Chapter III: Part 3

I should have remarked, that, in some parts of the country, especially along the western frontier, a small kind of _saul_ grows wild: this rarely exceeds six inches in diameter, and is commonly used entire, in lieu of bamboos, for enclosures, rafters of _bungalows_, &c. It is very peculiar that this wood cannot be trusted for any length of time, even under a thatch; it being subject to the depredations of a very small insect, called the _g’hoon_, which perforates it in a thousand places, depositing its eggs, which are very numerous, and absolutely rendering the rafter a mere honey-comb. During the day, these mischievous little devils are commonly quiet, but, after night-fall, when all else is still, may be heard in every quarter! A person unaccustomed to the sounds, would suppose that a very heavy shower of hail were falling on the thatch. In the course of two or three seasons, sometimes in much less, the rafters will be found to give way; on examination, they appear as though pierced with large awls; and, when struck forcibly with a hammer, yield a cloud of yellowish powder, resulting no doubt from the labors of the multitude of inhabitants. The _g’hoon_, which rarely exceeds the sixth of an inch in length, is of a chocolate color, very hard about the head, has firm exterior coats over its wings, and terminates abruptly behind, giving the exact appearance of its rump having been burnt off. Those timbers which are used immediately after being felled, as usually happens, are certainly the first to be attacked by the _g’hoon_; but, so far as my own observations went, and according to the experience of two years, in a quarter where we used scarcely any other kind of wood for rafters, even a year’s seasoning did not afford security against, though it obviously retarded, their attacks. Possibly, if all of this description of _saul_ trees intended for rafters, were to be immersed in some of the very numerous puddles every where abounding in their vicinity, and of which a great majority are strongly impregnated with minerals, particularly iron, copper, and sulphur, the _g’hoons_ might be altogether repelled: the immersion should continue for a year or two; the trees being previously allowed to season standing, by cutting away a circle of bark, about six inches wide, near the ground, that the flow of sap might be discontinued. We find no mode to answer so well as this for our climate; in India, the advantages would be still more extensive, in consequence of the regularity, and particular effects of the three great seasons, into which the year is there naturally divided. It is curious, but true, that the _g’hoon_ acts less upon such timbers as have been squared, than on such as have only been deprived of their bark; and, that in the large species of _saul_, that is, such as is used in most parts of the country for great buildings, &c., it either is unable, or not disposed, to burrow.

Intermixed with the smaller species of _saul_, though by no means abundant, we find another tree, bearing, in common with the oak, the designation of _seesah_; and that, too, owing to the great specific gravity of its wood: this, however, does not grow to any size, but appears admirably suited to many of those purposes for which lignum vitæ, and ebony, are now used.

In the same jungles with the foregoing, a most remarkable tree is sometimes found, of which the interior is of a very dark color, nearly approaching to black: hence, the natives call it the ‘_cowah_’ (or ‘crow-tree’); but, from the hardness of its wood, it certainly might, with propriety, be termed the ‘_iron-tree_.’ The carpenters seem to view it much in the same light with the black-oak of _Peelabeet_; and, doubtless, tremble for their tools, whenever the _cowah_ is to become subject to their labors.

Although such _bungalows_ as are built with a view to duration, are sometimes built of the best materials, and have every part of their roofs sustained by rafters of the best _saul_, by far the majority of such buildings, and nearly all at the military stations, are constructed on a much cheaper scale, having only _mango-wood_ rafters, door-plates, &c. The great abundance of _mango_ trees, added to their being easily worked, and their growing in general with stems sufficiently straight to furnish beams, of perhaps two feet square, and from fifteen to thirty feet long, give them a decided preference over every other kind of wood brought from any distance. Formerly, a gentleman could send out his servant, with wood-cutters, sawyers, &c., to fell whatever trees might be found suitable to his intentions, without any questions being asked; but of late, and especially since the introduction of the _Mocurrery_ settlement, (which will be hereafter explained,) the _zemindars_, (or land-holders,) and the _raiuts_, (or peasants,) have set a value upon every twig that grows, and invariably demand from one to four rupees, for such _mango_ trees as may be felled for the use of any European; especially in the military. As to a Company’s civil servant, either the hope of his favor, or the fear of his resentment, generally is found to seal the mouth of the pretended proprietor of the soil; who even is assiduous in furnishing workmen and conveyance on most occasions of this description. I must caution my readers against entertaining any sentiment unfavorable to the gentlemen alluded to: the adulation in question results entirely from that servile, abject, and crafty disposition, for which the _zemindars_ are notorious where their interests are any way implicated. They judge of our collectors, magistrates, &c., as they would of their own; at least, so far as to suppose that courtesy will secure their good-will; but, they are, at the same time, thoroughly sensible, that in all public, as well as in all private, intercourse, the Company’s servants act with the most conscientious propriety, and with the most undeviating attention to justice. It matters not that this character may be repugnant to some proofs existing of former rapacity, and extortion; which may now be deemed obsolete, or, at the utmost, only existing to such extent as must be expected under every form of government, and among every race of people, in spite of the utmost vigilance.

