Chapter IX: The Romantic School

A convenient classification of the great German composers of the nineteenth century is to be found in "Famous Composers and their Works," a classification which will be followed in these chapters. It consists of three general groups: "The Romantic School," "The Classical Romanticists," and "The New Movement." As has been already stated, the basis of the Romantic School was simply a further development of Beethoven's descriptive writing, which created a powerful impression upon the so-called founders of the school, Spohr and Weber; they in turn were followed by Schubert, Mendelssohn, Schumann, and their disciples. The Classical Romanticists accepted the substance of romanticism in music, but remained more or less true to classical form. Raff stands at the head of this classification, Brahms as its chief exponent. The New Movement dates from the tumultuous upheavals in the musical world caused by the innovations of Berlioz in France, Liszt and Wagner in Germany. The evolution of these three movements will now be reviewed in logical sequence; but it should be borne in mind that this evolution had already begun during the later development of French and Italian opera as discussed in the previous chapter.

I.

SPOHR (1784-1859). The fruits of Spohr's activity as a composer present a rather peculiar mixture of progressive zeal and conventional mannerism. He was not alive to the true greatness of Beethoven's genius, neither can he be compared with Weber as a dramatic writer. On the other hand, Spohr was instrumental in awakening a keener interest for the supernatural, and he aimed to illustrate certain definite ideas by means of musical expression. This trait is especially conspicuous in his symphonies; and these entitle him to be regarded as one of the founders of programmatic orchestral music. Again, Spohr was one of the greatest violinists of his day, and as the natural result, his writing for strings was highly effective. Consequently his double string quartets, his octets, nonets, etc., are especially valued in musical literature. Spohr contributed to the evolution of orchestration proper but little that was actually new. But here again the development of violin technique stimulated at least a freer and more elaborate manner of employing the strings. Prout suggests that his orchestration resembles to some extent that of Mendelssohn, in that the equilibrium is admirably adjusted; and the general color-scheme is further enriched by frequent use of soft harmonies for the brass. In minor details of instrumentation, Spohr made some interesting experiments similar to those of Berlioz, such as the introduction of a number of kettle-drums into the orchestra. Prout also refers to the earthquake chorus in "Calvary" where six drums are played upon by two performers, and rolls in seconds, thirds, and fifths for two drums together are to be found. But as a whole, his reputation is due chiefly to his great achievements as a violinist and to the incentive he gave to romanticism in music.

II.

WEBER[37] (1786-1826). Spohr's efforts in behalf of programmatic music are by no means to be undervalued; at the same time it must be borne in mind that even his finest works are eclipsed by those of Weber by virtue of the latter's marvellous imagination, unerring judgment in the choice of appropriate means of expression, and huge technique in orchestration. Weber began his career during what might be called the transition period in modern art. It would be here out of place to enlarge upon the general conditions attendant upon the awakening of the so-called "storm and stress" agitation in Germany. Weber's artistic development was, however, so inseparably allied with this movement that at least a brief review thereof would appear indispensable before proceeding to an examination of his orchestral works.

[Footnote 37: See Appendix of Musical Illustrations, Examples 36 to 47.]

Langhans sums up the mental and emotional conditions of this transition period by saying that "in place of the general subject-matter with which the lyric poetry of the preceding century had been satisfied, the subjective feelings of the poet now came to the front, and the essential nature of lyric poetry, a boundless submersion into the innermost life of the soul, could under these circumstances attain full prominence." Germany was at this time greatly interested in the writings of Byron and of Jean Paul Richter. Romantic poetry in turn began to influence both dramatic and lyric music. Indications of departure from the elevated and reflective style of the great classical composers were apparent. Time-honored rules and traditions began to be neglected. Individualism asserted itself. The general tendency of the epoch embodied a certain mystical element--a return to the chivalrous atmosphere of mediæval romance. And this tendency was in harmony with the very nature of Weber's imaginative trend. In turn, this unfettered realm of imagination, peopled with sylphs, nymphs, fairies, contained latent and most propitious possibilities for progressive orchestration. Weber's instrumentation was founded upon that of Beethoven, but it was none the less distinctive and original. It was above all dramatic. His true greatness lay in the power of orchestral portrayal in the more vivid scenes of his operas, and in his operatic overtures. His two symphonies are comparatively weak. Though deficient in artistic education, Weber's romantic disposition and rare appreciation for instrumental effects enabled him to become one of the greatest modern orchestral writers, and his scoring is a model for all later composers. He stands at the head of modern instrumentation, for with him a new period began. Moreover, he was the creator of modern German romantic opera. As Kapellmeister at Dresden he was instrumental in counteracting the influence of Italian music which was still in vogue at the Court, and he helped to mould the tastes of the public in favor of native dramatic and orchestral music. "Der Freischütz" is the representative of ideal national opera. Here the orchestration is admirably adapted to depict and intensify the scenes and situations. It abounds in striking contrasts that are ever consistent with the demands of what has been called the "local" coloring. Episodes requiring sombre and mysterious tonal tints are again offset by the purest of lyrics and by powerful dramatic climaxes. "Oberon," on the other hand, abounds in more peaceful melodic and harmonic fancies, poetic revery, and dainty scoring. Though the effectiveness of "Euryanthe" is marred by reason of its insipid libretto, it is nevertheless the most important of Weber's operas, considered from a musical standpoint. Its continuous music and the interweaving of recitative and melody directly point the way to Wagner. Weber displayed superb power in the development of his overtures. In the second volume of his "Music and Musicians," Wagner declared that Weber might be said to have originated a novel form of overture or "dramatic fantasy," of which Wagner considered the "Oberon" overture to be the best example.

