Chapter I: Preface (1)

This little book has been prepared in the hope of helping those who, having forgotten the lessons in grammar which they received at school, find some difficulty in learning Esperanto from the existing textbooks. It is hoped it will be found useful not only for solitary students, but also for class work.

The exercises are taken chiefly from the "Ekzercaro" of Dr. Zamenhof. The compiler also acknowledges her indebtedness especially to the "Standard Course of Esperanto," by Mr. G. W. Bullen, and to the "Esperanto Grammar and Commentary," by Major-General Geo. Cox, and while accepting the whole responsibility for all inaccuracies and crudenesses, she desires to thank all who have helped in the preparation, and foremost among them Mr. W. W. Padfield, of Ipswich, for advice and encouragement throughout the work, and to Mr. E. A. Millidge, for his unfailing kindness and invaluable counsel and help in its preparation and revision.

MANNER OF USING THE BOOK.

The student is strongly advised to cultivate the habit of thinking in Esperanto from the very beginning of the study. To do this he should try to realise the idea mentally without putting it into English words, e.g., when learning the word "rozo" or "kolombo," let him bring the object itself before his mind's eye, instead of repeating "'rozo', rose; 'kolombo', pigeon"; or with the sentence "'la suno brilas', the sun shines," let him picture the sun shining. Having studied the lesson and learned the vocabulary, he should read the exercise, repeating each sentence aloud until he has become familiar with it and can pronounce it freely. Then turning to the English translation at the end of the book, he should write the exercise into Esperanto, compare it with the original, and re-learn and re-write if necessary. Although this method may require a little more time and trouble at first, the greater facility gained in speaking the language will well repay the outlay.

After mastering this book the student should take some reader, such as "Unua Legolibro," by Dr. Kabe, and then proceed to the "Fundamenta Krestomatio," the standard work on Esperanto, by Dr. Zamenhof.

A very good Esperanto-English vocabulary is to be found in the "Esperanto Key," 1/2d., or in "The Whole of Esperanto for a Penny."

THE ORIGIN AND AIM OF ESPERANTO.

A few words as to the origin of Esperanto will perhaps not be out of place here. The author of the language, Dr. Ludovic Zamenhof, a Polish Jew, was born on December 3rd, 1859, at Bielovstok, in Poland, a town whose inhabitants are of four distinct races, Poles, Russians, Germans, and Jews, each with their own language and customs, and often at open enmity with each other. Taught at home that all men are brethren, Zamenhof found everywhere around him outside the denial of this teaching, and even as a child came to the conclusion that the races hated, because they could not understand, each other. Feeling keenly, too, the disabilities under which his people specially laboured, being cut off by their language from the people among whom they lived, while too proud to learn the language of their persecutors, he set himself to invent a language which should be neutral and therefore not require any sacrifice of pride on the part of any race.

Interesting as is the story of Zamenhof's attempts and difficulties, it must suffice here to say that at the end of 1878 the new language was sufficiently advanced for him to impart it to schoolfellows like-minded with himself, and on December 17th of that year they feted its birth, and sang a hymn in the new language, celebrating the reign of unity and peace which should be brought about by its means, "All mankind must be united in one family." But the enthusiasm of its first followers died down under the derision they encountered, and for nine years more Zamenhof worked in secret at his language, translating, composing, writing original articles, improving, polishing, till in 1887 he published his first book under the title of "An International Language by Dr. Esperanto." ("Esperanto" means "one who hopes").

That the idea which impelled the young Zamenhof to undertake such a work is still the mainspring of his devotion to the cause is shown by the following extract from his opening speech at the second International Esperanto Congress in 1906:--"We are all conscious that it is not the thought of its practical utility which inspires us to work for Esperanto, but only the thought of the important and holy idea which underlies an international language. This idea, you all know, is that of: brotherhood and justice among all peoples." And, again, in his presidential address at the third Esperanto Congress, held this year (1907) at Cambridge, he said, "We are constantly repeating that we do not wish to interfere in the internal life of the nations, but only to build a bridge between the peoples. The ideal aim of Esperantists, never until now exactly formulated, but always clearly felt, is: To establish a neutral foundation, on which the various races of mankind may hold peaceful, brotherly intercourse, without intruding on each other their racial differences."

Sur neuxtrala lingva fundamento,
Komprenante unu la alian,
La popoloj faros en konsento
Unu grandan rondon familian.

(On the foundation of a neutral language,
Understanding one another,
The peoples will form in agreement
One great family circle).

HELEN FRYER.

December, 1907.

THE ALPHABET.

SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS.

In Esperanto each letter has only one sound, and each sound is represented in only one way. The words are pronounced exactly as spelt, every letter being sounded.

Those CONSONANTS which in English have one simple sound only are exactly the same in Esperanto; they are--b, d, f, k, l, m, n, p, r, t, v, z (r must be well rolled).

q, w, x, y are not used.

c, g, h, s, which in English represent more than one sound, and j are also used with the mark ^--

c cx, g gx, h hx, j jx, s sx.

c - (whose two English sounds are represented by k and s) has the sound of TS, as in iTS, TSar.

cx - like CH, TCH, in CHurCH, maTCH.

g - hard, as in Go, GiG, Gun.

gx - soft, as in Gentle, Gem, or like J in Just, Jew.

h - well breathed, as in Horse, Home, How.

hx - strongly breathed, and in the throat, as in the Scotch word loCH. (Ask any Scotsman to pronounce it). Hx occurs but seldom. It is the Irish GH in louGH, and the Welsh CH.

j - like Y in Yes, You, or J in halleluJah, fJord.

jx - like S in pleaSure, or the French J, as in deJeuner, Jean d'Arc.

s - like SS in aSS, leSS, never like S in roSe.

sx - like SH in SHe, SHall, SHip, or S in Sugar, Sure.

In newspapers, etc., which have not the proper type, cx, gx, hx, jx, sx are often replaced by ch, gh, hh, jh, sh, or by c', g', h', j', s', and ux by u.

ux - is also a consonant, and has the sound of W in We, as EUXropo, or U in persUade.

The VOWELS a, e, i, o, u have not the English, but the Continental sounds.

a - always like A in Ah! or in tArt.

e - like E in bEnd, but broader, like E in thEre.

i - is a sound between EE in mEEt and I in Is.

o - like O in fOr, or in the Scottish NO, or AU in AUght.

u - like OO in bOOt, pOOr.

a, e, i, o, u are all simple sounds, that is, the mouth is kept in one position while they are being sounded. In learning them lengthen them out, and be careful not to alter the position of the mouth, however long they are drawn out. In the compound sounds given below the shape of the mouth changes; to get the correct pronunciation sound each letter fully and distinctly, gradually bringing them closer until they run together, when they become almost as follows:--

aj - nearly like AI in AIsle, or I in nIce, fIne.

ej - nearly like EI in vEIn.

oj - nearly like OY in bOY, or OI in vOId.

uj - nearly like UJ in hallelUJah.

aux - like AHW, or nearly OU in hOUse, pronounced broadly, haOUse.

eux - like EHW, or EY W in thEY Were, AYW in wAYWard.