The wood of the _mango_ is much like that of the _plane-tree_, but rather more tough, and its fibres rather coarser: nevertheless, it is in very general use for rafters, door and wall-plates, frames for windows and doors, especially of out-offices, pannelled and plain doors, floorings of factories, and drying-rooms; likewise for wine chests, indigo boxes, roofs of _budjrows_, and a thousand other purposes, both of individual convenience, and of mercantile service. It is, however, particularly subject to the _white-ant_; and, unless carefully preserved from damp, will speedily decay: its being very light, and easy to work, are points much in its favor. Though we consider a _mango-plank_ to be at least at par, when it measures twenty inches, or two feet, in width, yet great numbers may be had, by research, of double that breadth. My carpenters once felled a tree, which proved too large for any saw I could obtain in that quarter.

Sometimes we see very old tables made of _mango-wood_, which exhibit some beautiful veins, and acquire a substantial polish; but, such can only attend a very careful choice of planks, which must likewise be seasoned, and be worked to great advantage: otherwise, a _mango-wood_ table will appear singularly coarse and mean.

As to the tree itself, much may be said in its favor, though, owing to the stiffness of the leaves, it cannot be termed graceful: its deep green, contrasted with the white spindling blossoms, (much resembling those of the horse-chesnut,) and its abundant foliage, give it a richness, and render it peculiarly gratifying to the eye; especially as it is in its greatest beauty during the early part of the hot season, when the grass begins to parch, and the surface of the soil changes from that agreeable verdure produced by the rains, and, in some degree, cherished by the succeeding cold months, to a very sombre russet! The fruit does not run much risque after the blossoms have once fairly set; though, sometimes, severe blights occur, which render the whole abortive; when about the size of a very large gooseberry, the young _mangoes_ make excellent pies; not unlike those containing apples, but with a certain terebinthinic flavor, which does not always please in the first instance, but soon becomes palatable. When about half grown, that is, beyond the size of a large walnut, they are in good order for pickling. This fruit is also preserved in common _mosaul-oil_; in this instance, they are allowed to remain about a month in the vinegar pickle, before they are immersed in the oil. Many persons are very partial to the pickle thus made; but, in my humble opinion, nothing can be more rank; especially when the rinds are not pared off. _Mangoes_ likewise make a very rich preserve, provided they are prepared before the stones are suffered to harden; else they will be very fibrous, and cut with peculiar harshness. With respect to the ripe fruit, it is impossible to describe the flavor; since, even on the same tree, various kinds will often be found. A stranger would conclude, on seeing _mangoes_ of different colors, different scents, and different shapes, ripening on the same tree, that they had been grafted; but such is not the fact: there seems to be some very peculiar property, that causes it to shoot out with such different bearings, which remain on distinct boughs; as though the tree were composed of various twigs, all proceeding from the same stem. What can be said of a fruit varying in flavor, from the finest apricot, down to a very bad carrot? Such, however, is known to be common: it is true, that, for the most part, the whole crop of a tree will be pretty similar, both in shape, and flavor; but such is not always the case. As for the produce of trees resulting from the kernels of the same kind of _mango_, that is quite a lottery; for, like potatoes raised from seed, there will generally be found a great variety.

The Chinese have produced considerable amelioration in _mangoes_, by a very simple process. They select some healthy branches on a good tree, and, having pricked the bark through with a sharp awl, surround the part with a lump of wet clay, or loam; which they secure by means of a piece of canvas, bound lightly with hempen bands. Above each part thus treated, a large pot of water is suspended, having in its bottom a small hole; which, being partially stopped with a piece of rag, allows the water to drip, whereby the clay is kept constantly moist. In about three months, small fibres shoot out through the punctured bark; which, on the branch being cut off, and the canvas being removed, strike into the soil, and become roots. It is highly curious, that the fruit produced by branches thus treated, becomes more fleshy, while the stone diminishes considerably; it being more flat, and rarely so firm as that of the common _mango_. By persevering in the operation, that is, by repeating it on the branches of a tree thus cultivated, for some generations, the kernel becomes so reduced as scarcely to be noticeable, while the skin also loses much of that highly acrid quality, arising from the abundance of turpentine it contains.

_Mangoes_ are peculiarly stimulant, rarely failing to cause those who eat of them freely to break out with boils of considerable size, and often very tedious in their cure. It is absolutely necessary to treat these as critical abscesses; for, were any repellent to be applied, serious consequences would inevitably follow. Persons lately arrived in the country, often devour this luscious fruit, until checked either by a dozen or two of these most distressing companions, or, perhaps, in consequence of that kind of bowel-complaint prevalent in all hot climates, and which, though generally not very difficult to remedy when properly treated in its first stage, soon turns to dysentery, carrying off a large portion of those whose constitutions are not remarkably sound. When eaten in moderation, _mangoes_ are gently aperient; but if, notwithstanding its acrid taste and effects, the rind should be incautiously swallowed, the stomach will be considerably disordered. The _gland_, or kernel, which in shape is something like a very large, flat, Windsor-bean, is unpleasant to the palate, its flavor being very similar to that of the acorn. Swine, especially of the wild tribes, which often take shelter, during the season, in _topes_, or forests, of wild _mangoes_, eat the entire fruit, as it falls from the trees, with great avidity, and thrive amazingly.

