parts of India, of which that animal is a native, still it should seem, that their principal haunts must have been along that hilly wilderness in which they are now found in a gregarious state. It is well known that the elephant thrives best near the sea, that in its vicinity he attains his greatest bulk, and is exempt from various diseases, especially the opthalmia and the dropsy, both of which attack at least four in five of such as are removed to dry soils. This circumstance, as well as the peculiar formation and substance of the foot, appear to render the elephant peculiarly appropriate to the use of such persons as have occasion for carriage-cattle (_i.e._ cattle that bear burthens) in the lower provinces.

Endued with wonderful sagacity, the elephant will only proceed on soils which bear him up to a certain extent: so soon as he feels a peculiar vibration, that indicates a want of firmness below, he instantly declines further progress, and, turning round, or receding, with more activity than his clumsy form may indicate, hastens to quit the apprehended danger; and, without regard to things or persons, makes the best of his way to _terra firma_.

Sometimes, however, this majestic animal gets bogged, and, notwithstanding his immense strength, becomes completely incapable of self-extrication. On such an occasion, nothing more is necessary than to supply him with abundance of straw, or cut grass, tied in bundles; these he forces down with his proboscis, till they are under his feet respectively; and, by their accumulated resistance, afford the means of gradually bearing up, and of raising him to the surface. His egress is ensured by an ample stock of the same materials, together with faggots, &c., thrown before him, in number sufficient to form a kind of path-way, along which the elephant moves with wondrous caution: on such an occasion, he should, like a mule on a mountain, be left to himself, as he will manage with perfect prudence; whereas, if actuated by a _mohout_, (or driver,) he might be again plunged into difficulty.

The stature of elephants, in general, may be rated between seven and nine feet: the former is the standard at which they are admitted upon the Company’s establishment, at the value of five hundred sicca rupees each (£65). Provided the animals be stout, and competent to carry a proper burthen, such blemishes as would depreciate them considerably among the natives, who entertain many prejudices in this particular, are not considered.

The principal defects, in the eye of a native merchant, are,

1. A broken tail; or a deficiency of the forked hair at its termination. The former arises from the habit the elephants are in, of laying hold of their opponent’s tails with their trunks, and of twisting them so, that, occasionally, they are absolutely snapped, or, perhaps, tumefy, and, in the end, sphacelate.

2d. An uneven number of claws to the feet: there should be five on each fore, and four on each hind foot.

3d. Bad tusks; that is, such as are decayed, or, having been broken in contests, cannot be rendered ornamental: an elephant born with only one tooth, or tusk, is highly prized, as being sure to overwhelm its owner with good fortune.

4th. Having a black, or spotted palate; either of which is supposed to be an indication of bad health, as well as of misfortune.

5th. Bad eyes; though sometimes we see very serviceable elephants totally deprived of sight, which travel admirably with burthens, but are unfit for the _howdah_; these are extremely careful to put their trunks forward as they proceed, whereby they are warned of any hollows, &c. Blind elephants are peculiarly attentive to the words of command given by their drivers.

6th. The want of hair on the forehead, lean jaws, small jagged ears, narrow feet, thin legs, short bodies, and a contracted barrel, or carcase, are all objectionable, and become serious objects of attention in the purchase of this animal. An European, not accustomed to view elephants critically, would conclude that little variety, in the above respects, would be found; but there are certainly as many estimable, or agreeable, points in a fine elephant, as in a fine horse; though we rarely look so narrowly into the perfections of the former, on account of being less in the habits of cherishing, or of driving, them in person.

According to the regulations, an elephant ought to be able to carry twenty-five maunds, which is within a twenty-sixth part of being a ton; but, although the several contractors stipulate, without hesitation, that their elephants should be able to carry that weight at all times, not one in a hundred of those in the service, or in the possession of individuals, could bear it even for one day’s ordinary march, which should not exceed eight _coss_, (sixteen miles,) all beyond that being considered a forced march.

The elephant is furnished with two pads, of which the under one, called a _guddaylah_, is commonly made of red _karwah_, stuffed to the thickness of an inch and a half with cotton, and well quilted. The upper pad, called a _guddy_, is made of _tawt_, which is a narrow kind of very coarse canvas, and is stuffed very hard with straw to about the thickness of six inches. These are put on, the one over the other, and firmly secured to the body by means of stout ropes passing round the whole, as well as under the tail, by way of crupper.

