Chapter II: Part 2

The _verandas_ of _bungalows_ are generally allotted to the accommodation of servants of all descriptions; and, except where, as in Calcutta, a separate lodging-room is provided, serve for the home of whatever _cahars_, or bearers, may be employed. These have each their mat, on which they sleep, forming a pillow of any _g’hettry_, or bundle of cloaths, and covering themselves with their quilts, &c.: blankets being but very little in use among domestics of any description. When a gentleman has company, the side-board is usually set out in the _veranda_, where also the several guests’ _hookahs_ are prepared; and, in rainy weather, their water cooled. All servants come upon being called only; there being no bells hung in any part of the country, and very, very few even of hand-bells to be seen. The common call, _Qui hi_? (meaning ‘who is there?’) often rouzes a dozen of the slumbering crew, though it is occasionally repeated, with some vociferation too, before one will stir. Although to many _bungalows_ there are abundance of out-offices, some of which may have been built for the reception of palanquins, and especially of a gig, (there called a _buggy_,) few persons allow either their _mahanahs_, or their _boçhahs_, to be kept in such places, as they would be subject to various unpleasant purposes, whereby their interior especially would often be soiled: this objection acts likewise in some measure towards the common practice of retaining the gig, as well as the palanquin, within the _veranda_; the latter is easily lifted in and out by the bearers, but the former requires that a _ramp_, or slope, should be made, up and down which the _syce_ (or groom) draws it with facility. All conveyances, when housed, are covered with a double cloth, usually made of _karwah_.

Throughout Calcutta the doors are pannelled, and have, generally, handsome brass mountings, with mortice locks; the windows are well glazed; and, in many instances, the rooms are laid with superb carpets, either of European, Persian, or Mirzapore manufacture: the two latter are generally made of silk; exhibiting not only rich patterns, but the most brilliant colors, at least equal to any made at our manufactories. The floors, or, more properly speaking, the tarrases, are almost invariably covered with a matting made of a species of rush, which possesses considerable firmness and pliancy. This, after being duly cleansed from fibres, &c. is made up into bundles, about a cubit in length, and nearly the same in girth, in which state it is well soaked: from these bundles the mat-makers, who are usually of the _Cunjoor_ tribe, weave the mats upon a kind of woof made of twine, but perfectly concealed by the rushes. Some of these mats are made plain; while others are in various stripes, or in chequers. With this manufacture a room of any size may be fitted; the work being either done on the spot, or at the houses of the persons employed; the color is generally that of faded straw; though, sometimes, red or black rushes, dyed for the purpose, are introduced. For the accommodation of persons residing in parts where they cannot have floors fitted with entire mats, long strips, of about a yard wide, and four or five yards long, are sold in almost every great _bazar_ (or market). These require to be sewed side by side, the same as our Scotch carpeting; but, exclusive of that disadvantage, are not so eligible; both because they are less carefully made, and that, in almost every instance, they are manufactured from refuse materials.

In the upper provinces, where the _kudjoor_ (or date-tree) abounds, a very passable kind of matting is made of its leaves; it is true, this is not so durable, nor so handsome, nor so even, as that sort just described; owing to the coarseness of the materials, it is rather subject to catch the feet of chairs; add to this, the danger of fire from _hookahs_, &c.: all these circumstances limit the use of the _kudjoor_ mats to very ordinary purposes; or, at the least, to laying down in such rooms as are to be wholly or partially carpeted.

Mats are likewise made, in every part of the country, from green bamboos; which, being split into very thin laths, of about half an inch, or less, in width, answer the same purpose as the foregoing; these are, however, very uncomfortable, and harbour centipedes by the hundred: the _kudjoor_ mats partake of that objection, but not to the same extent. Mats, if we may so call them, are likewise made by laying down rattans, and stringing them together with strips of their own bark, the same as is done in making the _seerky_ used in thatching; but this species is very rare: indeed, I believe only a few were ever seen in Calcutta, and they were said to have been brought by the Dutch from Malacca, whence great numbers of rattans are yearly imported. The price of the best rush-mats may be taken at about a rupee per square yard; that of the mats in strips at from four annas (8½ _d._) to eight annas (17_d._); but the _kudjoor_, and bamboo kinds, can only be computed by the demand for materials, and the prices of labor, locally: probably, taking all things into consideration, we may estimate a square yard of either at two annas, or about 4¼_d._ A very beautiful species of mat is made in some parts of the country, but especially in the south-eastern districts, about Dacca and Luckypore, from a kind of reedy grass, of which the rind, being pared off very thin, and trimmed to about the eighth of an inch in width, is wove into mats, rarely exceeding seven or eight feet in length, by about four feet in width. These are peculiarly slippery, whence they are designated ‘_seekul-putty_,’ (_i.e._ polished sheets); their color resembles that of common horn, and their prices are generally from two to six rupees per piece; according to their fineness, and to the state of the markets. The principal uses of the _seekul-putty_, are, to be laid under the lower sheet of a bed, thereby to keep the body cool; which is certainly effected to a great degree by this device, by its remarkably slippery surface: some few pillows for couches are likewise covered therewith, and I have seen it employed in making covers for mahogany tables; to which it is well adapted, on account of its repelling dust: in such case, it ought to have all the joinings well taped, and to be lined with blanket, or with _karwah_, &c. properly quilted.