The generality of _mango-topes_ owe their origin to religious institutions, or to bequests, or to charitable donations. To plant one, it is necessary that the land should be purchased in fee-simple; when, the trees being set out, perhaps thirty feet, or more, asunder, in rows, so as to form regular square intervals, the whole are fenced by means of a deep ditch; from which the excavated soil is thrown inwards, and either planted with _baubool_, (_mimosa_,) or sown with that tall kind of grass which bears a very large tassel, and is known by the name of _surput_: of this grass notice has already been taken in describing the _seerky_ used in thatching _bungalows_. Some _topes_ are endowed with small sums for the purpose of maintaining a priest, for whom a _comfortable_ residence, and a substantial _durgaw_, (or temple,) are erected. The sale of the fruit, (which generally proves a full crop in four or five years, the trees being then as large as a well-grown walnut-tree,) furnishes the means of sinking a well, cased with masonry. But it is more common for the person who causes the _tope_ to be planted, to sink the well also; and to celebrate the marriage of the former with the latter, in a manner suitable to his rank or property. On such occasions, the well, being supposed to possess the fecundatory powers, is considered the husband; the _tope_ being typified as feminine, by the fruit it produces. However much we may be disposed to smile at a custom generally attended with much ceremony, and expence, we cannot but admire its effects; which, in a tropical climate, are highly beneficial, both to the weary traveller, and to the thirsty soil. Hence, the sight of a _mango-tope_ is generally attended with the most pleasing anticipations!

Although _mango-topes_ abound in every part of the lower provinces, their wood, except in _bungalows_, is rarely employed in European architecture; nor do the natives make much use of it as a timber: large quantities are every year cut up for planks, intended chiefly for very ordinary purposes, where great strength and durability are not essentials. The immense quantities of fine bamboos, which ordinarily grow very straight to the height of sixty feet, or more, though rarely measuring more than five inches diameter near the root, and gradually tapering off as they ascend, supply the contented native with rafters, joists, posts, pillars, laths, and a great variety of et ceteras, all tending either to his shelter, or to his convenience. The ordinary price of these invaluable reeds (for they are of the _arundo_ tribe) may be from three-pence to five-pence each; that is, generally from seven to twelve for a rupee, according to size and demand. Millions of them are annually brought to Calcutta, both by water, and on _hackeries_; in the former instance, they, being remarkably buoyant, are floated in clumps, or, perhaps, are made into rafts, on which _boossah_, (or chaff,) and even corn, are laden; or they are tied to the sides of very large boats, which also carry from five hundred, to as many thousands, as a cargo. The buoyancy of the bamboo is occasioned as much by its various cells, as by the lightness of its wood. These cells, in a common sized bamboo, may be about three quarters of an inch in diameter in those joints that are near the roots; where the wood is far more solid and compact than in the upper parts, towards which the cells become gradually wider, and the joints longer; thus reducing the substance of the bamboo very considerably, as we find to be the case with reeds in general. This variety in the several parts affords considerable convenience, their allotment being made according as the work may require more or less substance; and, as the whole bamboo may be split, like whale-bone, from top to bottom, without much exertion, scope is afforded for applying it, with great promptness, to an infinite variety of purposes.

In their whole state, bamboos are used, not only for rafters in the construction of _bungalows_, but as yards for the sails of the common country craft; sometimes those of extraordinary size are selected for top-gallant studding-sail booms, in vessels not exceeding four or five hundred tons: their immense strength qualifying them admirably for that situation. The smaller open boats, throughout the East, are generally fitted with bamboo masts, selected from the lower part of the reed, the upper being more suited, by its lightness, to be employed as yards: thus, for three-pence, a boat of about four or five tons may be furnished, from the same bamboo, with both mast and yard. In vessels of greater burthen, two or more, even up to a dozen, of bamboos, are lashed together around a stout piece of wood, which, passing through the thatch, fits into a step on the vessel’s bottom, and is well secured by chocks and lashings in various places. This stick, which serves as the base of the mast, may be about fifteen feet long, and nine or ten inches diameter: it is commonly left in a very rough state, that the bamboos which are to surround it may be more firmly held in their places. In this manner the mast is run up, probably to the height of forty or fifty feet, according to the vessel’s burthen, and at every two or three feet is bound by cords made of white hemp. The position of this awkward-looking pile is maintained by stays innumerable; many of which, being allowed to point forward, before the line of the mast’s perpendicular, obstruct the bracing of the yard very considerably. The strength of that yard must be proportioned to the sail; sometimes one well-selected bamboo may suffice, but in vessels of great bulk, say from sixty to ninety tons, two, or even three, stout bamboos are found requisite.

The sail is usually made of a very coarse kind of canvas, constructed of a very indifferent kind of hemp, generally used for rice bags, &c., and known by the name of _gunny_: each piece may measure six or seven feet by thirty inches; consequently, the innumerable joinings made in a large sail, offer a very ready means for the wind’s escape. _Blacky_ is not very particular in this respect; with him, a sail is a sail, so long as a bit remains adequate to giving the vessel way through still waters.