Practise saying aja, eja, oja, uja, auxa, euxa several times quickly. Then gradually drop the final a.

ACCENT.

The accent or stress is always placed on the syllable before the last, as es-PE-ro, es-pe-RAN-to, es-pe-ran-TIS-to, es-pe-ran-tis-TI-no; JU-na, ju-NU-lo, ju-nu-LA-ro. All the syllables must be clearly pronounced, not slurred over.

EXERCISE IN PRONOUNCIATION.

a - (as in bAth), PAT-ra, LA-na, a-GRA-bla, mal-VAR-ma, KLA-ra, pa-FA-do.

e - (as in bEnd), BE-la, mEm, fe-NES-tro, ven-DRE-do, tre-E-ge, le-TE-ro.

i - (as in sEE), mi, I-li, i-MI-ti, vi-ZI-ti, TRIN-ki, in-SIS-ti.

o - (as in fOr), HO-mo, RO-zo, ko-LOM-bo, DOR-mo (the R rolled), MOR-to, po-PO-lo.

u - (as in bOOt), U-nu, dum, BRU-lu, sur-TU-to, vul-TU-ro, mur-MUR-i.

aj - (as in nIce), ajn, kaj, rAJ-to, taj-LO-ro, FAJ-ro, BE-laj.

ej - (as in plAY), VEJ-no, HEJ-mo, plej, HEJ-to.

oj - (as in bOY), PAT-roj, FOJ-no, HO-mojn, KOJ-no, SOJ-lo, KON-koj.

uj - (as in hallelUJah), tuj, CXI-uj, TI-uj.

aux - (as in cOW), AN-taux, LAUX-bo, fraux-LI-no, KAUX-zi, auxs- KUL-tu, AUX-di.

eux - (like ehw), Eux-RO-po, neux-ral-GI-o, Eux-kar-IS-to, reux-ma-TIS-mo.

c - (= ts, biTS), CE-lo, fa-CI-la (=FA-TSEE-LA), be-LE-co (BE-LE-TSO), ofi-CI-ro, PA-co, ci-ko-NI-o, CO-lo.

cx - (= tch, maTCH), cxu, ecx, cxe, CXAM-bro, CXER-pi, TRAN-cxi, RI-cxa.

g - (as in Good), LON-ga, LE-gi, ge-NU-o, GEN-to, GLI-ti, GRO-so.

gx - (as in Gem), GXE-mi, gxis, gxar-DE-no, SA-gxa, MAN-gxi, RE-gxo.

h - (breathed), HA-ro, hi-RUN-do, ha-RIN-go, his-to-RI-o, he-DE-ro, HIM-no.

hx - (in throat), hxe-MI-o, hxo-LE-ro, me-hxa-NI-ko, E-hxo, hxa-O-so.

j - (like y), JU-na, ma-JES-ta, sin-JO-ro, ka-JE-ro, jes, ja.

jx - (= zh), bon-AJX-o, JXE-ti, jxur-NA-lo, jxus, JXAUX-do, jxa-LU-zo.

s - (ss), SU-per, ses, STA-ri, trans, ves-PE-ro, SVIN-gi.

sx - (sh), FRE-sxa, SXE-lo, KU-sxi, SXTU-po, SXVI-ti, SXVE-li.

kz - ek-ZER-co, ek-ZEM-plo, ek-za-ME-no, ek-ze-KU-ti, ek-ZI-li, ek-ZIS-ti.

kv - kvar, kvin, kvi-E-ta, KVAN-kam, KVER-ko, KVA-zaux.

gv - GVI-di, LIN-gvo.

kn - KNA-bo, KNE-di.

sc - (sts), SCI-o (sts-ee-o), SCE-no (stse-no), SCEP-tro, eks-CI-ti (eks-TSEE-tee), eks-cel-EN-co (eks-tsel-EN-tso), sci-EN-co (stsee-en-tso).

CEN-to, SEN-to; CE-lo, SE-lo, SXE-lo; CO-lo, KO-lo; ci, cxi; ec, ecx; KRU-co, KRU-cxo; PA-go, PA-gxo; RE-gi, RE-gxi; SE-gi, SE-gxo; HO-ro, HXO-ro; PE-si, PE-zi; STE-lo, SXTE-lo; SAN-go, SXAN-go; VER-so, VER-sxi; dis-I-ri, dis-SXI-ri; GUS-ta, GXUS-ta; STU-po, SXTU-po; STA-lo, SXTA-lo; POS-to, POSX-to; re-SER-vi, re-ZER-vi; ru-GXI-gi, ru-CXI-gxi; ri-CXI-gi, ri-CXI-gxi, ri-CXE-co; FTI-zo.

a-E-ro, oce-A-no, fe-I-no, GXU-i, pe-RE-i, pe-RE-u; fo-I-ro, CXI-u-JA-ra, VO-joj, tro-U-zi, for-RAM-pi, ku-I-ri; SKVA-mo, zo-o-lo-GI-o, en-U-i, de-TRU-u, SXPRU-ci, ru-I-ni; Jan-u-A-ro, Feb-ru-A-ro, li-E-no, ho-DI-aux, hi-E-raux, Hun-gar-U-jo, Ne-a-PO-lo, sci-U-ro.

* * * * *

NOTE.--A useful mnemonic for the Esperanto vowels is pAr, pEAr, pIEr, pORe, pOOr, but the sounds should not be dragged. It is helpful to note that the English words "mate, reign, pane, bend; meet, beat, feel, lady; grow, loan, soft; mute, yes, mule" (as pronounced in London and South of England), would be written in Esperanto thus:--"mejt, rejn, pejn, bend; mijt, bijt, fijl, lejdi; groux, louxn, soft; mjut, jes, mjul".

LESSON 1.

WORDS.

In Esperanto a word generally consists of an unchanging part or root, which expresses the idea, and an ending which shows the use of the word, that is, whether it is a name, a describing word, etc. By changing the ending the use of the word is changed.

Notice carefully the words given below which end in "o". It will be seen that they are all names.

In Esperanto every name ends in "o".

(In Grammar names are called NOUNS).

Notice further the words which end in "-as." They all express doing or being (action or state), which is going on at the present time, or which is a custom at the present time.

The words "a," "an," are not expressed; "the" is translated by "la".

VOCABULARY.

pAtro : father. cxAmbro : room.
frAto : brother. fenEstro : window.
fIlo : son. lIbro : book.
TeodOro :Theodore. krajOno : pencil.
tajlOro : tailor. plUmo : pen.
leOno : lion. cxapElo : hat.
bEsto : animal. dOmo : house.
kolOmbo : pigeon. Arbo : tree.
bIrdo : bird.
rOzo : rose. Estas : is, are, am.
flOro : flower. apartEnas : belongs.
pOmo : apple. brIlas : shines.
sUno : sun. kUsxas : lies.
tEro : earth, ground. stAras : stands.
sxtOno : stone.

la : the. de : of, from.
kaj : and. kIe : where.
jes : yes. kIo : what thing.
ne : no, not. jen Estas : here is.
al : to, towards. cxu : whether (asks a question).
sur : on. Antaux : before, in front of.
en : in.
Apud : by, near, beside.