Such a thickness may appear too great; but it is to be considered that an elephant ought, by the contract, to carry either four common marquees, each weighing, when dry, 425lb., and, when wet, 597lb.; or six private tents, each weighing, when dry, 275lb., and, when wet, 426lb. Therefore, when I take the medium at twenty-five maunds, it is but striking a fair balance.

An ordinary elephant requires two servants; namely, a _mohout_, or driver, who sits upon his back, and guides, by means of a crooked instrument of iron, called a _haunkus_, aided by words of command, and the application of his toes behind the animal’s ears. The other servant, called a _cooly_, or grass-cutter, performs all the more menial offices, such as taking the elephant out for _charrah_, _i.e._ fodder, of which it can carry as much as will suffice for two, or, if well laden, for three days.

The feet of an elephant require considerable care; they being extremely apt to chafe, and wear away, at the soles, so as to render him completely unserviceable for a time. This generally happens where the soil is dry and harsh, as throughout the upper country, but may be, in a great measure, prevented by _paying_ them with astringent applications, so that the skin may be rendered harder, and the foot, in general, somewhat callous.

When an elephant is chafed on the back, the part is usually rubbed with _ghee_ and turmeric, and the pad cushioned so as to raise the spot under which the excoriation may be: if suffered to continue in a state of irritation, the smallest sore will speedily assume a most formidable appearance, owing to the peculiarly cellular formation of an elephant’s flesh.

The mode of catching elephants for the public service is very simple, requiring more perseverance than skill, yet attended with a heavy expence. In those wildernesses near Chittagong, Tipperah, &c., along the eastern boundary, some hundreds, or perhaps thousands, of villagers are assembled, who form a circle around those herds they may find, and gradually frighten them into a kind of trap, called a _keddah_, of which the entrance is of a crescent form, leading to a large area, properly enclosed by an immense trench, and by large piles well bound together. After a while, the animals are driven, or induced, into a smaller area, from which they are taken into a narrow passage, for the purpose of being secured, and led away to the stands, at which they remain until completely tamed.

It was formerly the practice to break their spirit by privations and severity; but, of late years, it has been found preferable to sooth as much as possible; a change which has been attended with the most happy results. So far has this plan succeeded, that many elephants are now better reconciled in one month than they formerly were in four or five; while, at the same time, many inconveniences, especially those severe ligatures, which invariably made desperate sores about the ankles, &c., are almost wholly avoided.

The practice of decoying the large single males, which separate from the herds, and are called _sauns_, or _goondahs_, is extremely curious: two or three females are generally sent out for the purpose of inveigling the ferocious males thus ranging about. Such female elephants, which are called _k’hoomkies_, are highly valuable, especially if they be large, and attached to their _mohouts_, whom they will protect to the last moment, if accidentally discovered by their intended prize while passing the ropes around his legs. For a particular account of this, which can scarcely be rendered distinct but by the aid of plates, I refer my readers to ‘THE WILD SPORTS OF THE EAST,’ published from my designs and memoirs by Mr. Edward Orme, of Bond Street, and Messrs. Black, Parry, and Kingsbury, of Leadenhall Street.

Contrary to the opinion formerly current, it has been ascertained that elephants copulate in the same manner as other quadrupeds. This has been certified by Mr. John Corse, the resident Surgeon at Tipperah, who established a breed of elephants at that place; whereby much insight has been obtained regarding the natural history of this noble animal. When Mr. Corse transmitted that account which may be seen in the third volume of the Asiatic Researches, he had not the opportunity of ascertaining the period of gestation, which has since been found to give an average of about twenty-two months.

That less time could not be required, was evident from the incipient portion of that gentleman’s researches; as a female elephant, taken in January, 1788, did not produce her calf, which was thirty-five inches high at his birth, and grew four inches in as many months, until the 16th of October, 1789.

Elephants are invariably measured at the shoulder, and not on the arch of the back, the want of which is to be considered as indicative of age.