In turning to the details of Weber's instrumentation it is found that no new instruments were introduced. Beauty and novelty were attained rather by inherent regard for suitable application of tonal color and by the discovery of new combinations. Although Weber, like Spohr, did not venerate Beethoven as he should have done, it was not possible for him to improve upon the great master's string writing. Of course certain novel effects are to be found, such as the subdivision of the violins _soli_ into numerous parts, the viola accompaniment to Annette's ballad,[38] and the use of the same instrument as bass to "Leise, leise"[39] in "Der Freischütz."

[Footnote 38: Ex. 47.]

[Footnote 39: Ex. 43.]

But perhaps no other composer contributed more to the independence of the wood-wind.[40] Weber was exceedingly modern in the use of small combinations. In order to obtain a rare and fairy-like effect in "Oberon," the first flute and first clarinet give out the melody; the second flute plays arpeggios as does likewise the second clarinet, though in contrary motion; a solo horn is employed as bass. The opening bars of Annette's song in "Der Freischütz" may be cited as containing a good example for the oboe as does also the accompaniment to Kilian's song for the bassoon. But it was quite particularly the clarinet for which Weber showed especial predilection. Beautiful phrases for the clarinet are to be found in the Allegro of the overture to "Der Freischütz"[41] as well as in the overture to "Oberon"; and the characteristics of the instrument in its entire range are effectively displayed in the introduction to Adolar's aria in the second act of "Euryanthe." Moreover, he was the first to discover the tragic possibilities of the chalumeau range,[42] as exemplified by the held notes in the lowest part of the instrument accompanying the entries of Zamiel in "Der Freischütz."

[Footnote 40: Ex. 39, 41.]

[Footnote 41: Ex. 37.]

[Footnote 42: Ex. 40, 44, 46.]

Next to the clarinet, the horns[43] received especial consideration from Weber, and acquired greater freedom and individuality, being brought into requisition not alone for mellow _cantilene_ and sustained harmonies, but also as the exponents of jubilant outbursts or of gloomy whisperings. Many admirable illustrations will readily be recalled, such as the passages for horns _soli_ in the introduction of the "Freischütz" overture,[44] the trio for horns in the Romance in "Preciosa," and the horn accompaniment to the Mermaid's Song in "Oberon." With Weber, the use of four horns and three trombones became the rule, whereas with Beethoven it had been the exception.

[Footnote 43: Ex. 42, 45.]

[Footnote 44: Ex. 36.]

All things considered, it is evident that modern opera and modern orchestration are immensely indebted to Weber, and his influence has made itself more or less felt upon the writings of all subsequent dramatic and orchestral composers.

III.

Two contemporaries of Weber who followed in his footsteps as composers of romantic opera were Konradin Kreutzer (1780) and Marschner (1795). Kreutzer's "Nachtlager von Granada" has become widely known, but of the two men, Marschner is by far the more important. He is popularly known as the heir of Weber, and has been called the connecting link between Weber and Wagner. Himself stimulated and influenced by his friend, Weber, he in turn helped to mould the earlier works of Wagner. His masterpiece, "Hans Heiling," abounds in natural melodic expression, truthful interpretation and dramatic energy. Neither Kreutzer nor Marschner can be cited as having contributed anything substantially new to instrumentation, but they at least helped to strengthen the foundations of modern orchestration as initiated by Weber.

IV.

The two greatest representatives of the early Romantic School were Weber and SCHUBERT (1797-1828), indeed, the latter is to be regarded as the ideal exponent of the romantic poets. He was the first to raise the Lied from comparative obscurity to such prominence as to bring the lyric element on a par with that of the dramatic and epic. His nature was contemplative rather than dramatic. Nevertheless some of his greatest masterpieces, such as the "Erlkönig," embody not only dramatic but epic characterization as well. He was above all the master of exquisite melody, and both his songs and his instrumental works are further conspicuous for their daring harmonies, animated and varied rhythm. He opened up a new pathway in the field of accompaniment which acquired not only greater importance in intensifying emotional expression, but came also to be the faithful ally of the vocal part as interpreter of the poem. The use of little motives in the accompaniment to his songs might be looked upon as an anticipation in the miniature of Wagner's thematic treatment of his "Leit-motiven."