(The [UPPERCASE] shows the accented syllable).

Patro kaj frato. Leono estas besto. Rozo estas floro kaj kolombo estas birdo. La rozo apartenas al Teodoro. La suno brilas. La patro estas tajloro. Kie estas la libro kaj la krajono? Jen estas pomo. Sur la tero kusxas sxtono. Sur la fenestro kusxas krajono kaj plumo. La filo staras apud la patro. Jen kusxas la cxapelo de la patro. La patro estas en la cxambro. Antaux la domo staras arbo.

Kio estas leono? Kio estas rozo? Kio brilas? Kio estas la patro? Kie estas la patro? Kio estas sur la fenestro? Kie estas la plumo?

Cxu leono estas besto? Jes, leono estas besto. Cxu rozo estas birdo? Ne, rozo ne estas birdo, rozo estas floro.

LESSON 2.

Every "describing" word, that is, every word which tells the kind or quality of a person or thing, ends in "a," as "granda", large; "rugxa", red.

(A describing word is called an ADJECTIVE).

VOCABULARY.

bEla : beautiful. jUna : young.
blAnka : white. matUra : mature, ripe.
blUa : blue. nOva : new.
bOna : good. nUtra : nutritious.
fidEla : faithful. pUra : pure, clean.
fOrta : strong. rIcxa : rich.
frEsxa : fresh. sAna : well (healthy).

cxiElo : sky, heaven. nEgxo : snow.
fEsto : holiday. pAno : bread.
frauxlIno : maiden lady, Miss papEro : paper.
hOmo : man (human being). tAblo : table.
hUndo : dog. vIno : wine.
infAno : child. Onklo : uncle.
JohAno : John. pli : more.
kajEro : exercise book. ol : than.
lAkto : milk. sed : but.
mAno : hand. tre : very.

La patro estas sana. Infano ne estas matura homo. La cxielo estas blua. Leono estas forta. La patro estas bona. La mano de Johano estas pura. Papero estas blanka. Blanka papero kusxas sur la tablo. Jen estas la kajero de la juna frauxlino. Sur la cxielo staras la bela suno. La papero estas tre blanka, sed la negxo estas pli blanka. Lakto estas pli nutra, ol vino. La pano estas fresxa. La onklo estas pli ricxa, ol la frato. Jen kusxas rugxa rozo. La hundo estas tre fidela. La libro estas nova.

LESSON 3.

When the name (noun) is required to denote more than one of the persons or things for which it stands, "j" is added to it, as "rozoj", roses; "kolomboj", pigeons; and then every "describing" word (adjective) which belongs to it must also have "j", as "rugxaj rozoj", red roses; "la kolomboj estas belaj", the pigeons are beautiful.

(When the noun stands for "more than one," it is said to be PLURAL. "j" is the sign of the plural).

VOCABULARY.

jAro : year. agrAbla : agreeable, pleasant.
kAnto : song. Akra : sharp.
knAbo : boy. delikAta : delicate.
lilIo : lily. flUgas : fly, flies.
trancxIlo : knife. diligenta : diligent.
dento : tooth.

lUndo : Monday. vendrEdo : Friday.
mArdo : Tuesday. sabAto : Saturday.
merkrEdo : Wednesday. dimAncxo : Sunday.
jxAUXdo : Thursday.

La birdoj flugas. La kanto de la birdoj estas agrabla. Kie estas la knaboj? La patroj estas sanaj. Infanoj ne estas maturaj homoj. Leonoj estas fortaj. La manoj de Johano estas puraj. Jen estas la kajeroj de la junaj frauxlinoj. La onkloj estas pli ricxaj, ol la fratoj. La hundoj estas tre fidelaj. Blankaj paperoj kusxas sur la tablo. En la cxambro estas novaj cxapeloj. Kie estas la akraj trancxiloj? Bonaj infanoj estas diligentaj. Jen kusxas puraj, blankaj, delikataj lilioj. La dentoj de leonoj estas akraj.

LESSON 4.

mi : I. ni : we,
ci : thou. vi : you.
li : he. ili : they.
sxi : she. si (see Lesson 7).
gxi : it oni : one, they, people.

(The above words are called PRONOUNS because they are used instead of repeating the noun).

By adding "a" the pronouns are made to denote a quality, in this case possession, as "mia libro", my book; "via pomo", your apple; "ilia infano", their child.

mia : my, mine. nia : our, ours.
cia : thy, thine. via : your, yours,
lia : his. ilia : their, theirs.
sxia : her, hers. sia (see Lesson 7),
gxia : its.

When the name to which these "pronoun-adjectives" belong is plural they must of course take "j", as "miaj libroj", my books; "viaj pomoj", your apples; "iliaj infanoj", their children.

In speaking of relations and parts of the body "la" is often used instead of "mia", "lia", etc., as "La filo staras apud la patro", The son stands by the (his) father.

For "mine," "ours," etc., "mia", "nia", etc., may be used either with or without "la", as "La libro estas mia", or "La libro estas la mia", The book is mine.

"Oni" is used for "one, they, people", when these words are indefinite in meaning, as in the sentences:--Here one can speak fearlessly, "Tie cxi oni povas maltime paroli", They say that he is rich, "Oni diras, ke li estas ricxa", People often eat too quickly, "Oni ofte mangxas tro rapide."

VOCABULARY.

Avo : grandfather. vEnkas : conquers.
amIko : friend. mAngxi : to eat.
gxardEno : garden gxentIla : polite.
knabIno : girl. silEnte : silently.
rUso : Russian. kIu : who, which (that).
sinjOro gentleman, Mr., Sir. cxIu : each one, every.
vEro : truth. cxIuj : all, all the.
vEnas : comes. la plej : the most.
Iras : goes. tIel : as, so.
lEgas : reads. kIel : as.
skrIbas : writes. nun : now.
plOras : cry, cries. Ankaux : also.
vOlas : wills, wishes. cxIam : always.
dIras : says. el : out of.
sIdas : sits. cxar : because, for.

Mi legas. Vi skribas. Li estas knabo, kaj sxi estas knabino. Ni estas homoj. Vi estas infanoj. Ili estas rusoj. Kie estas la knaboj? Ili estas en la gxardeno, Kie estas la knabinoj? Ili ankaux estas en la gxardeno. Kie estas la trancxiloj? Ili kusxas sur la tablo. La infano ploras, cxar gxi volas mangxi. Sinjoro, vi estas negxentila. Sinjoroj, vi estas negxentilaj. Oni diras; ke la vero cxiam venkas. La domo apartenas al li. Mi venas de la avo, kaj mi iras nun al la onklo. Mi estas tiel forta, kiel vi. Nun mi legas, vi legas, kaj li legas, ni cxiuj legas. Vi skribas, kaj la infanoj skribas, ili (vi) cxiuj sidas silente kaj skribas.