It will naturally be asked, ‘Why is such miserable tackling in use?’ The reasons are, _firstly_, because the native owner of a vessel will not go to one farthing expence beyond what may be indispensably necessary, however clumsy, or subject to mishap, to set his vessel afloat, and to have her, as he thinks, ready for departure. _Secondly_, the materials are probably of his own growth, or he deals in them, or, which is often the sole motive, he finds them, in the first instance, by far cheaper than more substantial materials; and, _thirdly_, even if other materials of a better quality, and in every instance more appropriate, were to be had for the same money, he would not very readily deviate from the customs of his ancestors. Were a vessel fitted up on European principles to be wrecked, the whole family would impute the accident to the sin engendered by such adoption of the customs of a race held in abomination by even the lowest _casts_, (or sects,) throughout the country. Nevertheless, we sometimes see the _manjy_ and _dandies_ grievously put out of their way, by some shrewd native, who resolutely breaks through the general prejudice, and imitates that which his faculties convince him is founded upon science. Not that he will understand the how, and the wherefore: no; he sees the practice is good, and he adopts it: whereas, if any regulation were to be framed to enforce his compliance with our system, in that, or in any other particular, we should assuredly witness his receding, if possible, from every idea of improvement; or, if under the necessity of conforming, that his whole deportment would betray the reluctance, and antipathy, he felt on the occasion.

May not this trait in the character of Asiatics in general, serve as a hint to those who talk of coercing them to the adoption of Christianity? May it not shew that much may be done by _suaviter in modo_, provided we temper the _fortiter in re_?—Certainly!

Exclusive of the bamboo, the natives have an ample resource for rafters, as well as for posts and pillars, in the cocoa-nut tree, which grows, it may be said wild, throughout those parts within reach either of the sea-water, or of the sea-air. Not that it is absolutely confined to such situations; but, in proportion as those are removed, so does the natural growth of this tree gradually diminish; giving way to the _taul_, (or fan-leafed palm,) which, though less umbrageous, and, in many instances, less useful, attains a great height, and furnishes a much larger quantity of wood. In general, few _Bengallees_ will cut down a _nereaul_, (or cocoa-nut tree,) which supplies them with so many requisites. Thus, the outer coating, which often weighs from one to two pounds, when stripped off longitudinally, furnishes those fibres called _coir_, whereof both small rigging and cables are made. This kind of rope is particularly elastic, and buoyant; floating on the surface of the sea, to any extent; therefore, when, owing to the strength of the current, a boat misses a ship, it is usual to veer out a quantity of _coir_; having previously fastened an oar, or a small cask, &c. to its end: by this device, the boat may be easily enabled to haul up to the ship’s stern.

I should think, that, were a _coir_ hawser kept on board every ship in the British marine, a great number of lives would be saved. It is, however, peculiar, that fresh water rots _coir_ in a very short time; corroding it in a most unaccountable manner; whereas salt water absolutely invigorates; seeming to afford additional elasticity. This shews that _coir_ is by no means fit to be used in running rigging, nor as shroud-hawsers, &c., especially for vessels subject to approach low latitudes; it being easily snapped in frosty weather.

Nothing can equal the ease with which a ship rides at anchor when her cables are of _coir_: as the surges approach the bows, the vessel gradually recedes, in consequence of the cable yielding to their force; but, so soon as they have passed, it contracts again, drawing the vessel gently back to her first position. The lightness of the material doubtless adds to this pleasing effect; for the cable would float, were not the anchor sufficiently heavy to keep it perfectly down. It is to be remarked, that a hempen-cable always makes a curve _downwards_, between the vessel and the anchor, but a _coir_ cable makes a curve _upwards_: therefore, if a right line were drawn from the hawse-hole, to the ring of the anchor, it would be something like the axis of a parabolic spindle; of which the cables would form the two elliptic segments, or nearly so.

A very considerable trade is carried on, from all parts of India, with the Maldivies, and Sechelles, (very numerous clusters of islands near the west coast of the peninsula,) for _coir_ and _cowries_; the latter being used for inferior currency, while the former is greatly appreciated, on account of the fibres being much larger, and firmer, than those grown upon the continent. Not only the islands above named, but all within the Indian seas, abound with the cocoa-nut tree; which, in many of them, stand absolutely in the water. These owe their origin to the growth of such nuts as, having been blown down, or dropped, when ripe, are buried in the sands; above which their acrospires soon appear, when the tree shoots up with greater vigor than its inland competitors. It is said, that, about a hundred and fifty years back, the _Sechelles_ and _Maldivies_ were known only as concealed sands, highly dangerous to the navigator; and that, after they had, by the action of the sea, accumulated so as to become superficial, a vessel laden with cocoa-nuts was wrecked upon one of these banks, which speedily threw up whole forests of that tree, in consequence of the seed thus furnished: others attribute the first supply to the adventitious floating of nuts from the Malabar coast. Nothing appears to discredit either of the accounts; but the former appears by far the most probable. Be it one way or the other, we now find that the islands in question not only produce immense forests of cocoas, but, that they are inhabited by a people, governed much in the same way as the other Arabian islands, (for such we may call these, as well as Johanna, Comora, Succotra, &c.;) and whose commercial relations may be said to consist of _coir_ and _cowries_, bartered with their neighbours of the peninsula, and the Arabs of Museat, &c., for cotton-cloths, rice, sugar, &c. To whatever chance it may have been owing, the navigator now feels less anxiety when near these isles; for, notwithstanding they are so little elevated as to remain nearly in their former state of immersion, yet their cocoa forests, which generally tower to the height of thirty or forty feet, being visible at the distance of many miles, enable him to ascertain his locality with correctness, and to avoid the numerous shoals, by a due attention to the bearings and soundings. The natives are said to be extremely well acquainted with their archipelago, and to pilot vessels of great burthen with perfect security and precision.