Exclusive of the carpets before mentioned, and which are very high priced, a manufacture of _satrinjes_ is carried on at Mirzapore, and in many other parts. These serve all the purposes of carpets, but have no plush; being in that particular very similar to our Scotch carpeting, but, at the same time, very dissimilar in respect to pattern. The _satrinje_ is nothing more than a very large colored sheet, in which, except for about a cubit’s breadth all around, the whole is divided into bars, or stripes, usually from two to six inches wide, proportioned to the extent of the fabric. The principal colors in these carpets are crimson for a ground, with bars of deep, or light red; or blue grounds, with white, yellow, or tawny bars; or green grounds, with deeper, or lighter green, or crimson, or orange bars; or any of these, _vice versâ_. The common price of a woollen _satrinje_, may be from twelve annas (_i.e._ 3/4 of a rupee) to three rupees per square yard; according to fineness, substance, color, demand, &c.

Of cotton _satrinjes_, the price rarely exceeds a rupee, or a rupee and a quarter, for the same extent; these, however, wash admirably. It is no uncommon thing to see a _satrinje_ of full twenty by thirty feet; and this, too, made upon nothing more than a bamboo roller, round which the work gradually collects, as the threads are crossed, by passing the warp-lines, alternately over and under the woof-lines, in regular changes!

_Cheeks_, or screens, to keep out the glare, are made in a similar manner. These simple, yet most comfortable, addenda to our Indian habitations, are formed of bamboo wires, (if I may use the term,) from four to six feet in length, and about the thickness of a very large knitting-needle, or, perhaps, of a crow-quill. A thin, clean-worked lath, of the same material, is put at the top and bottom.

Many _cheeks_ are made of bamboo wires, previously painted either green, or reddish brown, but generally the former. These require no particular care, further than keeping them separate, as they dry; which is usually effected by laying them upon two rows of bricks, or against a wall, or upon scattered straw, when the weather is calm. When _cheeks_ are intended to represent any pattern, such as birds on branches, or Indian deities, &c., the whole of the wires are laid with their respective ends on two boards, over which two others are placed perfectly parallel, and even, so as to press the ends of the wires, and to prevent their being easily displaced. A pattern, being cut out on paper of the required size, is fastened down upon the wires, and its outline every where distinctly marked upon them; after which it is worked in on the former ground, say a green, with brown for branches, a deeper green for the leaves, and red, yellow, &c., for the birds: the whole is then left to dry. When ready for use, the _cheek-wallah_ (or maker) fixes his apparatus close to the top, and, taking each wire in succession, fastens it down in its proper place, being guided by two lateral lines, as they are handed to him by an urchin, perhaps not more than three or four years of age! In this way the representation is preserved.

The neatest patterned _cheeks_ come from China; but the Bengallee artist is getting fast forward, and bids fair to put a stop to the importation: it is usual to have the whole _cheek_ bound, all around, either with a light cotton tape, of about three or four inches broad, or with red, or blue, _karwah_. At the top of each _cheek_, generally, a piece of circular leather is attached, two being sewed together, though on different sides of the wires; to these the cotton cords, usually white, or red and white, or blue and white, about an inch in circumference, and each a full yard in length, are sewed: their use is, to tie up the _cheek_, when rolled towards the door-plate, at such times as it is not wanted. Each end of the top lath has similar pieces of leather sewed on, for the cords by which the _cheek_ is to be suspended.

It is understood, that white _cheeks_ are preferable; both because they keep out the glare much better, and as they render the interior less distinguishable to any spectator from without: consequently, they contribute most to coolness, and to privacy.

I believe it would be impossible to find any house inhabited by an European of respectability, in any part of Calcutta, which should prove to be destitute of proper doors, of pannelled wood, or of windows, at least, furnished with Venetians, if not with glass sashes. Whether for appearance, convenience, or real utility, certainly there cannot be any thing equal to glass, the use of which is now become so general, that almost every _bungalow_ in the upper provinces, unless merely built as a shelter for a few months, is provided with glass; some, perhaps, only partially, but a great majority throughout. Were it not that this most agreeable improvement were attainable on what may be called very moderate terms, the great number of serious drawbacks it has to encounter, would assuredly cause its exportation to the East to be very limitted. The principal objections to its use, are, 1stly, the difficulty of getting glass cut to fit the sashes; 2dly, the aptness of even the best seasoned wood to warp, so as to cause the panes to fly; 3dly, the difficulty which frequently exists of getting glass at all; especially of the larger sizes.