Mia hundo, vi estas tre fidela. Li estas mia onklo, cxar mia patro estas lia frato. El cxiuj miaj infanoj, Ernesto estas la plej juna. Lia patro kaj liaj fratoj estas en la gxardeno. sxia onklo estas en la domo. Kie estas viaj libroj? Niaj libroj kusxas sur la tablo; iliaj krajonoj kaj ilia papero ankaux kusxas sur la tablo.

Kiu estas en la cxambro? Kiuj estas en la cxambro? La sinjoro, kiu legas, estas mia amiko. La sinjoro, al kiu vi skribas, estas tajloro. Kio kusxas sur la tablo?

LESSON 5.

The use of final "n".

In order to understand the meaning of a sentence it is necessary to be able to recognise clearly and unmistakably what it is that is spoken about, that is, what the "subject of the sentence" is. In English this is often to be recognised only by its position in the sentence. For instance, the three words--visited, John, George, can be arranged to mean two entirely, different things, either "John visited George," or "George visited John." [Footnote: In teaching Esperanto to children it is well to make sure before going further that they thoroughly understand, what the subject is. The subject is that which we think or speak about. The word which stands for it is the subject of the sentence. The children may be required to underline the subject of each sentence in a suitable piece of prose or verse.] In Esperanto the sense does not depend on the arrangement-- "Johano vizitis Georgon" and "Georgon vizitis Johano" mean exactly the same thing, that John visited George, the "n" at the end of "Georgon" showing that "Georgon" is not the subject. There is no want of clearness about the following (Esperanto) sentences, absurd as they are in English:--

La patron mordis la hundo.
The father bit the dog.

La infanon gratis la kato.
The child scratched the cat.

La birdojn pafis Johano.
The birds shot John.

La musojn kaptis la knabo.
The mice caught the boy.

La kokidon mangxis la onklo.
The chicken ate the uncle.

La bildon pentris la pentristo.
The picture painted the painter.

La fisxojn vendis la fisxisto.
The fish sold the fisherman.

In these sentences the subjects are at once seen to be "hundo, kato, Johano, knabo, onklo, pentristo, fisxisto", for the final "n" in "patron, infanon, birdojn, musojn, kokidon, bildon, fisxojn", distinguishes these words from the subject.

This use of "n" renders clear sentences that are not clear in English. "John loves Mary more than George" may mean "more than John loves George" or "more than George loves Mary." In Esperanto it is quite clear. "Johano amas Marion, pli ol Georgo" means "more than George loves Mary," because "Georgo" is the subject of the second (elliptical) sentence, but "Johano amas Marion, pli ol Georgon" means "more than John loves George," because the final "n" in Georgon shows this to be not the subject.

There are cases, however, in which it is not necessary to add "n", the noun or pronoun being distinguished from the subject in another way. Examples are found in the first exercise:--"Sur la tero" kusxas sxtono, "On the ground" lies a stone. "Antaux la pordo" staras arbo, "Before the door" stands a tree. Notwithstanding their position, "ground" and "door" are seen to be not the subject, because before them are the words "on," "before," which connect them with the rest of the sentence--it is "on the ground," "before the door." So with other sentences.

The words "on", "before", and others given [in Lesson 26] are called PREPOSITIONS ("pre" = before). The noun or pronoun which follows them can never be the subject of the sentence.

Remember, then, that

"N" is added to every noun and pronoun, "other than the subject", unless it has a preposition before it. [Footnote: (i.). The explanation usually given for the use of final "n" is, that "n" is added to nouns and pronouns (a) in the Accusative Case (the direct object), (b) when the preposition is omitted. The explanation given above seems to me, however, to be much simpler. (ii.). Another use of final "n" is given later [Lesson 12, Lesson 26] ]

When the noun takes "n", any adjective which belongs to it must also take "n", as, "Li donas al mi belan rugxan floron", He gives me a beautiful red flower. "Li donas al mi belajn rugxajn florojn", He gives me beautiful red flowers.

VOCABULARY.

letero : letter. mateno : morning.
litero : letter of alphabet. multaj : many.
festo : festival, holiday. obstina : obstinate.
tago : day. gxoja : joyful, joyous.
nokto : night. hela : bright, clear.

amas : loves. pala : pale.
vidas : sees. deziras : desires, wishes.
konas : knows. eraras : errs, is wrong.
havas : has, possesses. vokas : calls.
luno : moon. hejtas : heats.
stelo : star. hodiaux : to:day.
vintro : winter. malpli : less.
forno : stove. kiam : when.
edzino : wife. kia : what (kind).

Mi vidas leonon (leonojn). Mi legas libron (librojn). Mi amas la patron. Mi konas Johanon. La patro ne legas libron, sed li skribas leteron. Mi ne amas obstinajn homojn. Mi deziras al vi bonan tagon, sinjoro. Bonan matenon! Gxojan feston (mi deziras al vi). Kia gxoja festo (estas hodiaux)! En la tago ni vidas la helan sunon, kaj en la nokto ni vidas la palan lunon kaj la belajn stelojn. Ni havas pli fresxan panon, ol vi. Ne, vi eraras, sinjoro, via pano estas malpli fresxa, ol mia. Ni vokas la knabon, kaj li venos. En la vintro oni hejtas la fornojn. Kiam oni estas ricxa, oni havas multajn amikojn. Li amas min, sed mi lin ne amas. Sinjoro P. kaj lia edzino tre amas miajn infanojn; mi ankaux tre amas iliajn (infanojn). Mi ne konas la sinjoron, kiu legas.

LESSON 6.

We have seen already (Lesson 1) that the words which end in "-as" express the idea of "doing" (action) or of "being" (state), and that they assert that this action or state is going on, or is a custom, at the present time, as "Mi vidas", I see; "Sxi estas", She is; "Ili suferas", They suffer, they are suffering.

To say that the action or state took place at some "past" time, "-is" is used, as "Mi vidis", I saw; "Sxi estis", She was; "Ili suferis", They suffered, they were suffering.

To say that the action or state will take place at some time to come, in the future, "-os" is used, as, "Mi vidos", I shall see; "Sxi estos", She will be; "Ili suferos", They will suffer, they will be suffering.

(Words which assert something, or which express the idea of doing or of being, are called VERBS).

(The root only of the verbs will now be given in the Vocabulary without the termination).

VOCABULARY.

historio : history. dorm- : sleep.
kuzo : cousin. vek- : wake.
plezuro : pleasure. sercx- : seek.
horlogxo : clock. fin- : end.
laboro : work. tim- : fear.
popolo : a people. ating- : reach to.
virino : woman. surda : deaf.
agxo : age. muta : dumb.
jaro : year. dolcxa : sweet.
permeso : permission. tri : three.
respond- : answer. dek-kvin : fifteen.
far- : do, make. kial : why.
forpel- : drive away. hieraux : yesterday.
ricev- : receive, get. morgaux : to-morrow.
don- : give. antaux : before.
trov- : find. post : after.
renkont- : meet. jam : already.
salut- : greet, salute. jam ne : no more.
rakont- : relate, tell. ankoraux : still, yet.
vizit- : visit.