Elephants are to be found along the whole extent of frontier, ranging from the Chittagong district, to the very borders of Thibet. They become more scarce, and are, besides, less robust, and of smaller stature, in proportion as they recede from the sea coasts. Those sent yearly, by way of compliment, or of tribute, from the Rajah of Napaul, are by no means to be compared with the _coomaeeahs_, and _mooknahs_ of Tipperah, and Chittagong, whose form and bulk certainly entitle them to superior estimation. Some of these are, occasionally, sold for immense sums to the native princes in the upper parts of Hindostan. Two thousand rupees are held to be but a low price for a male of nine feet in height, provided his teeth are large, even, and of regular curves: sometimes elephants, of extraordinary bulk, and of remarkably fine points, have reached to eight or ten thousand rupees.

The expence of keeping an elephant will vary according to the situation, and to the general services wherein it is employed: in the Dacca district but little expence is incurred, unless hard labour is to be performed, there being abundance of _d’hul_, (grass,) and of foliage, of which the animal can always obtain an ample supply gratis. There, a _mohout_ rarely receives more than three rupees monthly, and a grass-cutter more than two. I have shewn, in describing the servants necessary to be retained in a gentleman’s suite, that the wages of these menials are generally much higher; which, when added to the average charges for food, chiefly _badjra_, or millet stems, which must be paid for, and rice, or barley, perhaps to the extent of 30lb. daily, will cause the expence of maintaining an elephant in the upper provinces, to amount to full thirty, or thirty-five, rupees per mensem; and that, too, exclusive of the wear and tear of gear of all kinds. On the whole, we may compute that an elephant, well kept, will cost full forty rupees (£5.) monthly. When we consider that, in England, few gentlemen keep their horses for much less, and that an elephant performs so much essential drudgery, indeed, equal to a team of three stout cart horses, also that the value of money in India is not half so great as with us, we may deem the above aggregate to be very moderate: the misfortune is, that an elephant is not, like a horse, promptly or generally useful; and that, owing to the nature of the climate, as well as of the soil, months often elapse before the proprietor of the former may be able to avail himself of the valuable powers of his sable property.

Camels are very generally kept by the officers of the army throughout the upper provinces, that is to say, above the Delta of the Ganges, where the soil is more appropriate to their form, than those muddy, slippery, tracts, in which these animals are extremely subject to fall. When such an accident happens, it is a great chance but the animal is rendered useless; as, owing to the great length of the hind legs, and to the want of any membranes, or muscles, calculated to prevent their easy divergence in diametrically opposite directions, the pelvis is extremely apt to split, and the power of extrication, or even of support itself, is entirely lost to this very valuable quadruped.

Though we generally attach the term ‘_camel_’ to that species of the _camelus_ found in India, where great numbers are bred by persons who make a very large profit from their labors, the animal under consideration, having but one hump, or bunch, on its back, should, properly, be called a ‘_dromedary_.’ Whatever may be the true designation, the utility of the animal in a climate, and on a soil, to which it is so admirably suited by nature, is indisputable; but, with regard to its powers, as described by naturalists, or by travellers, I must beg leave to enter a partial dissent.

I have now before me a very respectable publication, wherein it is said, that ‘a camel will carry a weight of 1,200lb., and will perform a journey of three hundred leagues in eight days.’ Now, my own experience convinces me very fully that few camels will carry more than eight maunds, when making, on an average, stages of from fourteen, to sixteen, or, at the very utmost, twenty miles within the day, for two months; allowing a weekly halt.

So sensible are the Government of India of the inability of a camel to perform any thing like the service above described, that, in all their contracts, in which it must have been seen they take care so to proportion the burthens, that none but the choicest of cattle could move under them, it is especially detailed that such camels as may be admitted upon the Company’s establishment of carriage-cattle, should be rated in the proportion of three camels to one elephant; which, in other words, assigns to each a burthen composed of two private tents, the weight of each, when dry, being 275lb., and, when wet, 426lb.; including poles, pins, mallets, bags, &c.

Taking the medium as a standard, _i.e._ one wet, and one dry tent, the average burthen would be only 701lb., which will be found a greater load than any camels, setting apart perhaps one or two of extraordinary powers, which have come within my observation, could carry in a proper manner, so as to answer general purposes, when marching with a regiment.