Schubert's mode of life was in some respects similar to that of Beethoven in that he lived apart from the public. Spurred on by the example of Beethoven, he added to his series of youthful symphonies two masterpieces which are next in importance to those of his illustrious model. Both the C major and the unfinished B minor symphonies display rare skill in the handling of orchestral instruments, whether in solo passages or in combination. An intimate acquaintance with their respective characteristics was afforded him during his early training, and every bar reveals the hand of a master who without hesitation knew what effects he desired and how to obtain them. Although his orchestral works lack that depth of conception that only Beethoven possessed, Schubert nevertheless supplied the deficiency by means of beautiful melody, tender expression, forceful harmonic progressions, and, as just intimated, a perfect command of orchestral resources. Schubert enlarged the scope of practical instrumentation by discovering two exceedingly valuable and effective modes of expression that were entirely new so far as manner of treatment is concerned. No composer before him had elicited from the trombones such impressive utterance as is to be found, for instance, in the first movement of the symphony in C where the trombones _pianissimo_ intone the melody. The first innovation consisted, therefore, of employing the trombones freely as solo instruments, or again as independent factors in three-part harmony, _pianissimo_, or in unison, _forte_. The second innovation was the felicitous manner in which he contrasted solo instruments of the wood-wind group, or what Prout calls "a kind of dialogue between them." As an admirable illustration well-known to all, he calls attention to the charming dialogue between the flute, oboe, and clarinet in the two Ballet airs and in the Entr'-act in B flat of the music to "Rosamunde." Many other interesting details of instrumentation could be cited such as the effective use of the trumpet in the slow movement of the symphony in G; his chamber music, also, furnishes admirable examples of string writing. Among the most prominent are the trio in E flat, the quartet in D minor, and the quintet in C.

Only in recent years has the influence of Schubert's orchestral works made itself prominently felt, for until the middle of the last century most of them had remained in manuscript. Moreover as recently as fifty odd years ago one of his symphonies was considered excessively difficult by the principal orchestra of Vienna. Grove says that "though the whole work was announced, such had been the difficulties at rehearsal that only the first two movements were given, and they were carried off by an interpolation of an air from 'Lucia' between them."

V.

MENDELSSOHN[45] (1809-1847). Concurrent with the advent of Mendelssohn and Schumann, the fascination that Rossini had exercised in Germany lost its hold, and the public learned to appreciate more and more the sterling qualities of its own native music. But not only did the efforts of the German composers of the nineteenth century begin to win due recognition, but also there was rekindled a veneration for the creations of the great classicists. This was in a large manner due to Mendelssohn's untiring efforts. Possessed of broad culture, wealth, and attractive personality, he combined the spirit of romanticism with the structural forms of classicism; this conservatism helped to balance the restless tendencies that were at that time dominating music and poetry. His compositions are imbued with beauty and sweetness of melody, with varied harmonies, buoyant orchestration; his choral writing is the most fluent since Bach's and surpasses in this respect that of Händel. Melody is emphasized; tragic depth is lacking. He excelled as a writer of "representative" music, but even here his refined sense for euphony never deserted him. He was successful in all forms excepting opera. "St. Paul" and "Elijah" are the most important oratorios since those of Haydn; his violin concerto comes next to Beethoven's as a favorite; his symphonies are characteristic, romantic, and abound in "local" coloring. His style may be divided into two distinct classes: the lyric, as typified in the "Songs without Words," and the fantastic and imaginative as exposed in the Scherzo of the "Midsummer Night's Dream."

[Footnote 45: See Appendix of Musical Illustrations, Examples 58 to 66.]

Mendelssohn's contributions to the details of instrumentation were both original and varied. Already in "Midsummer Night's Dream," of which the Overture was written when he was but seventeen years old, are to be found marvellous effects that are indeed fairy-like in their daintiness.[46] In fact it might be justly claimed that this is Mendelssohn's best orchestral work, taking into consideration its polished form, transparent and perfectly balanced instrumentation. Noteworthy for their novelty are the rapid staccato passages for the wood-wind in the Scherzo.[47] In none other of his works has the flute been treated in a more charming manner.[48] Familiar to all is the romantic and extended employment of the horns in the Notturno,[49] as well as the ludicrous utterances of the opheicleide in the Overture.

[Footnote 46: Ex. 58, 62.]

[Footnote 47: Ex. 59.]

[Footnote 48: Ex. 60, 66.]

[Footnote 49: Ex. 65.]