Kial vi ne respondas al mi? Cxu vi estas surda aux muta? Kion vi faras?

La knabo forpelis la birdojn. De la patro mi ricevis libron, kaj de la frato mi ricevis plumon. La patro donis al mi dolcxan pomon. Jen estas la pomo, kiun mi trovis. Hieraux mi renkontis vian filon, kaj li gxentile salutis min. Antaux tri tagoj mi vizitis vian kuzon, kaj mia vizito faris al li plezuron. Kiam mi venis al li, li dormis, sed mi lin vekis.

Mi rakontos al vi historion. Cxu vi diros al mi la veron? Hodiaux estas sabato, kaj morgaux estos dimancxo. Hieraux estis vendredo, kaj postmorgaux estos lundo. Cxu vi jam trovis vian horlogxon? Mi gxin ankoraux ne sercxis; kiam mi finos mian laboron, mi sercxos mian horlogxon, sed mi timas, ke mi gxin jam ne trovos. Se vi nin venkos, la popolo diros, ke nur virinojn vi venkis. Kiam vi atingos la agxon de dek-kvin jaroj, vi ricevos la permeson.

LESSON 7.

Confusion is apt to occur in English in the use of the words "him, her, it, them; his, hers, its, their", e.g., "John loves his brother and his children." Whose children, John's or his brother's? "The boys brought to their fathers their hats." Whose hats, the boys' or their fathers'? "She gave her sister her book." Whose book? Her own or her sister's?

This confusion is avoided in Esperanto by the use of, the pronoun "si" ("sin"), meaning "himself, herself, itself, themselves", and "sia," meaning "his own, her own, its own, their own."

"Si" ("sin, sia") refers to the "subject" of the sentence in which it occurs; therefore in the sentence "John loves his brother and his son," it must be "Johano amas sian fraton kaj sian filon" if it is his own (John's) son, because John is the subject, but we must say "lian filon" if the brother's son is meant. "La knaboj alportis al siaj patroj siajn cxapelojn" means "The boys brought to their fathers their own (the boys') hats," because "boys" is the subject, but if we mean "the fathers' hats" it must be "iliajn cxapelojn."

"She gave to her sister her book" must be "Sxi donis al sia fratino sian libron" if it were her own book, but "Sxi donis al sia fratino sxian libron" if it were her sister's book. "Li diris al si"... means "He said to himself," but "Li diris al li" means that he said it to another person.

"Si", "sia", can only "refer to" the subject, it cannot be the subject itself or any part of it; therefore we must say "Sinjoro P. kaj lia edzino tre amas miajn infanojn", because the subject is "Sinjoro P. kaj lia edzino."

"Mem," self, is only used for emphasis, "e.g.", "Mi mem," my (own) self.

VOCABULARY.

gasto : guest. montr- : show.
vespero : evening. fleg- : tend, take care of
mangxo : meal. re-ven- : come back.
pupo : doll. pri : concerning, about.
aventuro : adventure. gxis : until, as far as.
palaco : palace. tute : quite, wholly.
zorg- : take care of. tute ne : not at all.
gard- : guard. kun : with.
am- : love. el : out of.
akompan- : accompany. el-ir- : go out of.
lav- : wash.

Mi amas min mem, vi amas vin mem, li amas sin mem kaj cxiu homo amas sin mem. Mi zorgas pri sxi tiel, kiel mi zorgas pri mi mem, sed sxi mem tute ne zorgas pri si, kaj tute sin ne gardas. Miaj fratoj havis hodiaux gastojn; post la vespermangxo niaj fratoj eliris kun la gastoj el sia domo kaj akompanis ilin gxis ilia domo. Mi lavis min en mia cxambro, kaj sxi lavis sin en sia cxambro. La infano sercxis sian pupon; mi montris al la infano, kie kusxas gxia pupo. [Footnote: Notice the use of the present "kusxas," "lies", after the past "montris," "showed", because at the time the action of "showing" took place the action of "lying" was then actually going on.]

Sxi rakontis al li sian aventuron. Sxi revenis al la palaco de sia patro. Siajn florojn sxi ne flegis. Mia frato diris al Stefano, ke li amas lin pli, ol sin mem.

LESSON 8.

The Cardinal Numbers are:--

unu : 1 kvar : 4 sep : 7 dek : 10
du : 2 kvin : 5 ok : 8 cent : 100
tri : 3 ses : 6 naux : 9 mil : 1,000

The numbers above 10 are written and read exactly as they are set down in figures:--11, dek unu; 12, dek du; 13, dek tri; 19, dek naux. The "tens" are written as one word, 20, dudek; 30, tridek; 90, nauxdek; 23, dudek tri; 47, kvardek sep; 85, okdek kvin; 136, cent tridek ses; 208, ducent (as one word) ok; 359, tricent kvindek naux; 1,001, mil unu; 2,877, dumil okcent sepdek sep; 1907, mil nauxcent sep.

Notice that there is a separate word for each figure except 0, nulo.

VOCABULARY.

busxo : mouth. forges- : forget.
orelo : ear. kre- : create.
fingro : finger. estu : should be.
horo : hour. facile : easily.
minuto : minute. sankta : holy.
sekundo : second. unuj : some.
monato : month. alia : other.
semajno : week. cxio : everything, all.
dato : date (of month, etc.). multe : much, many.
pov- : can, be able. per : by means of, through, with.
promen- : take a walk. nur : only.
konsist- : consist. malbona : bad.
elekt- : choose, elect. Kristnaska Tago : Christmas Day.

Januaro : January. Julio : July.
Februaro : February. Auxgusto : August.
Marto : March. Septembro : September.
Aprilo : April. Oktobro : October.
Majo : May. Novembro : November.
Junio : June. Decembro : December.

Du homoj povas pli multe fari, ol unu. Mi havas nur unu busxon, sed mi havas du orelojn. Li promenas kun tri hundoj. Li faris cxion per la dek fingroj de siaj manoj. El sxiaj multaj infanoj unuj estas bonaj kaj aliaj malbonaj. Kvin kaj sep faras dek du. Dek kaj dek faras dudek. Kvar kaj dek ok faras dudek du. Tridek kaj kvardek kvin faras sepdek kvin. Mil okcent nauxdek tri. Li havas dek unu infanojn. Sesdek minutoj faras unu horon, kaj unu minuto konsistas el sesdek sekundoj.

8A.

The Ordinal Numbers, first, second, etc., are formed by adding "a" to the Cardinal Numbers, as "unua", first; "dua", second; "tria", third; "kvara", fourth; "deka", tenth; "centa", hundredth; "mila", thousandth. The compound numbers are joined together by hyphens, and "a" is added to the last, as "dek-unua", eleventh; "la tridek-nauxa pagxo", the thirty-ninth page; la "cent-kvardek-kvina psalmo", the 145th psalm. Being adjectives, the Ordinal Numbers take the plural "j" and accusative "n" when necessary.