The value of a camel varies according to size, form, age, condition, and disposition: supposing all those points to be mediocrity, from eighty, to a hundred and twenty, rupees may be taken as a standard; observing, that, where no military movement is in question, the prices are often lower, and that, in cases of emergency, they have been known to rise even so high as to four, five, and six, hundred rupees: but such, fortunately, is very rarely the case.

Most gentlemen keep two or three camels, for the purpose of carrying their tent, liquors, and cot. If on a moderate scale, two will generally prove competent to the work, but if the tent be large, the liquors and linen abundant, and the cot extensive, or on a heavy construction, a third camel will be necessary. In fact, I know not of worse policy, than that we too often see adopted, of burthening an animal with as much as it can stand under. When the moment of difficulty comes, as it rarely fails to do, infinite vexation, and an enormous encrease of expence, invariably follow. Hence, it will be found advisable, though the primary expence may be encreased, and the subsequent monthly charges be a trifle greater, always to retain three, in preference to two camels; unless the intended burthens be very compact, and not subject to accumulate a great addition of weight in wet weather.

The difference shewn to exist between tents, when wet, and when dry, according to the Company’s standard, ascertained by actual experiments, should prove a guide to all persons about to proceed on a march, so to proportion the loads imposed on their cattle as not to endanger their total failure. It should never be forgotten, that excoriations, however trivial in the first instance, speedily rankle into wounds, not simply painful, but generally trenching deeply on the immediate powers, as well as on the condition, of those useful dumb animals, which submit to the last moment to the will of their heedless employers.

Camels, as well as elephants, lie down, so as to bring their stomachs to the ground, while receiving or discharging their burthens. At such moments, the former are extremely irritable; snarling, and watching the opportunity for biting. To say the best of these animals, they are never to be trusted, their dispositions being, for the most part, sanguinary and treacherous, although they are not carnivorous, being fed chiefly on _gram_, and chaff of various kinds: a camel, like the bull-dog, rarely lets go his hold.

The expence of maintaining a camel may be averaged at about four or five rupees monthly, exclusive of its portion of the _surwan’s_ (_i.e._ the driver’s) wages: the large crook saddle, with its _jolah_, or canvas trappings, and its _saleetah_, or canvas sheet made of _tawt_, for the purpose of lading tents, and especially for bringing in chaff, may be averaged, for wear and tear, at about a rupee monthly. From this it will be seen, that if a _surwan_, attending three camels, should receive six rupees for pay, and that each of the camels should cost six more, the whole expence, amounting to twenty-four rupees per mensem, would fall far short of that incurred by one elephant.

The advantages attendant upon an elephant, are, that the load is all carried compact and entire; that he can travel in swampy districts, where no other animal could proceed at all; and that he is serviceable to ride upon, and to join in the line to beat hogs, and other game, out of heavy covers. On the other hand, a camel will travel on those dry soils which destroy an elephant’s feet, without sustaining the smallest injury; he is more patient under heat, and the absence both of fodder and of water; his prime cost is considerably less; his maintenance cheaper; and, where a division of carriage becomes necessary, one camel may be sent off, while the others are retained. But camels rarely thrive if exposed during the rains; hence, it is customary to build sheds for their reception during that season: this, however, is done at a very trifling expence, and might, doubtless, be dispensed with altogether, at least in the upper provinces, if young animals were to be purchased that had never been so domesticated. Few gentlemen retain their camels while serving near the Presidency, where fodder is at a most enormous price, and where the mange commonly attacks within a few weeks after arrival.

The heavy, awkward, and apparently slow, gait of the camel, generally induces to a belief that its rate of travelling is disadvantageous, inasmuch as it may denote inability to keeping up with the generality of elephants. This, however, is a great mistake, for it is very common to see the latter, when in the least over-burthened, or when the weather is hot, or the road sandy, very late in arriving at their destination; whereas, the camel, under an appropriate load, will move on at a regular pace, generally making a distance of seven feet, as I have repeatedly ascertained, from the centre of that spot whence it lifts a foot, to where it again sets it down: few elephants do so much; they walk quicker, but their strides are rarely so extensive.