As a balance to this, we find, that this brittle commodity, after undergoing all the risques attendant upon shipping, and landing, together with all the dangers of the seas, and much occasional rough usage after being consigned to the up-country trader, can usually be sold at Futty-Ghur, or Lucknow, which are each distant about a thousand miles, by water, from Calcutta, at the following prices: panes of 8 by 11 inches, at about twenty rupees per _coorge_, (or score,); 10 by 14, at about twenty-six rupees; of 12 by 16, at about thirty-two; of 15 by 20, at about forty; of 18 by 26, at about fifty; and of 20 by 30, at about sixty rupees. These prices give little more than cent. per cent. upon the wholesale prices of London. What with the necessity for making those panes and sashes, which are exposed to the sun, very firm, as well as from a due attention to economy in so expensive an article, we generally see, in the upper provinces, the panes laid transversely, instead of upright; and only one row of such panes in each frame; the wood-work being made very broad, so as to occupy a large space. The light thus admitted, is found fully adequate to every common purpose; the atmosphere being, for full eight months out of the twelve, perfectly clear; and there being rarely any buildings to debar the full enjoyment of that blessing: besides, that great exposure to an unclouded sky, which may in England be deemed highly advantageous, would, in India, prove objectionable; by admitting so forcible a glare as must give more uneasiness than pleasure.

When glass either cannot be had; or, that, owing to some speculator having monopolized, the price is considered too high, it is not uncommon to see windows furnished with plates of _talc_; which may be obtained, in almost any quantity, at the several cities, especially towards the frontiers; very extensive dealings being carried on in this article, by persons resident chiefly at Lucknow, Benares, and Patna, who import it from Thibet, and the countries on the north of the Punjab, or Seik territory, in masses, often as large as a quartern loaf. The principal intention of such traffic is for the supply of that fine powder, used in the Hindu holiday, called _hooly_, which may generally be viewed as the carnival of that sect.

The masses of _talc_ commonly sell for about a rupee and a half, or even up to two rupees per seer (of about two pounds avoirdupoise): when good, it is of a pure pearl color, but it has, ordinarily, either a yellowish, or a faint blue cast: by means of proper tools, this mineral may be split into very thin leaves, which often present smooth surfaces, but are apt to have little scaly blisters, that greatly deteriorate their value. However, a seer of _talc_, that splits well, will sometimes yield a dozen or more panes, of about 12 inches by 9, or of 10 by 10; and thus, according to the form of the lump; which can only be split in the direction of its laminæ. These panes are so far diaphanous as to allow ordinary objects to be seen at about twenty or thirty yards tolerably distinct; and, of course, present an excellent substitute for glass.

I am surprized that the very simple process whereby _talc_ may be vitrified, has not encouraged some ingenious person to establish a manufactory for that purpose. When combined with alkaline salt, (every where attainable in India,) it is fusible in a strong heat, and forms a transparent, handsome, greenish-yellow glass. If equal portions of _talc_ and of chalk be melted together, with one-fourth part of borax, (the _soohaugah_, or tincal, so abundant throughout the East,) the mixture will produce a fine pellucid, greenish glass, of considerable lustre and hardness; gypsous earths, (which, though not brought into use, are supposed to abound in some parts of Bahar, and of the upper provinces,) may be advantageously substituted for chalk, whence the result will be a rich, pellucid, yellow glass, of equal brightness and durability.

Speaking of chalk, I must remark, that very large quantities are occasionally sent to India, notwithstanding some of the hills at the back of Raje Mahal abound therewith. I understood, many years ago, from an old friend, who was quarter-master of a regiment stationed at Monghyr, distant about forty miles from the former place, that, in consequence of a scarcity of musquet flints, he had sent people to the Chalk Hills of Raje Mahal, whence he had obtained a boat-load that answered admirably. In reply to my questions regarding the chalk, he informed me it was very coarse. But he forgot, that, by dissolving it in a large quantity of water, and allowing the rubbish to sink, the finer particles would be for a while suspended; and, on being poured off, would, after repeated washings in this manner, yield the purest whiting. It really appears surprizing, that those chalk hills should remain unnoticed; and, that even the lime-burners should neglect to take advantage of their being so advantageously situated among wildernesses of fuel, and within a mile of the great channel of the Ganges! That the Company should ever send out whiting, or put themselves to the expence of millions upon millions of gun and pistol flints, when they possess such a quarry, (of which the extent is not known,) appears highly inconsistent with that economy so much and so properly studied. If it be argued, that some impolicy might exist in shewing the natives how to provide themselves with flints; the answer is very easy; for the gun-smiths of _Monghyr_ are fully apprized of the whole process. But, surely the chalk cannot be accused of the same dangerous tendency! To say the least, government might, with great advantage, cause all the lime required for their own works to be made from it; imposing a price upon all that might be dug by merchants, or others; as they do at their stone quarries, near _Chunar-Ghur_, &c. My readers will, at all events, discover that a very useful glass might be made in India, the duty on which would produce a much larger sum than the whole amount of profits accruing to our exporters. It is, indeed, a well-known fact, that the captains of Indiamen take out window glass more with the view to making up a general assortment, than from any great advantage arising from its sale to the European shop-keepers, &c. In time of peace they are invariably undersold by foreign traders; who carry out glass of an inferior quality, which sells to a certain extent; and is often rather sought, than rejected, on account of its greenish hue, which is found to soften the light considerably; especially in exposed situations.