The Ordinals are used to tell the hour, as "Estas la trio, horo", It is 3 o'clock. The Cardinal Numbers are used for the minutes, as "A quarter past three" is "La tria horo kaj dek-kvin"; "Ten minutes to five," "La kvara horo kaj kvindek".

Januaro estas la unua monato de la jaro, Aprilo estas la kvara, Novembro estas la dek-unua, kaj Decembro estas la dek-dua. La dudeka (tago) de Februaro estas la kvindek-unua tago de la jaro. La sepan tagon de la semajno Dio elektis, ke gxi estu pli sankta, ol la ses unuaj tagoj. Kion Dio kreis en la sesa tago? Kiun daton ni havas hodiaux? Hodiaux estas la dudek-sepa (tago) de Marto. Kristnaska Tago estas la dudek-kvina (tago) de Decembro, Novjara Tago estas la unua de Januaro. Oni ne forgesas facile sian unuan amon.

LESSON 9.

The names of certain quantities are formed from the cardinal numbers by adding "o", as "dekduo", a dozen; "dudeko", a score; "cento", a hundred; "milo", a thousand. These names, as well as names of quantities generally, require to be followed by "da", of, as "dekduo da birdoj", a dozen (of) birds, but "dekdu birdoj", twelve birds; "dudeko da pomoj", a score of apples; "cento da sxafoj", or "cent sxafoj", a hundred sheep; "milo da homoj", a thousand people; "miloj da homoj", thousands of people.

When these expressions form the object of the verb, it is the name of the number which takes "-n", not the noun which follows "da", as "Li acxetis dudekon da sxafoj", He bought a score of sheep.

For "firstly, secondly", etc., "-e" is added to the number, as "unue", firstly; "kvine", fifthly; "deke", tenthly. (See Lesson 12).

VOCABULARY.

urbo : town. acxet- : buy.
logxanto : inhabitant. dank- : thank.
kulero : spoon. pet- : beg, request.
forko : fork. bezon- : want, need.
mono : money. kost- : cost.
prunto : loan. poste : afterwards.
metro : metre. tiu cxi : this.
sxtofo : stuff. por : for.
franko : franc (about 10d.). re- : prefix, meaning again
atakanto : assailant. or back.
pago : payment. tial : therefore.
miliono : a million. aux : or.
prunt- : lend. da : of (after a quantity).

Mi havas cent pomojn. Mi havas centon da pomoj. Tiu cxi urbo havas milionon da logxantoj. Mi acxetis dekduon da kuleroj, kaj du dekduojn da forkoj. Mil jaroj (aux, milo da jaroj) faras miljaron.

Unue mi redonas al vi la monon, kiun vi pruntis al mi; due mi dankas vin por la prunto; trie mi petas vin ankaux poste prunti al mi, kiam mi bezonos monon.

9A.

To express a certain part or fraction, "-on-" is added to the number specifying what part, as 1/2, unu "duono"; 1/3, unu "triono"; 1/4, unu "kvarono"; 1/10, unu "dekono"; 1/1000 unu "milono"; 1/1000000, unu "milionono". These words, being nouns, take "j" and "n" when required--3/10, "tri dekonoj"; 27/200, "dudek-sep ducentonoj"; 19/1000, "deknaux milonoj. Mi mangxis tri kvaronojn de la kuko", I ate three-quarters of the cake (see Lesson 35).

To express so many times a number "-obl-" is added to the number, as "duobla", double; "dekoble", ten times; "trioble kvar estas (or "faras") dekdu", three times four are twelve; "sepoble ok faras kvindek ses", seven times eight make fifty-six.

To express "by twos, by tens", etc., "-op-" is added to the number, as "duope", by twos, or two together; "dekope", by tens; "kvindekope", by fifties, fifty together, or fifty at a time.

Tri estas duono de ses, ok estas kvar kvinonoj de dek. Kvar metroj da tiu cxi sxtofo kostas naux frankojn, tial du metroj kostas kvar kaj duonon frankojn (aux da frankoj). Unu tago estas tricent-sesdek-kvinono, aux tricent-sesdek-sesono de jaro.

Kvinoble sep estas tridek kvin. Por cxiu tago mi ricevas kvin frankojn, sed por la hodiauxa tago mi ricevis duoblan pagon, t.e. (= tio estas) dek frankojn.

Tiuj cxi du amikoj promenas cxiam duope. Kvinope ili sin jxetis sur min, sed mi venkis cxiujn kvin atakantojn.

LESSON 10.

VERBS (continued), -i, -u.

In the examples already given the verbs ending in "-as", "-is", "-os" express "action" or "being" ("state") going on in present, past, or future time, as "Mi skribas", I am writing; "Li legis", He read; "Ni iros", We shall go.

If we wish merely to express the idea of action or state indefinitely, without reference to any time or any subject, the verb must end in "-i," as "Vivi", To live; "Mi deziras lerni", I wish to learn; "Ni devas labori", We must work.

(This is called the INDEFINITE or INFINITIVE Mood (manner of expression), because not limited by reference to time or subject).

To give an "order" or "command", or to express "will, desire, purpose", etc., the verb must end in "u", as "Donu al mi panon", Give (to) me bread; "Iru for", Go away; "Estu felicxa", May you be happy! "Vivu la regxo!" (Long) live the king!

In such cases as Tell "him to come", I want "you to sing", Allow "her to speak", we have to use a second sentence with the verb ending in "u", and beginning with "ke", that, as "Diru al li, ke li venu", Tell (say to) him, that he come; "Mi deziras, ke vi kantu", I wish, that you sing; "Permesu al sxi, ke sxi parolu", Allow her, that she speak. Sentences like the last are often contracted, only the last subject and verb being used, as "Sxi parolu", Let her speak; "Gxi kusxu", Let it lie; "Ni iru", Let us go; "Ili dormu", Let them sleep. "Cxu vi volas ke mi tion faru?" Do you wish me to do that? "Cxu mi tion faru?" Shall I do that?

VOCABULARY.

nomo : name. rajd- : ride.
vesto : coat, clothing. las- : let, leave.
kandelo : candle. kur- : run.
dometo : cottage. parol- : speak.
akvo : water. viv- : live, have life.
spegulo : looking-glass. rest- : rest, remain.
est- : be. honesta : honest.
tusx- : touch. inda : worthy.
auxskult- : listen. atenta : attentive.
pardon- : pardon. kara : dear.
uz- : use. gaja : gay, cheerful.
ordon- : order. tia : such.
babil- : chatter. longa : long.
send- : send. sincera : sincere.
trink- : drink. for : away, forth.
vol- : will, wish. forte : strongly.
bat- : beat. sole : alone.
kuragx- : have courage

Donu al la birdoj akvon, cxar ili volas trinki. Aleksandro ne volas lerni, kaj tial mi batas Aleksandron. Kiu kuragxas rajdi sur leono? Mi volis lin bati, sed li forkuris de mi.