The next consideration with the native, respecting the cocoa-nut, is its water, by us called cocoa-nut milk. This pleasant beverage is contained within the shell, and, in general, may amount to three quarters of a pint. It is purest when the nut is so young and tender as to allow the husk and shell to be cut with about as much facility as a stringy turnip; at which time, very little coagulum adheres to the interior of the shell, and that little is soft, like milk barely turned by rennet. Gradually, the water becomes rather turbid, and acquires a stronger taste; while the coagulum encreases to about the third, or even the half, of an inch in thickness; hardening, and becoming tough, but easily snapped into pieces. When arrived at this state, it abounds in oil, which, at first is remarkably sweet, though of a peculiar flavor, and is much used by the native Portugueze, in lieu of _ghee_, in their culinary operations.

The mode of extracting the oil is very simple: a piece of wood, say two feet in length, six inches broad, and two or three thick, bears at one of its extremities a stem of iron, driven in by means of a spike: this stem must be stout, and should measure about ten inches; but, towards its summit, spreading into the form of an inverted crescent, somewhat concave, and deeply jagged at its circumference. Sitting, as usual, on the ground, the operator keeps the baton from tilting, by placing one of his feet firmly upon it: in that position he takes the nuts, commonly broken into two or more pieces, by a forcible stroke of some heavy implement, or by dashing them on the floor, and, by rasping the interior of each piece against the jagged edges of the iron, causes the coagulum to fall, in form of a coarse powder, into a vessel placed below to receive it. To effect this with more facility, the stem slants obliquely from the baton; allowing room for the receiver to be put immediately under the crescent. The raspings are now put into hot water, in which they are well stirred and pressed with a large wooden spoon; by this means the oil is separated; it is drawn off by opening a little hole near its surface, as it floats upon the water. It is inconceivable how much oil is thus obtained in a few minutes; but, both from its own nature, and the mode of extraction, it soon becomes offensively rancid; a state in which it is by no means objectionable to the swarthy _Signors_, who, as well as the Hindus in general, are partial to it as an unguent for the hair. To a fresh European, the scent of this powerful finish to the charms of an Indian Venus is highly objectionable: of all the stinks of which India can boast, it certainly is the worst. But, as before observed, if used immediately after extraction, nothing can be sweeter: it also burns remarkably well; therefore is in general use for lamps among all the European inhabitants. The residuum, after separating the oil, fattens poultry better than grain: the pork of swine fed upon cocoa-nuts is delicious; as must be confessed by all who have visited the Andamans and Nicobars. Considering the coagulum as a food for mankind, I should by no means feel disposed to recommend it; though it is certain that the natives eat of it freely: experience satisfies me, that it is extremely difficult of digestion; and that, when ate as a meal, much inconvenience, if not indisposition, will generally follow. Nor can I recommend the water of the young nut to persons whose bowels are not of the strongest; it being aperient, and, when used beyond a certain quantity, extremely apt to induce dysentery: the amount of a nut-ful may, perhaps, be drank with perfect safety. During very hot weather, if the nuts are fresh gathered, or suffered to remain for a while in cold water, it is not very easy to withstand the temptation.

The shell of the cocoa-nut is always most valuable when suffered to ripen upon the tree; it then acquires great hardness, and a fine dark chocolate color, interveined by fine lines of a rich dun, or clay, or perhaps striated with those tints: they then take a good polish, and may, when tastefully mounted, be considered as ornamental to the sideboard. But, it is to be observed, that they are rather a brittle ware, compared with their solid appearance; and, that it requires a great length of time to divest them wholly of a certain strong scent, reminding those who have been accustomed to the oil, of that peculiar and powerful rancidity it invariably acquires by long keeping, and especially by exposure to the air.

Previous to the introduction of lamps in the halls, passages, &c., in the houses of Europeans, cocoa-nut oil was to be had for about three-pence, or four-pence, per _seer_ (_i.e._ the measurement of a _seer_, which comes very nearly to the English quart; in some places exceeding it, but in others falling short). Since that practice has obtained, in consequence of candles having been doubled in price, the oil has likewise been enhanced; so that it now sells at about three and a half, or four _seers_ per rupee; which accords with seven-pence halfpenny of our currency per quart. No kind of animal oil is in use among the natives of India, either as food, or in manufactories; if, indeed, we except that most curious production, the _meemii-ke-tale_, or oil extracted from the bodies of malefactors; who, being well fed for a month, or more, previous to execution, for the purpose of encreasing their fat, have large fires lighted under them while on the gibbet, and metal vessels placed to receive the drippings. That this practice has heretofore obtained, under the government of the native princes, does not, I believe, admit of a doubt; but, that it is now obsolete, is equally certain. Still _meemii-ke-tale_ (_i.e._ human oil) may be had at many places; though not genuine, but composed of whatever materials may form a mass resembling that originally in use. I have seen several of these masses, which were of a dark, opaque brown, appearing something like coagulated blood mixed with dirty jelly, and become hard by exposure to the sun, or by inspissation: its smell was intolerably offensive. On the whole, this celebrated extract, which is supposed to cure all contractions, and stiffness of the joints, is a subject of astonishment, when we consider it to be in use among a people so very peculiar in their tenets, and professing so much humanity, not only towards their brethren, but towards all animated nature. Had Shakespeare been acquainted with the existence of the _meemii_, he certainly would have given it a place in Hecate’s stir-about!