The natives do, occasionally, make a weak, greenish, and blistered glass into _caraboys_, or great bottles for rose-water, and into lesser ones, such as the _gundies_, or itinerant perfumers, use; but this is on a very small scale, and chiefly supplied from broken tumblers, shades, &c., of European manufacture. There are persons at Patna, who have men constantly employed in purchasing broken glass, of every description, from the servants of Europeans, and in collecting such fragments as may be thrown out among the ordinary rubbish.

It must occasionally happen, that neither glass, nor _talc_, can be readily obtained; in which case, the best mode is to make light frames, and to pannel, or fill them up with wax-cloth, neatly nailed on. This is an admirable substitute, not only keeping out wind, rain, and dust, but, in the cold season, preserving the warmth of rooms, yet admitting sufficient light for ordinary purposes: I have very frequently resorted to this expedient, and even to frames of oiled paper; all I had to regret was, that they debarred my seeing what passed abroad. To a person just arrived from Europe, such would appear a most distressing privation; but, after experiencing a few seasons behind _tatties_, without being able to enjoy the light during the whole day, and that for months together, such recluseness would scarcely be considered worthy of notice: so true it is, that we gradually become habituated to the loss of ordinary enjoyments, of faculties, and even of civil and religious liberty!!!

Although _bungalows_ have not any ceilings of plaster, they are rendered inconceivably neat within, by means of a double sheet, made of very coarse cotton cloth, called _guzzy_; of which tents are usually constructed. These sheets are fitted to the several apartments respectively, are bound with strong tape around, and have, besides, various tapes forming an union cross of eight limbs, or rays, all meeting in the centre. As the cornices commonly project near a foot, abundance of space is left for lacing the sheet (called the _chandny_,) to battens, nailed to pegs built in the wall: these battens being firmly secured all the way round, about an inch above the cornice, admit the sheet to be strained very tight, so as to bag very little, if at all, in the centre. Some white-wash their _chandnies_, and take so much pains in establishing a firm appearance, as to render them very similar to well made ceilings. Without this last mode of preparation, music has no effect in a _bungalow_; indeed, at the best, the most powerful instrument is heard under very great disadvantages, owing to the number of apertures, the _satringes_, mats, couch and table covers, &c., all which deaden the tones considerably.

Those who are very particular in whatever relates to their furniture, &c., have their _verandas_ lined in the same manner as their apartments, giving them a finished appearance; but, in such exposed situations the cloths are apt to collect considerable quantities of dust, which is perpetually set in motion by the shaking of the cloths when acted upon by the wind: on this account _seerky_ appears to me far preferable as a lining for _verandas_.

The usual expedient, when doors of any description are not made, is to provide _purdahs_, made of _karwah_, (or _guzzy_,) or both mixed in perpendicular stripes of eight or ten inches wide each: some, especially those who are stationary, make their _purdahs_ of shalloon, perpet, or very coarse broad-cloth, in the following manner. The cloth is made into two sheets of equal dimensions, say nine feet by six, and having strong tapes, perhaps five or seven in number, inserted cross-wise between them: these tapes are double. The whole circumference of the _purdah_ is then sewed very neatly, and bound with tape, corresponding with the color of the cloth, and the ends of the tapes are also bound by means of leather, covered with the same materials. Between every pair of tapes, a bamboo, of a small kind, but very tough, is introduced; or, perhaps, a stout lath made from a bamboo of the large sort. These sticks, or laths, serve to keep the cloth stretched out, and when the _purdah_ is suspended, much in the same manner as has been explained for the mounting of a _cheek_, lie horizontally; thus preventing the wind from blowing in the _purdah_.

It is observed as a general rule, always to make a _purdah_ full a foot wider on each side than the door way it is to conceal; also to carry it a foot above the door plate, and to have a portion, about a foot in depth, without any lath, at the bottom, so as to trail a little on the ground. Those _purdahs_ which are made of _karwah_, or other cotton stuff, are generally quilted with cotton, or are composed of many folds, or have coarse blankets inlaid between their outer coatings. The last is by far the most effectual, most neat, and most durable mode of construction; but, at the best, _purdahs_ are a very indifferent make-shift; and, though often, from necessity, applied to windows, are by no means answerable to their intention. Their best use is certainly to deaden sounds; hence, they are advantageously suspended outside the doors of sleeping, or other retired apartments; when, by closing the doors, privacy and quiet may usually be effected. The presence of a _purdah_ usually indicates the exclusion of males; and that the apartments, within that entrance, are devoted to the accommodation of ladies; except when rolled up, and tied, as has been explained in regard to _cheeks_.