Al leono ne donu la manon. Rakontu al mia juna amiko belan historion. Diru al la patro, ke mi estas diligenta. Diru al mi vian nomon. Ne skribu al mi tiajn longajn leterojn. Montru al mi vian novan veston. Infano, ne tusxu la spegulon. Karaj infanoj, estu cxiam honestaj. Ne auxskultu lin.

Li diras, ke mi estas atenta. Li petas, ke mi estu atenta. Ordonu al li, ke li ne babilu. Petu lin, ke li sendu al mi kandelon. La dometo estas inda, ke vi gxin acxetu. Sxi forte deziris, ke li restu viva.

Li venu, kaj mi pardonos al li. Ni estu gajaj, ni uzu bone la vivon, cxar la vivo ne estas longa. Li ne venu sole, sed alvenu kun sia plej bona amiko. Mi jam havas mian cxapelon; nun sercxu vi vian.

LESSON 11.

VERBS (continued), -us.

Sometimes we want to express a "supposition", to say that something "would" take place, supposing that something else, which is not likely to occur, were to do so, or that something "would have" taken place if something else which did not occur had done so. In this case the verb must end with "-us", as, If I were well (which I am not) I should be happy (which also I am not), "Se mi estus sana, mi estus felicxa". If he knew (supposition) that I am here (a fact) he would immediately come to me (supposition), "Se li scius, ke mi estas tie cxi, li tuj venus al mi". Compare the two following sentences:-- (i.). "Kvankam vi estas ricxa, mi dubas, cxu vi estas felicxa", Though you are (in fact) rich, I doubt whether you are (in fact) happy, (ii.). "Kvankam vi estus ricxa, mi dubas, cxu, vi estus felicxa", Though (supposing that) you were rich, I doubt whether you would be happy.

VOCABULARY.

lernanto : pupil. pen- : endeavour.
leciono : lesson. imit- : imitate,
instruanto : teacher, kvazaux : as if.
sci- : know. io : something.
pun- : punish. efektive : really.
estim- : esteem. supren : upwards.
lev- : lift, raise. kvankam : though.
ten- : hold, keep. se : if.

Se la lernanto scius bone sian lecionon, la instruanto lin ne punus. Se vi scius, kiu li estas, vi lin pli estimus. Ili levis unu manon supren, kvazaux ili ion tenus. Se mi efektive estus bela, aliaj penus min imiti. Ho! se mi jam havus la agxon de dekkvin jaroj!

LESSON 12.

When we tell of someone doing a certain action we often want to allude to some circumstance concerning that action, such as the time, or place, or manner in which it was done, that is, when, or where, or how it was done.

In the sentences--Yesterday I met your son, "Hieraux mi renkontis vian filon"; He will go in the evening, "Li iros vespere"; They sat there, "Ili sidis tie"; She will remain at home, "Sxi restos hejme"; Good children learn diligently, "Bonaj infanoj lernas diligente"; I will do it with pleasure, "Mi faros gxin plezure", the words "hieraux, vespere", show the time, "tie, hejme", show the place, and "diligente, plezure", show the manner of the action.

(Because these words relate to the verb they are called ADVERBS).

Adverbs may be formed from any word whose sense admits of it, and especially from adjectives, by means of the termination "e", as "bona", good, "bone", well; "antaux" before, "antauxe", previously or formerly; "mateno", morning, "matene", in the morning; "sekvi", to follow, "sekve", consequently.

When we want the adverb to show "direction towards" any place, time, etc., either actually or figuratively, "n" is added, as "Li alkuris hejmen", He ran home. "Ili levis unu manon supren", They raised one hand upwards. "Antauxen"! Forward! ("n" is also added to nouns to show direction towards. "Li eniris en la domon", He entered into the house).

Some adverbs are used with adjectives and other adverbs to show the "degree" of the quality, quantity, etc., as The paper is "very" white, La papero estas "tre" blanka. "Too" much speaking tires him, La "tro" multa parolado lacigas lin. I am "as" strong "as" you, Mi estas "tiel" forta, "kiel" vi (estas forta). He came "very" early, Li venis "tre" frue.

The following words are in themselves adverbs, and need no special ending:--

VOCABULARY.

hodiaux : to-day. tre : very.
hieraux : yesterday. tro : too.
morgaux : to-morrow. tute : quite.
baldaux : soon. nur : only.
ankoraux : yet. nepre : surely, without fail.
jam : already. preskaux : nearly.
jxus : just (time). apenaux : scarcely.
nun : now. almenaux : at least.
tuj : immediately. ambaux : both.
denove : again, anew. ankaux : also.
cxi denotes proximity. ne : not.
jen : here, there, lo, behold. jes : yes.
for : away, forth. ja : indeed.
pli : more. ecx : even.
plej : most. cxu : whether, asks a question.
plu : further. ju ... des : the more...the more.

Comparisons are made with--

"pli...ol", more than: "Lakto estas pli nutra ol vino", Milk is more nutritious than wine.

"malpli...ol", less than: "Vino estas malpli nutra ol lakto", Wine is less nutritious than milk.

"la plej", the most, "la malplej", the least: "El cxiuj liaj amikoj Johano estas la plej sagxa, kaj Georgo la malplej sagxa", Of all his friends John is the wisest, and George the least wise.

"Ju pli...des pli", the more...the more: "Ju pli li lernas, des pli li deziras lerni", The more he learns, the more he wishes to learn.

"Ju malpli...des malpli", the less...the less: "Ju malpli li laboras, des malpli li ricevas", The less he works, the less he gets.

"Ju pli...des malpli", the more...the less: "Ju pli li farigxas granda, des malpli li estas forta", The taller he becomes, the less strong he is.

"Ju malpli...des pli", the less...the more: "Ju malpli li pensas, des pli li parolas", The less he thinks, the more he talks.

For comparisons of equality, as...as, so...as, see Lesson 20.

VOCABULARY.

pordo : door. sav- : save.
kontrakto : contract. dauxr- : last, continue.
pastro : pastor, priest. trancx- : cut.
fero : iron. ekrigard- : glance.
bastono : stick (rod). flu- : flow.
stacio : station. ag- : act (do).
stacidomo : station. logx- : live, lodge.
hejmo : home. brul- : burn (as a fire).
furio : fury. vetur- : ride (in a vehicle).
sxipano : sailor. aper- : appear.
kolero : anger. postul- : require, demand.
honesto : honesty. pendig- : hang (something)
dangxero : danger. mort- : die.
koro : heart. malsana : ill.
oficisto : an official. varma : warm.
regxo : king. varmega : hot.
balo : ball, dance. frua : early.
humoro : humour. plue : further.
tempo : time. returne : back.
sinjorino : lady, Mrs. cxar : because, whereas.
ferm- : shut.