The propensity of a camel to stale, so soon as eased of his burthen, renders it indispensably necessary to drive him to a distance so soon as the tent is off his back; otherwise, the urinous stench attached to the spot would render it very unpleasant, or, rather, insupportable. The native chemists extract large quantities of ammonia from those stands where camels have been kept for many weeks.

The greatest inconvenience attached to a camel is his utter inability to swim across a river, such as any other animal would consider no impediment. It is true, that, occasionally, camels may have been seen to swim for a few yards, but, in general, they turn upon the side, and, unless instantly rescued, would infallibly be drowned. Perhaps this arises from the general roundness of their bodies, which are very easily acted upon by the super-incumbent weight of the neck and head, that become levers, not sufficiently opposed by their almost fleshless limbs. Some camels enter with readiness into ferry-boats, even of the rudest construction, while others require to be urged by the display of fire in their rear, or even by the actual cautery! When once on board, they are generally quiet, but do not seem to entertain such a dread of their insulated situation as horses do.

In this particular, the elephant has a most decided superiority: he enters the water with alacrity, and, guided by the _mohout_, who preserves his seat on the animal’s neck, until the latter may, by way of frolic, descend to walk on the bottom, keeping, at the same time, the end of his proboscis above water, makes his way to the opposite bank, though perhaps a mile distant. If there be occasional shallows, whereon he can refresh himself, two or three miles are passed with equal facility.

In their wild state, elephants cross very large rivers in herds; the young ones swimming by the sides of their mothers, which, occasionally, support their gigantic calves by means of their trunks, either passed under the body, or slightly hooked in with the young one’s proboscis. When domesticated, elephants lose much of their natural energy in every instance; and, in lieu of viewing a tiger without fear, gradually become so timid, as to be dreadfully agitated at the sight, or smell, even of a dead one: hence, in tiger-hunting, those elephants which are more recently taken from the _keddahs_, provided they be sufficiently trained to be safe in other respects, are usually best suited to the sport, and afford their riders a better chance of success.

Those who cannot afford, or who consider it unnecessary, to retain either an elephant, or camels, usually purchase, or hire, bullocks, when about to march to any station not very remote. Some, indeed, prefer them altogether; but, after having given them more than one trial, both from necessity, and from the persuasions of others, my mind is made up to the full conviction, that, although rarely costing more than sixteen or twenty rupees each, (that is, from forty to fifty shillings,) they are the most tardy, the most troublesome, and the most expensive, of all the beasts of burthen in question!

Knowing, from dear-bought experience, that a bullock which can carry five maunds is a _rara avis_ of its kind, I was much surprized to find, in Mr. Colebrooke’s little treatise on the Husbandry of Bengal, an assertion, that the enormous ‘load of 500lb. of cotton is generally carried from Nagpore to Mirzapore, a distance which, by the shortest route, exceeds four hundred miles, in journies of eight or ten miles daily.’ That some remarkably fine cattle are bred in the Nagpore district is well known; but I should have greatly doubted, under any other than the highly respectable authority alluded to, whether it would be possible to select, in all Bengal, a sufficient number of bullocks, bred in the country, to carry on the extensive trade between Nagpore and Mirzapore, under the circumstance of carrying 500lb. as an ordinary load.

I have possessed very fine bullocks, such as could not, generally, be obtained for less than a hundred rupees the pair, and I have had occasion to rely on their services; but found, that, whenever they were laden beyond four maunds, (320lb.,) they became restive, and required many extra hours to perform a march of twelve or fourteen miles, even on excellent roads, and when in far better plight than _mahajuny_ (trading) bullocks are commonly seen.

But let us refer to the regulations of the Company respecting cattle to be admitted upon their establishment; we shall there find, that one Mirzapore bullock nearly equals three of them. ‘The standard of cattle to be retained for, or received into, the service, is not to be less than fifty inches for the draft-bullocks, and forty-eight inches for the carriage-bullocks. Each carriage-bullock shall be competent to carry a burthen of _one hundred and eighty pounds_ weight, exclusive of his pad.’