The best timber for building, in whatever branch, is the _sygwam_, or _teak_; but its dearness prevents its general use, especially since naval architecture has been so much an object of speculation at Calcutta. However, it can generally be purchased at about a rupee, or a rupee and a quarter, per foot: making its utmost price about three shillings and three-pence. Those who build houses of the first class, rarely fail to lay all their tarrases upon _teak_ joists; both because they possess superior strength, and that they are far less likely to be attacked by the white-ants. This has been attributed to the quantity of tannin contained in _teak_-wood, which some have asserted to be a perfect preventive, or antidote; but, after having seen those noxious insects devouring shoes and boots by wholesale, I can never bring myself to accord with such an opinion. There is, in _teak_-wood, evidently some property, hitherto occult, that repels the white-ant, at least for some years, but which is doubtless diminished by exposure to the air; as we find that very old _teak_-timbers become rather more subject to depredation, than new ones. The greater part of the _teak_ used in Bengal, and at Madras, is imported from the Pegu coast, in immense beams, and in spars, planks, &c., of all sizes. It is by no means unusual to see the squared timbers measuring from forty, to fifty, feet in length, and averaging from fifteen to twenty inches in diameter. Here is food for our dock-yards!

It would certainly be attended with considerable benefit to the public, if that occult principle, or matter, which apparently exists in the _teak_-wood, enabling it to resist both the white-ant, and the river-worm, could be ascertained; it might be possible to impregnate, or to saturate, other timber in a similar manner. This is the more essential, because we have abundant proofs that mere hardness does not deter those voracious insects, which are found at times even upon the lignum vitæ! But the principal object, so far as relates to naval purposes, is, that the _teak_-wood certainly is, in a great measure, devoid of the gallic, or any other, acid; or, if such is present, it assuredly must be in a very limitted portion; since the nails driven into _teak_-wood are never corroded so as to decay the surrounding wood, and to liberate it from confinement. To this decay, called ‘iron-sickness,’ are attributed many losses of ships, supposed to have foundered at sea, in consequence of planks starting; which must often happen when the wood embracing a nail is destroyed by the acid, or by the action of salt water upon the iron. In repairing ships built of oak, many nails are found perfectly insulated, by the wood having been rotted, and fallen away; which has never been the case with vessels built of _teak_.

The generality of apartments being large, the halls measuring perhaps from thirty to forty feet in length, and from sixteen to twenty-four in width, and other rooms in proportion, it is evident that very substantial, as well as long, timbers must be requisite to support their flat roofs; for, with a few exceptions, truss-roofs are not in use. The mode introduced by Mr. Lyon, the Company’s architect, at Berhampore, certainly contributed greatly to reduce the quantity of timber in a roof, but it rendered it absolutely necessary that every timber should be perfectly sound. That gentleman, whose professional skill, and excellent social qualities, demand an ample tribute, exploded _burgahs_, (or smaller battens,) from the roofs he constructed; and, in their stead, threw arches from the centre of one to the centre of the other timber; so that the intervals between the timbers were to appearance grooved, or fluted, longitudinally. This, however, was barely distinguishable, the arches being very elliptic; rarely, indeed, including more than an angle of six degrees, on a circle having full ten feet of radius.

Hence, it will be seen, that the joists were tolerably close, but their diameters admitted of considerable reduction, on account of the continuity of such a series of arches, which gave great solidity; and, by their mutual pressure, admitted that a joist should be freely removed, without in the least affecting the roof.

The houses built and inhabited by the natives, invariably have flat roofs. In these the apartments are, for the most part, extremely narrow, and dark. The _verandas_, where any are made, consist of arcaded fronts, invariably indented gothic; and have pillars, either of an hexagonal, or of an octagonal, form, resting on short pedestals, while the arch may be seen to break off rather too suddenly from the shaft, which continues up to _baisez-mur_, (or _bassimere_, as our architects vulgarly call it,) and divides the upper part into various compartments, all of which are ornamented with a profusion of carved work. In almost every Hindostanee building, of this description, there will be seen an odd number of arches, to which others in the main part of the edifice generally correspond. The chambers, if so we may call them, are taken off from the ends of the halls, by similar arcades; each of which, as well as those of the exterior, is furnished with a _purdah_. These narrow slips have no windows, or, at the best, only small loop holes. The intention of such oven-like recesses would perplex an European unacquainted with Asiatic customs, but he would soon find that, in the cold season, such are peculiarly warm, and that, during those months in which the glare is obnoxious, they remain cooler than such as admit more light. Almost every house is furnished with some means of ascending to the _chut_, (or flat tarras-roof,) whereon the natives often pass the evening, causing the heat to be first abated, by means of several pots of water, which throw up a steam fully indicating the temperature at which the tarras had arrived. The natives are not partial to upper-roomed houses in general; though they affect to pride themselves greatly in the possession of _doomaulahs_, that is, of houses having a second floor: it seems that ostentation is the reason of this predilection in favor of ground floors, whereon all their attendants, &c., may be seen from the level of their _compounds_ (or enclosed areas). The stairs, where any exist, (for sometimes a very mean boarded ladder is made to answer that intention,) are narrow, steep, and unsafe: these are almost always built of solid masonry, as far up as the first turn, (or landing place,) after which they commonly consist of small bricks laid edgeways in lime mortar, supported by stout timbers, placed at a proper angle, and resting on the proximate joist of the upper floor. In every Hindostanee house, the doors are very low, and often are made to open into a long arcaded _veranda_, running the whole length of the interior, much the same as in our inns; while, in the front, or towards the road, a hanging balcony is sometimes made, supported on continuations of the joists, of which the extremities are carved into grotesque forms; such as the heads of alligators, or of tigers, or of serpents, and not infrequently of little human figures, whose size and squat position strongly put us in mind of a _f[oe]tus in utero_.