If the natives were intent upon obtaining animal oils, the greatest abundance could be commanded; porpoises, turtles, alligators, dog-fishes, and sharks, all of which contain large quantities, exist in every part where the water is brackish; some of them, indeed, become even more numerous as their distance from the sea encreases. Whales, likewise, are occasionally seen in the Indian Sea, and in the Mozambique Channel are extremely common. But, to persons habituated from their infancy to the use of high-savored viands, any sweet oil would be insipid: such people want a _haut-goût_ in their sauces; yet it must be confessed, they certainly manage to render even their strongest preparations extremely palatable; but, to relish them properly, the culinary operations must not always be witnessed. _Babachees_, or cooks, in the employ of Europeans, are sometimes extremely filthy; far more so than when dressing their own victuals. Few of the natives are sparing in the use of water on such occasions, even though it should be brought from some distance; yet, it is equally true, that whole villages are sometimes content to use water from a pool, comparable only with that into which Ariel ushered the surly Caliban.

The trunk of the cocoa-nut tree not only answers, when the central pith is scooped out, for canoes, but, when split, as it may easily be into slips of any width, forms excellent rafters: if applied to that purpose, all the soft part is taken entirely away, leaving only the exterior case, which is very hard, tough, and elastic, about three inches in thickness. A trunk of about a foot in diameter will commonly rive into five staves, each about seven inches wide: such should be placed edgeways on the walls, that their scantlings may be in a proper direction. Rafters thus made, provided they be not more than twenty feet, or thereabouts, in length, and not too heavily laden, will stand for generations, without shewing the smallest symptom of decay. In saying this, I am to be understood as alluding to their being under cover; otherwise, they will not exhibit such durability, although they may fully claim to be on a par with most of the indigenous timbers.

The reader is to understand, that, excepting where merely temporary, that is to say, intended for a few weeks, or months, _bungalows_ are always built with pavilion thatches; by which construction they resist the weather far better, while the quantity of brick-work is considerably less than where gables are run up. The proximity of the thatches in the _veranda_ parts, renders them far less cool, in the hot months, than the interior, in which the thatch is so much further removed: the latter would be rendered much cooler were flues, or ventilators, to be made for the purpose of carrying off the rarefied air, as already suggested. Cocoa-nuts are often sawed into two equal parts, for the purpose of being made into ladles: to effect this, a hole is made on each side, about half an inch from the edge, and a stick is passed through, serving as a handle; much the same as we see in the _jets_ used by brewers for taking liquor out of their vats. When sawed into two equal parts, across the grain of the _coir_ coating, cocoa-nuts make excellent table brushes, causing the planks to assume a very high polish from their friction. As this operation requires some strength, it is proper to be careful that the edges of the shell, if left in, (as is sometimes, though improperly, done,) should be perfectly smooth; being once rendered so, they will never scratch, however forcibly the brush may be applied. A very good mode is, to strip off the _coir_, and, after soaking it well in water, to beat it with a heavy wooden mall until the pieces become a little pliant, when they should be firmly bound together with an iron ring: their ends being then levelled, the implement is fit for use. A little bees’-wax rubbed occasionally upon them, adds greatly to the lustre of the furniture, without being clammy.

The stem of the toddy-tree is very similar to that of the cocoa, but grows to a much greater height, and is put to the same purposes. On first seeing a grove of toddy-palms, one would suppose that a strong wind must inevitably tear up the whole by their roots; which consist of innumerable small fibres, that penetrate but a very little way, comparatively, into the soil. When one of these trees is laid prostrate by the wind, a very small cavity is made, rarely so much as a cubic yard. The leaves differ very widely from those of the cocoa: the former being rather spear-shaped, about a foot, or more, in length, by perhaps two inches at their broadest part, and attached to each side of the rib, which may be from ten to fourteen feet in length, and hang gracefully on every side of the trunk; covering the nuts, which grow on very short, stiff stems, close under the place where the leaves start from it in all directions; a tuft of similar, but smaller, branches, grow with rather a vertical tendency.