Now, it is well known the Company employ excellent cattle, and take care to have justice done them; as, indeed, they are fully entitled to expect, when they allow no less than thirty sicca rupees for each bullock purchased on their account; especially, as any distance beyond sixteen miles, or when laden for more than nine hours within the twenty-four, or when carrying more than 180lb., come under the denomination of a forced march, and subject the Company to all risks.

I should rather apprehend that an error has crept into Mr. Colebrooke’s otherwise most accurate calculations, owing to a _cutcha-maund_ of five _paseeries_, (of 10lb. each,) being in general use in that part of the country. Five of these maunds, of 50lb. each, make a _tungy_, which is the common load for cattle carrying iron, and other dead weights. Therefore, if we estimate the general burthen to be in _cutcha_ (_i.e._ small) maunds, we shall find the result to be nearer the ordinary result, than when we take 500lb. for the amount of a load. It is a well-known truth, that a private tent, with its poles, pins, mallets, and bags, is an ample load for any bullock, even in its dry state, and that, when wet, it must be a choice animal that is competent to bear it for even a very few miles.

In some of the very stony parts, it is usual to shoe the bullocks, the same as is practised in many parts of England; but, in general, that is not found necessary. The saddles and pads must be properly attended to, and the loads should be well strapped on; otherwise, owing to the skittishness of the cattle in India, and their disposition to lie down, very frequently, in a day’s journey, considerable injury must be sustained, by such articles of lading as may be subject to breakage, from such a practice.

However great a drawback such a propensity may appear, it is found, that liquors may be safely trusted to be conveyed by bullocks; but, in order to ensure the bottles from breaking, it is found necessary to pack every one of them separate, wrapping round it a small loose band, of that soft kind of hemp known by the name of _paut_, and stitching the several rounds together in the same manner as Florence oil flasks, &c., are enveloped by small bands of fine straw.

The _paut_, above mentioned, is grown in every part of the country, but chiefly in Bengal, where it attains to a considerable diameter, perhaps an inch and a half in diameter, and often grows eleven or twelve feet high. About three years ago, I presented a specimen of _paut_ to the Bath Society, measuring more than ten feet in length: it was the remainder of a quantity in which I had packed some bottles when quitting Bengal, and had never been so much as put to the hackle.

Nothing is so effectual as this material towards preserving bottles from fracture; when properly wolded, they may either be packed in boxes, &c., without any addition of straw, &c., or they may be advantageously put into strong bags of _tawt_, and thus, with seeming negligence, be carried on either side the bullock. I have several times adopted this mode, and found it by far the safest, as well as the least expensive, and best suited to the animal. By it, the necessity for boxes was obviated, and a good bullock could easily carry five dozens of wine for any length of time, and for any number of miles, a regiment would commonly march.

When tents are carried on oxen, it is necessary to divide the load as equally as may be practicable; observing, that those which have to carry the two _flies_, ought not to be encumbered with mallets, pins, &c., as it is a great desideratum to make sure, as much as practicable, that the flies, the pole, and a certain portion of pins, together with a mallet or two, should arrive early; it being of less consequence if the bullocks bearing the walls, _satrinjes_, &c., be somewhat later; since the main part of the operation of pitching the tent, consisting of raising the _flies_, may be performed, and shelter afforded, without the walls, &c., being present.

Although a very large stout bullock may, here and there, be found capable of carrying a pair of cloaths-trunks, with a small cot above them, such must not be generally expected. The trunks will, if properly constructed, sit close, as they do on a camel; but the cot will assuredly swag, so as to cause great unsteadiness of gait, and subject the animal to chafe under the pad: besides, the disposition of most bullocks is such, as by no means to warrant the lading them with any article subject to great injury from a fall.

I have already said the bullock is the worst kind of carriage used in the army, but for draught it is essentially serviceable; in fact, without this animal, I know not how the service could proceed in India. A great deal, however, depends on breed; and no less on due feeding and proper exercise. Only certain parts of the country, such as the Purneah and Sircar-Sarun districts, are found to produce oxen of a standard and frame suited to the ordnance department; in which, on the Bengal Establishment alone, full five thousand head of cattle are employed, exclusive of a large establishment of elephants and camels, allotted to the conveyance of camp equipage.