_Saul-wood_ is used to an immense extent, both in buildings, and in the construction of ships, but is not to be compared, either for toughness, strength, resistance against insects, or durability, with _teak_. Its price is much in favor of general service, to which its great size, and admirable straightness, are considerable, and valuable recommendations; but it is extremely apt to crack, though not to snap; especially when exposed to the weather. There is something very peculiar in _saul-wood_; since it is seen to warp, even after having been employed in bulk for many years, riving into large fissures longitudinally: the white-ants also devour it with avidity. Mr. Lyon, already noticed, when he was building the General Hospital at Berhampore, caused an immense copper trough to be made, in which he boiled the beams intended for that edifice: some were boiled in pure water, others with tannin, and some with arsenic; under the hope both of seasoning the timber, and of giving it a repellant, or preservative quality. This ingenious, and highly praise-worthy experiment, was by no means successful; for, although, in the first instance, the timbers seemed to defy the white-ant, especially those boiled in the solution of arsenic, still they were not completely secured from depredation; while, on the other hand, nine in ten rived so dangerously as to demand immediate props, and ultimate removal.

Many authors have recommended the boiling of timber, planks, &c., with a view to extract the sap, and thus to season them out of hand; but they have invariably neglected to furnish us with the results. Now, I have ever held it necessary, that medical practitioners should keep a register of the obituary, as well as of the convalescent department, in order that we may know how to _avoid_ certain systems; which, doubtless, for want of such a guide, or caution, have been repeatedly resorted to by various medical characters, who, insensible of those fatal effects that had attended former experiments, thus consign many patients to their graves! So should all experiments, such as that above recorded, be fully laid before the public, and their results be candidly detailed. It is evident, that where we see only the suggestion, without the proofs of its failure, we must frequently be induced to adopt hints of a most pernicious tendency.

_Saul_ timber, when used in buildings, ought always to have its ends completely open to inspection; both to prevent the white-ant from preying upon it under cover, and to insure its being duly aerated; without which, however charred and tarred it may be, rottenness will speedily take place. This arises from being bedded in masonry, which, during the rainy season, even under the best roofs, will absord a large portion of moisture, that will, infallibly, in time, penetrate into the timber. It must be recollected, that not one in hundreds of the houses in Calcutta, or that are built on their plan, contains a fire-place: hence, during some months in the year, the walls will exhibit various indications of moisture, even to their very cornices; though this will often depend upon the proper selection of sand for mixing in the plaster. It is now well known, though not long since discovered, that all sand, taken up within the flowing of the tides, is strongly impregnated with salt, which will keep the mortar wherein it is mixed eternally subject to damps; notwithstanding the tarrases may be flued, or be founded upon pots. I have known several, otherwise highly eligible, houses rendered untenable, merely by this incautious use of river sand; which occasioned whatever mats, or carpets, were laid down, to be speedily rotted. The fault was at first imputed to the vicinity of the river, whence it was suspected the damps were received; but it was ascertained, that such tarrases, and mortar, as were compounded of pit-sand, remained dry, and free from so obnoxious a defect. Nevertheless, the greater part of the buildings, in and about Calcutta, receive a certain portion of river-sand, taken up within the reach of brackish water: while this practice is allowed, the walls and tarrases will remain subject to occasional moisture; and, as we daily see in that city, the plastering will blister, or, indeed, become mottled, and obviously unsound.

_Saul-timbers_ are found in all the forests, ranging under the hills, branching our possessions from Assam up to Hurdwar; they are more abundant in some parts than in others, but no where scarce. Many of these forests present thousands upon thousands of acres, whereon the _saul_, _sissoo_, and other useful timbers grow spontaneously; offering to us an inexhaustible depôt! The only consideration is, that water-carriage should be at hand. The Indian wood-feller, who pays not more than sixpence, or a shilling, for each tree he may choose, and which may, perhaps, contain from sixty to a hundred feet of timber, considers it a bad speculation, if some river be not within a stone’s throw of the selected wood: his object is to lop and bark as fast as he can, and then to launch the tree into the river, there to be fastened to others, intended to form a raft, or float, which, being secured to a boat, may glide down with the current to some established market. His expences are very trifling; for, with the exception of some duties, most injudiciously imposed, his adventure will not cost more than two-pence per foot, when arrived at the place of destination; where it may commonly be sold, without risk or delay, for full three times that sum. Few _saul-timbers_ measuring a ton, or even a load, (_i.e._ forty, or fifty, cubic feet,) stand the owner in more than three rupees when landed at Patna; where such always meet with a very ready sale, in whole rafts, at nine, ten, and sometimes up to fifteen, rupees per stick, (or timber;) and this, notwithstanding the number of competitors in the trade. Those competitors rarely prove injurious to each other, while they render great service to the public, by preventing the whole trade from falling into a few hands. Thus, the prices of _saul-timber_ are not only kept down, but, in general, owing to occasional gluts, seasoned timbers may be, to any amount, purchased at the several _ghauts_, or wharfs.