Resti kun leono estas dangxere. La trancxilo trancxas bone, cxar gxi estas akra. Iru pli rapide. Li fermis kolere la pordon. Lia parolo fluas dolcxe kaj agrable. Ni faris la kontrakton ne skribe, sed parole. Honesta homo agas honeste. La pastro, kiu mortis antaux nelonge (antaux ne longa tempo), logxis longe en nia urbo. Cxu vi gxin ne ricevis returne? Li estas morte malsana. La fera bastono, kiu kusxis en la forno, estas brule varmega. Parizo estas tre gaja. Matene frue sxi alveturis [Footnote: See Lesson 27.] al la stacidomo.

Pardonu al mi, ke mi restis tiel longe. Lia kolero longe dauxris. Li estas hodiaux en kolera humoro. La regxo baldaux denove sendis alian bonkoran oficiston. Hodiaux vespere ni havos balon. Kie vi estas? For de tie-cxi!

Kien li forveturis? Sxi kuris hejmen. Ni iris antauxen, kiel furioj. Cxio estis bona, kaj ni veturis pluen. La sinjorino ekrigardis returnen. La sxipanoj postulis, ke oni iru returnen. Mi gxin pendigis tien cxi, cxar gxi savis mian vivon. Mi neniam sendis tien cxi.

LESSON 13.

Mal-, -in-.

In Esperanto certain syllables which have a definite meaning are placed at the beginning (prefixes) or end (suffixes) of words to alter in some way the meaning of those words.

The prefix "mal-" gives an exactly opposite meaning to the word to which it is prefixed, as "dekstra", right (hand); "maldekstra", left (hand); "nova", new; "malnova", old; "helpi", to help, "malhelpi", to hinder; "fermi", to shut, "malfermi", to open.

The suffix "-in-" denotes the female sex. From "viro", [Footnote: The word "homo" previously given (Lesson 2) signifies a human being, a person, without reference to sex; "viro" means a man as distinguished from a woman.] a man, we get "virino", a woman; "filo", son, "filino", daughter; "cxevalo", a horse, "cxevalino", a mare; "koko", a cock, "kokino", a hen.

VOCABULARY.

kresko : growth. ferm- : shut.
haro : hair (substance). help- : help.
haroj : hair (of head). farigx- : become.
nazo : nose. dekstra : right (hand).
vojo : road. meza : middle, medium.
viro : man. dika : thick, stout.
edzo : husband, mola : soft.
nepo : grandson. luma : light (luminous).
nevo : nephew. nobla : noble (character).
bovo : ox. rekta : straight.
vidvo : widower, kurba : curved.
fiancxo : fiance. felicxa : happy.
nenio : nothing. naskita : born.
turment- : torment. fermita : shut.
sent- : feel. ecx : even.
ben- : bless. longe : for a long time.
estim- : have esteem for. denove : anew, again.

Mia frato ne estas granda, sed li ne estas malgranda, li estas de meza kresko. Haro estas tre maldika. La nokto estas tiel malluma, ke ni nenion povas vidi ecx antaux nia nazo. Tiu cxi malfresxa pano estas malmola, kiel sxtono. Malbonaj infanoj amas turmenti bestojn. Li sentis sin tiel malfelicxa, ke li malbenis la tagon, en kiu li estis naskita. Ni forte malestimas tiun cxi malnoblan homon. La fenestro longe estis nefermita; mi gxin fermis, sed mia frato tuj gxin denove malfermis. Rekta vojo estas pli mallonga, ol kurba. Ne estu maldanka.

La edzino de mia patro estas mia patrino, kaj la avino de miaj infanoj. Mia fratino estas tre bela knabino. Mia onklino estas tre bona virino. Mi vidis vian avinon kun sxiaj kvar nepinoj, kaj kun mia nevino. Mi havas bovon kaj bovinon. La juna vidvino farigxis denove fiancxino.

LESSON 14.

Re-, -ad-, ek-.

The prefixes "re-" and "ek-" and the suffix "-ad-" are attached to verbs.

"Re-" has nearly the same meaning as in English, "back" or "again", as "re-pagi", to pay back; "re-porti", to carry back; "re-jxeti", to throw back; "re-salti", to rebound; "re-kanti" to sing again; "re-legi", to read over again.

"-ad-" denotes the continuance or continued repetition of an action; it means "goes on doing", or "keeps on doing", or "is in the habit of", or in the past "used to", as "spiri", to breathe, "spirado", respiration; "movi", to move, "movado", continued movement; "fumi", to smoke, "fumado", the habit of smoking; "auxdi", to hear, "auxdado", the sense of hearing.

"Ek-" has the opposite meaning to "-ad-"; it signifies the beginning of an action, or a short or sudden action, as "kanti", to sing, "ekkanti", to begin to sing; "ridi", to laugh, "ekridi", to burst out laughing; "krii", to cry or call, "ekkrii", to cry out; "iri", to go, "ekiri", to set out; "dormi", to sleep, "ekdormi", to fall asleep.

VOCABULARY.

rivero : river. fal- : fall.
lando : land. atend- : wait for, expect.
segxo : seat. lacig- : make tired.
dauxro : duration. frot- : rub.
okupo : occupation. rigard- : look.
pluvo : rain. elrigard- : look out of.
vagonaro : train. salt- : jump.
surprizo : surprise. rapida : quick.
diamanto : diamond. klara : clear.
fulmo : lightning. lerte : cleverly.
lumo : a light. energie : energetically.
paf- : shoot. kelke : some.
jxet- : throw. cxiuminute : every minute. [p. 84]
auxd- : hear. tra : through.

Li donis al mi monon, sed mi gxin tuj redonis al li. Mi foriras, sed atendu min, cxar mi baldaux revenos. La suno rebrilas en la klara akvo de la rivero. Li reiris al sia lando. Sxi rejxetis sin sur la segxon.

En la dauxro de kelke da minutoj mi auxdis du pafojn. La pafado dauxris tre longe. Lia hierauxa parolo estis tre bela, sed la tro multa parolado lacigas lin. Li kantas tre belan kanton. La kantado estas agrabla okupo. Per mia mano mi energie lin frotadis. La pluvo faladis per riveroj. Cxiuminute sxi elrigardadis tra la fenestro, kaj malbenadis la malrapidan iradon de la vagonaro.

Mi saltas tre lerte. Mi eksaltis de surprizo. Mi saltadis la tutan tagon [Footnote: See Lesson 26 (iii.)] de loko al loko. Kiam vi ekparolis, mi atendis auxdi ion novan. La diamanto havas belan brilon. Sxi lasis la diamanton ekbrili. Du ekbriloj do fulmo trakuris tra la malluma cxielo.

LESSON 15.

VERBS (continued).

In all the examples already given the Subject of the Sentence is the "doer" of the action, but often it is "the one to whom the action is done" who occupies our thoughts, and of whom we wish to speak. This one then becomes the subject, and the form of the Verb is changed. Instead of saying "The police are searching for the thief," "Someone has broken the window," "Someone is going to finish the work to-morrow," we say "The thief is being sought for by the police," "The window has been broken," "The work is going to be finished to-morrow."

(Note the convenience of this form when we do not know or do not wish to mention the doer).