The proportion of bullocks allowed for the draught of field-pieces of various calibres, with which they are expected to keep pace with the ordinary rate at which troops march, are as follow:—

To a 24 Pounder 24 Bullocks.
18 Ditto 18 Ditto.
12 Ditto 12 Ditto.
6 Ditto 6 Ditto.
3 Ditto 4 Ditto.
8 Inch Howitzer 14 Ditto.
5½ Ditto 10 Ditto.
4⅖ Ditto 6 Ditto.
Artificer’s Cart 10 Ditto.
Tumbrel 6 Ditto.

It may surprize those who are personally unacquainted with India, to learn that horses are very little employed in carriages. I have already shewn, that, with the exception of the _r’hunts_ let out for hire about Calcutta, of which some are drawn by one, or by two _tattoos_, all the vehicles in use among the natives, and all the laborious part of whatever may relate to building, trade, and agriculture, are consigned to oxen; of which the prices are, in some places, so low, that a small pair, fit to be worked at a well in a gentleman’s garden, may usually be had for about ten rupees (_i.e._ 25_s._); while the generality of husbandmen rarely pay more than six rupees (15_s._) for a pair, such as are adequate to the very insignificant tillage bestowed on the soil.

The indigenous breed of horses, if Bengal can boast of any such, is remarkably small, hardy, and vicious: to me, however, it has ever been a doubt, whether this breed, called _tattoos_, be not a degenerate race from some supply obtained, at a very remote date, from Durbungah, and the districts ranging under the northerly frontier. That breed, generally distinguished by the appellation of _serissahs_, is again questionable, and may, in all probability, be traced to the _tazees_, bred in the Maharrattah country, and in every part of the _Punjab_.

Considering the great strength and perseverance of _tattoos_ in general, it is rather surprizing that they are not put to more purposes, than merely serving to carry a load on a march, or to convey some infirm, or rather affluent, traveller, when moving from one part to another. As few castrations take place among the males, and the sexes are allowed to intermix without restraint, the species would multiply rapidly, were it not that little care is taken of the pregnant mares, and less of the progeny; which usually has to shift for itself, and to cut its own grass wherever a scanty meal may be obtainable. If a selection were made of the _tattoos_, male and female, fitted for breeding from, there might be established a supply of cattle, far more useful to the peasant, than those miserably defective oxen which, in spite of the professed veneration of all Hindus towards those sacred animals, are often kept toiling at the plough until nature interposes in behalf of the worn-out deity, and compels the reluctant peasant to allow the hour of dissolution to pass on in peace.

The Company, with a view to obtain a certain, regular, and efficient, supply of horses for their cavalry regiments, have, for about seventeen years past, maintained an establishment for breeding from select mares in North Bahar: the liberality with which this has been supported, and the admirable selection made of persons for the management of every branch, should give the most favorable result; especially as the spot chosen for its site is peculiarly eligible in point of grazing.

But it does not appear that the expected benefits have been produced. I recollect seeing a splendid calculation, made about the year 1794, which went so far as to demonstrate, that, by the end of the twelfth year, full fifteen hundred horses would annually be supplied from the stud. Seeing that an agency still exists for the purchase of cavalry horses, and knowing that the whole strength of the light regiments of cavalry do not exceed six thousand horses, even including the body-guard, we may reasonably conclude, that the stud is by no means competent to furnish one-fourth of that number within the year!

The _tattoos_ of Bengal rarely grow to the height of twelve hands; they are slight limbed, and cat-hammed; but carry immense burthens during a day’s march, and are no sooner turned off, having their fore-feet tethered, than a general war seems to be proclaimed among all of the tribe that may be within sight or hearing. Kicking, biting, and gallantry, are the order of the day; and woe betide the incautious wight who should, at such a time, approach within reach of their heels!

Few _tattoos_ ever have the _bursautty_; a peculiar breaking out about the legs, (by no means resembling the grease,) to which horses, in general, are extremely subject throughout the low countries; especially if their standing be not remarkably dry, and exercise given in proportion to their allowance of _gram_; which is a species of pulse, growing on a low plant of the tare kind, and commonly sold at about a rupee per maund.