The mode of floating timber being so very different from that in use with us, I offer a description of it, under the hope of its affording at least some variety, if not some useful information. A common _pulwar_, (or _paunchway_,) of perhaps thirty feet in length, and six or seven in width, is equipped with two sticks of _saul_, say forty feet long, and two feet in girth: these are placed across her gunwales, at right angles with her length, and about six feet from her centre, and very firmly lashed down. The boat, being in about three feet water, has a tree brought up to each of her sides, where they are respectively lashed to the cross timbers, and thus, in succession, until she is judged incapable of receiving more burthen. In the centre of the boat, a small cabin is generally made, either of thatch, or of arched bamboo laths, covered with _durmah_ mats: in this the crew are sheltered at night. It is highly expedient to avoid launching such rafts when the river is at the fullest, or the current any way prone to deviate from the deepest channels, as it must do in great floods, on account of the waters finding, for a while, passages along hollows among the inland parts; that is, beyond their limits in ordinary seasons. When a float of timber once gets over the river’s bank, it must be the result of great good fortune, if the channel is ever regained. Hence, when the waters are falling, it is common to see very large pinnaces, _budjrows_, and boats of burthen, left upon some sand, on which they had struck, but which the rapid ebbing of the floods prevented them from quitting! In such cases, some are allowed to remain until the ensuing year, when the floods lift them; others are unladen, and, by means of the joint efforts of hundreds of villagers, are pushed along the sands to the deep water; while those which appear unequal to such a severe operation, are generally broken up, and sold for various purposes.

When a float of timber becomes thus situated, the best way is to cut the ropes of at least half the exterior sticks on each side, and so to lighten the boat, that she may be carried into a depth suited to receiving them again: but this operation, which, on paper, appears very simple, requires great exertion, and no less despatch; as the strength of the current, which often runs six or seven miles within the hour, renders it extremely difficult to manage such immense logs; especially as they are very apt to sink into the sands. We commonly see several floats in company, proceeding, when the reaches are straight, and the waters deep, with great regularity; the boatmen, in such situations, having little to do, sit smoking their _nereauls_, with great composure: sometimes a sail is hoisted, but, for the most part, it is deemed expedient to check, rather than to accelerate, the progress. Almost every float, or, at least, every company of floats, has a canoe attached to it; which, in doubtful waters, precedes, and directs the men in charge of the respective vessels, who, by means of _luggies_, (or bamboo-poles, from twenty even to fifty feet in length,) fend off the floats from banks, or guide them along the deep water: without such pilotage, they would be in perpetual danger of grounding, the inconveniences of which are, as above shewn, by no means inconsiderable.

Floats of timber cannot well come to an anchor, except in very still water; hence, they are usually brought-to under steep banks, where there is great depth; and where, in case the river should fall during the night, they would not be left high and dry.

The greatest danger to which a timber float can be exposed, is that of running upon a sunken tree, which, having been washed away, by the bank whereon it stood being undermined by the strong currents, is hurled away into deep water, where it probably lies exposed to view for the first year. During the hot season, when the waters are low, the boughs are often cut away by persons in want of fuel; or, perhaps, they are torn off by the succeeding rains, so far as to cause their being concealed a foot or two under the surface. When thus situated, they throw up a deal of water, so that their locality may be ascertained at some distance; but, owing to heavy mists, and especially to clouds of sand, they frequently are not discovered by the boatmen, until it becomes impossible to avoid them.

If the _pulwar_, _i.e._ the supporting boat, strikes upon one of the branches, her bottom will infallibly be staved in; and, in all probability, the immense body of water bearing upon the timbers, will either tear them away from the _pulwar_, or carry off her upper works, leaving her bottom entangled. In either case, the situation of the boatmen becomes highly critical; but, as they generally are expert swimmers, (though, strange to say, some _dandies_, have, like Falstaff, ‘a wonderful alacrity at sinking,’) few are drowned on such occasions. The timbers, however, rarely fail to find the bottom, so soon as their buoyant companion is wrecked.

The great number of trees thus immersed, some of which equal our largest oaks, render it extremely dangerous to go down with the stream during the night: in some strong waters, such impediments are numerous, and render the navigation very hazardous, even during the day time; especially should a _goon_, or track rope, give way just after getting a boat above them; when this misfortune happens, the chances of escape are comparatively small indeed.

When boats, heavily laden, strike upon a tree, they sometimes go to pieces, in consequence of the water’s rapidity; but, when so entangled as to be pierced in several parts, they very generally remain entire, presenting, as the waters subside, the very curious spectacle of a vessel, perhaps carrying twelve or fifteen hundred maunds, sitting, as it were, among the boughs, often ten or twelve feet above the surface of the stream. It is by no means unusual, in the course of a week’s travelling, to see one, or more, of these disastrous elevations; more especially about the month of October. The misfortune is, that, though the cargo may, perhaps, be saved, if not of a perishable nature, such as sugar, salt-petre, &c.; yet, that the vessel, however expeditiously emptied, can never be got off; consequently, she must be broken up.