The _toddy-palm_ has, on the contrary, about ten or a dozen large leaves, radiated from their stems, arranged in folds very similar to a lady’s fan half spread; but the outer edges are indented considerably: the leaves form each about three-fourths of a circle, but not very regularly so; some more, some less. These are made into _punkahs_, or fans, of various sizes; or, when torn into strips of about two inches wide, which may be about the medium breadth of each fold, serve the natives in lieu of paper. The greater part of the accounts kept by Bengallees are written on these leaves, by means of any sharp-pointed instrument, which, marking through the glossy rind, or coating, on either side of the leaf, remains, ever after, perfectly distinct and legible. Those who wish to have the letters still more so, rub the leaves, after filled with writings, with _kaujool_, or lamp-black; which sinks into the porous parts laid open by the instrument, but easily wipes off from that portion of the surface which has not been pierced. Some hundreds of these leaves may be seen, secured together at one end by a twine passed through each, like waste paper in a grocer’s shop; thus forming a voluminous collection. The fruit of the _taul_ consists of two, or sometimes three, _lobes_, or pods, somewhat similar to those in a horse-chesnut, and, like them, concealed in a pithy, spherical coating, but with a smooth exterior. Each _lobe_ is hollow, and contains a small quantity of very clear liquor, partaking, in a very slight degree, of the flavor of rose-water; the _lobes_ themselves are about the size of a Chelsea-bun, are rather of a crisp, but gelatinous substance, and pleasant to the palate: their exterior is covered with a very thin, brown rind, like that of an almond; rather astringent, but by no means acrid.

The liquor, called _toddy_, is obtained by making an incision under the head of the tree, when, a thin wedge being introduced, the _toddy_ will gradually exude into a vessel suspended to receive it. This liquor is very pleasing when fresh drawn, but, in a few hours, acquires a harsh flavor, ferments, and becomes highly intoxicating. It answers admirably as leaven, making very light dough; but if kept, as is too commonly done, until rather sub-acid, it communicates a most unpleasant tartness to the bread. Groves of _toddy-trees_, in some parts of the country, yield a very handsome revenue, and great profit to the renters. Like the cocoa-nut tree, they have within their summits a substance very like a cabbage in flavor: this occasions mariners sometimes to fell them, with the view of carrying that part to sea; where it will, if left within its rind, keep for many months. I have tasted of this vegetable, but did not feel much gratified, though it assuredly was not disagreeable: it seemed to require much boiling.

The stem of the _toddy-palm_ is annulated, but not very deeply: of this the _toddy_-men take advantage, ascending to the summit, and descending again to the plain, with wondrous agility. This is effected by a piece of strong twine, about a yard or more in length, but doubled into a loop of half that extent. The great toes are respectively put into the ends of the loop, so as to keep it perfectly extended. The man first embraces the tree, as high as he can reach, for the purpose of raising himself from the ground; his feet being instantly carried, on opposite sides of the trunk, as far asunder as the loop may admit. Then, sustaining himself by means of the loop, he slides his arms upwards to take a second spring; following, in due time, by the removal of his feet, as much higher as he has been able to reach. In this manner, successively stretching up his arms, and swarming with his feet, he reaches the summit; where, while he either suspends the pot, or releases it, his weight generally rests on the loop. The great art, both in ascending, and descending, is to keep the loop always stretched: should it be allowed to slacken, in all probability it would fall off. Few persons, following this profession, require more than half a minute to mount the highest _palmira_; by which name the _toddy-palm_ is most generally known to Europeans. The natives designate it the _taul_ (or _taul-gautch_).

I believe very few kinds of wood, except those I have mentioned, ever come within the ordinary course of domestic architecture; though, in some few situations, the _soondry_ and _jarrool_ are employed for the minor purposes; but, with some reserve on the part of the natives, who hold them to be more applicable to the construction of small craft, and to the formation of carriages of various descriptions. The _soondry_ is a remarkably tough, heavy, and elastic wood; while the _jarrool_, though rather harder, more resembles the beech, than any other of our indigenous timber trees: as a material in boat-building, it ranks next to the _teak_, hence, many of the _donies_, (or coasting vessels,) measuring from fifty, to a hundred and fifty, tons, are principally built therewith. When _teak_ is scarce, we occasionally see the ship-wrights apply _jarrool_ in their repairs of the upper works of large vessels.

Having said thus much of the manner in which houses, and _bungalows_, are constructed, I have only to observe, that, of late years, the European architects have been rather prone to sacrifice comfort to appearance. Those old houses built at a time when _punkahs_, _tatties_, glass-sashes, &c., were not in use, certainly evince that attention was paid to coolness, but without disregarding convenience. Now, although building is full fifty per cent. cheaper than it was thirty years ago, we see the walls much less substantial, and, on the whole, a want of local fitness in the arrangement of the several apartments. I must caution the reader, that what would appear an admirable plan for a residence in our climate, would be found totally inconsistent with the temperatures attendant upon the changes of season in India, and with the several practices, and operations, peremptorily necessary towards meeting those changes. It must never be forgotten, that, at some seasons, and at some hours in all seasons, every door and window is usually thrown open; likewise, that, during the continuance of the hot winds, such apartments as cannot be kept moderately cool, by _tatties_ applied to some apertures on that floor, whence the current of refrigerated air may find admission, will be scarcely habitable, and, at night in particular, will glow like ovens.