With respect to the prices of _saul_ timbers, we generally find them to be nearly the same, year after year, at the same places; provided a sufficient number, but not a great glut, should arrive within the proper season. On an average, near Patna, the cubic foot will cost about sixpence, at Moorshadabad, about a shilling, and, at Calcutta, about two shillings, or even half-a-crown. An extra price is, of course, put on timbers of superior dimensions, while the smaller kinds, called _bautties_, which rarely contain more than eight or ten feet, are, in an opposite degree, depreciated. The _saul_ is a very solid wood, at least equally so as elm, but has not its pliancy, nor is it quite so apt to split: its grain usually runs tolerably even; it is likewise heavy, yet by no means so ponderous as _teak_: both, like many of our firmer woods, sink in fresh water.

In the upper provinces, some very fine oak timbers are occasionally to be seen: these are chiefly of a peculiar kind, nearly approaching to chocolate color, extremely difficult to cut up, and, consequently, very heavy: this last characteristic gives them the name of _seesah_, or, lead-wood. The prices of these trees, which generally measure about the same as the _saul_, from the same forests, (namely, from the neighbourhood of _Peelabeet_,) rather exceed those of the latter description; and would probably be greatly enhanced, if the natives stood in need of such very substantial wood for any of their buildings, or manufactures. The fact is, that the carpenters generally endeavor to dissuade their employers from purchasing oak, by representing it as subject to many defects; though the true reason is, that its hardness infallibly causes more grinding of, than working with, their tools; which are almost always either too much, or too little tempered. At Futty-Ghur, _saul_ timbers commonly sell for full eighteen-pence the foot, and oaks for about two shillings. I recollect buying some of the former, that measured thirty feet in length, with an average squaring of fourteen inches, for twenty-eight rupees each; and oaks of the same dimensions, or nearly so, at thirty-five: but wood was then extremely scarce, and at full twenty per cent. above the ordinary rates.

The great aptness of _saul_-wood to warp, we should suppose, might have favored the importation of oak, notwithstanding the outcry against its flinty hardness: and such would doubtless have been the case, had not another kind of wood, possessing a very fine grain, and rather handsomely veined, been abundant. This, which is called the _sissoo_, grows in most of the great forests, intermixed with the _saul_; but, in lieu of towering up with a straight stem, seems partial to crooked forms, such as suit it admirably for the knees of ships, and for such parts as require the grain to follow some particular curve. This wood is extremely hard, and heavy, of a dark brown, inclining to a purple tint when polished; after being properly seasoned, it rarely cracks, or warps; nor is it so subject as _saul_ to be destroyed by either white-ants, or river-worms. The domestic uses of _sissoo_ are chiefly confined to the construction of furniture, especially chairs, tables, tepoys, (or tripods,) bureaus, book-cases, ecritoires, &c. &c. for all which purposes it is peculiarly appropriate, with the exception of its being very ponderous. This objection is, however, counter-balanced by its great durability, and by the extraordinary toughness of the tenons, dovetails, &c. necessarily made by the cabinet-maker, or joiner. _Sissoo_ is, of late, more employed than formerly for the frame, ribs, knees, &c. of ships, especially those of great burthen: for such, it is found to be fully as tough and as durable as the best oak. When timbers can be had of this wood long enough for the purpose, it is often applied for bends, and, indeed, for a portion of the planking, or casing; but it is very rarely that a plank of ten feet can be had free from curve. Though admirably suited for stern and head-work, it is neither long enough for keels in general, nor sufficiently uniform in its diameter for the supply of stern-posts. Some _sissoo-trees_ grow to a great weight; but, unluckily, the devious directions of their boughs render it necessary to lop them away for minor purposes: if, instead of dividing into several large branches, at perhaps only ten or twelve feet from the ground, one large stem were to rise, however crooked, to double that height, there would be a great encrease of substance; as it is, however, we may account it an excellent timber indeed that measures a ton (_i.e._ forty cubic feet).

This inconvenience is greatly augmented by the slovenly manner in which trees are felled throughout India. There, it is common to see the axe (for no saws are used on such occasions) laid to the stem often at a yard or more from the soil; while, at the same time, full a cubit in depth is destroyed in widening the orifice, so as to penetrate into the heart: this creates considerable loss, which is frequently rendered still greater by the irregular manner in which the butt rends when in the act of quitting the root, or stool. If this wood were more scarce, probably greater pains would be taken to make the most of its length; as it is, we see, that, even those ship-builders who occasionally send their agents into the _Morungs_, or great forests to the north of _Bahar_ and _Purneah_, allow the same loss to take place; thus disqualifying the timbers from more general, as well as more important, adaptation. The price of _sissoo_, for the most part, runs about twenty-five, or even to forty per cent. above that of _saul_; but, in many places, up the country especially, where naval architecture is not in view, their values are generally about equal. In such situations, it is less an object of import; since its utility is greatly circumscribed, and, in a great variety of instances, superseded, by the _baubool_, (a species of _mimosa_, generally growing wild,) whose crooked billets are deservedly in great estimation, and whose bark is considered to be, if any thing, superior to that of oak for the tanners’ use.