The hot-wind commonly rises with the sun, blowing at first very gently, but encreasing gradually, until about one or two o’clock; after which, it subsides into a perfect calm. This is its ordinary course, but some days remain calm throughout, while, at other times, the wind blows a hurricane the whole night through. I have, indeed, known it to continue, with very little change of temperature, or variation of force, for full ten days; during which period, the nights were, if any thing, hotter than the days; so that extra _b’heesties_ were retained to water the _tatties_ during the night. That was, to be sure, a very singular season, carrying with it a prodigious mortality; great numbers dying suddenly. It was peculiar that the fit, which resembled apoplexy, attacked all ages alike, and paid no deference to the abstemious and temperate, any more than to the licentious and gormandizing classes.

In describing the habitations of the lower orders of natives, I explained, that their chief attention was paid to privacy, and to the exclusion of the glare. The superior ranks are not less intent upon the same objects; though many of their state apartments do not indicate, that either the one or the other were of the smallest consideration. Some of the _Durbars_ are uncommonly exposed; and, in consequence of the crowd, the fastidious ceremony observed, and the constant succession of entrances and exits, form a most uncomfortable _tout ensemble_. Yet, it appears that the natives have made little or no variation in their system, not only within the time we have been acquainted with them, but, if we examine their ancient structures, not for centuries before a British foot was placed upon their soil. We ordinarily find nearly the same aspect given to all their buildings, especially to their places of worship: _nimauzes_, (or open temples,) where the Mussulmans are in the habit of offering up their prayers, invariably are made to front the west; under the idea of their facing the shrine of Mahomed. This error may be considered on a par with the placing of altars in our churches always at the east end, with the view to their standing towards the place of our Saviour’s nativity: we also inter our dead with their heads to the west, on the same account.

Having detailed what relates to the domestic habits, and to the architecture of the country, I shall now proceed to describe the manner of living among Europeans in India; observing, that there are two very distinct classes, though perfectly on a footing; namely, the residents of Calcutta, and those among the civil and military, who are subject to be detached from the Presidency. Formerly, only such gentlemen as held offices of considerable emolument, or those who were married, supported a regular table: such might be said to keep open-house; at least, far the greater number usually laid several spare covers, especially at supper-time, under the hope of seeing their friends drop in to partake of whatever might be in preparation. The dinner hour being known, (for almost every family then dined between two and three o’clock,) it was rarely needful to make enquiries respecting the proper moment for repairing to the hospitable board. Little or no ceremony was required; the host being as much pleased with the compliment paid by the visit of a young friend, as the latter was to find a welcome among the most opulent and respectable portion of the European community.

Nor did the benefit accruing to the latter, confine itself within the limits of economical saving: it was generally found, that such as became habitually inmates of this description, were recommended to the notice of Government, or to such situations, (if not in the Company’s service,) as afforded the immediate means of maintenance, or eventually led to lucrative speculations. A variety of instances could be adduced, of young gentlemen having, from the foregoing admission within the domestic circle of visitants, been rescued from that most unpleasant situation, namely, a want of respectable friends; these, as Shakespeare properly remarks, ‘had greatness thrust upon them.’ Such _was_ the state of society when I first arrived in India, [1778] and such _was_ the fair expectation, with which not only young gentlemen, but many ‘far advanced upon time’s list,’ landed on the shores of the Ganges. In fact, it required that some very substantial objection should personally exist, to deprive any individual of an implied right to the most friendly reception. Still, however, it must be acknowledged, that a certain distinction, rather too fastidious, was prevalent in favor of those who came with appointments to the Company’s service; especially in the civil line. To a certain extent, such might have been considered reasonable, when we reflect that future association in the same duties was to be expected; but, the matter was doubtless carried too far; it being distinguished by that kind of deference which stamps a superior value upon its object, the whole amount of which is deducted from the supposed inferior; thus, causing the former to preponderate in society in a multiplied ratio, in the same manner as taking from one scale to put into the other, occasions the difference to encrease in the proportion of three to one.

The gradual encrease of commercial transactions, and of intercourse, with several parts of that extensive territory, which ultimately has come under the influence, if not the control, of the British government, served as invitations to many adventurers, who quitted Europe under assurances of employ in the East. Their expectations were generally confirmed by permanent establishments in various parts of the country; whereby a complete change took place, as to the estimation in which free-merchants, as they are generally termed, were held.

Among this class, there have, within a few years, appeared numbers, whose industry, and extensive concerns, rendered them conspicuous; and it would not, perhaps, be too bold to predict, that, in the course of a few years, the success of their efforts may prove a stimulus to such an encrease of private traders, as cannot fail to give birth to events of great national importance.

It would not be in place to notice such probable results in this work, but it may be permitted, without trespassing the bounds I have marked out to myself, to anticipate, that the commercial society of India will, in time, grow out of the knowledge of such as surveyed its state some thirty years ago. We have, at the same time, to lament, that, owing to such an augmentation of all ranks, it has been found necessary to drop many customs suited only to a limitted society, and to adopt a certain reserve, which may not be exactly conformable to those very sanguine ideas entertained by persons who may have read of the ancient regime of Oriental hospitality; the declination of which has unavoidably kept pace with the additional imports consequent to extended commerce. There will, however, even at this day, be found much to approve; and the mind endued with sensibility will have to acknowledge many a civility, very nearly akin to kindness, and sufficiently poignant to give an ample scope for many a grateful acknowledgment.