As a composer of oratorio, Mendelssohn's choruses, recitatives and German chorale melodies plainly show the influence of Bach's "Passion Music." This is particularly noticeable in "St. Paul." Mendelssohn's mightiest creation is undoubtedly "Elijah." It satisfies every demand by reason of its expressive recitative, its dramatic and descriptive choruses, its beauty of lyric episodes and the appropriateness of its structural form. The orchestral score of "Elijah" is one of Mendelssohn's best. Among minor details, the violas are brought into prominence as in the accompaniment to "Lord God of Abraham" where they are given the highest part. A well-known phrase is the 'cello accompaniment in thirds to the baritone solo. The brass is again reënforced by an opheicleide. The opening of the chorus, "O be gracious, ye immortals," in "St. Paul" is accompanied by divided violas and 'cellos, and parts for the serpent are to be found in the same work.

Both the subject-matter and the orchestration of Mendelssohn's symphonies show exceptional originality, and the "Scotch," No. 2 in A minor, as well as the "Italian," No. 3 in A major, are worthy companions to the "Midsummer Night's Dream." His symphonies are full of freshness and vigor. Though classic purity of form is strictly adhered to, Beethoven's polyphony and Weber's picturesque portrayal are skilfully combined. Like Beethoven, he embodied in his symphonies certain dramatic characteristics. Rapid passages for the wood-wind, similar to those in the "Midsummer Night's Dream," are again to be met with in the Scherzo of the "Scotch" symphony. Mendelssohn was conservative in employing the brass; of all the early romanticists he remained the most faithful to traditional usage of the third group, although trombones were now incorporated as habitual members thereof. Among other novel combinations, divided violas, reënforced by clarinets, intone the second subject in the first movement of the "Lobgesang" symphony. In connection with Mendelssohn it is interesting to recall the fact that as late as 1829 the pianoforte was still sometimes employed as a means for conducting, since in that year he directed his C minor symphony in that way in London.

Mendelssohn's overtures are more pronounced in their modern romantic tendencies than his symphonies. They are distinctly programmatic, even though in structure they are moulded on classic forms. From them dates the development of the modern romantic concert overture. Mendelssohn's merits and defects have led to much violent discussion, but the suavity of his melody, the purity of his form and the delicacy of his orchestration have been excelled by none.

VI.

The most prominent associates and disciples of Mendelssohn were F. Hiller, Rietz, the Englishman, Bennett, and the Dane, Gade.

Ferdinand Hiller (1811) was a celebrated and prolific composer, being in his day considered the most notable musician in West Germany. It was his rare privilege to be personally acquainted with no less than seven of the greatest composers the world has ever produced--Cherubini, Beethoven, Meyerbeer, Rossini, Berlioz, Chopin and Liszt. He was, moreover, a fine pianist and conductor, and was particularly happy as an interpreter of Beethoven. His compositions are pleasing and well-rounded in form; but they were modelled after those of Mendelssohn and are now comparatively forgotten in consequence of their lack of individuality.

Julius Rietz (1812) was closely associated with Mendelssohn whom he eventually succeeded as conductor of the Gewandhaus Concerts. He is primarily to be remembered for having edited Beethoven's symphonies as well as the entire works of Mendelssohn.

Sterndale Bennett (1816) was one of England's greatest composers, the most gifted, in fact, after Purcell. He was a friend both of Mendelssohn and of Schumann, and their enthusiasm encouraged and stimulated him to further develop his own talents. Although the influence more particularly of Mendelssohn is plainly to be found in his works, he retained his individuality and displayed numerous traits that are undeniably original. His most important works are an oratorio "The Woman of Samaria"; a cantata "The May Queen"; a symphony in G minor; four overtures, and four pianoforte concertos. He has been called the founder of a new "English School."

Since the substance of Gade's music is nominally Scandinavian in character, it will again be referred to later on in connection with the Northern countries.

VII.

SCHUMANN (1810-1856). In spite of the depth of thought and feeling, the brilliancy of ideas, and the programmatic tendencies that signalize Schumann's monumental productions, he unfortunately holds the unique position of being one of the few great masters who did not excel in orchestration. Nevertheless, such is the importance of his orchestral works that they have won for themselves an exalted and permanent place in musical literature. Schumann's relation to the Romantic Movement may be tersely stated as in one of Dickinson's condensed reviews: "The romantic ideal attains self-consciousness in Schumann. Weber and Schubert never called themselves romanticists and were not wholly aware of the tendencies of their work. Schumann, a critical thinker and self-analyst, not only moulded and colored his music in accord with certain definite poetic conceptions imbibed from the romantic writers, but also became the literary champion of romanticism in music, and aimed directly at fixed radical principles in the critical and creative thought of his time. He, therefore, not only marks the beginning of a new era in musical art, but is also the type of the modern liberally cultured and reflective musician." With Schumann, the subject-matter and treatment of design are of all importance. His compositions contain the quintessence of the poetic and romantic. Every little melody is a miniature poem in tones, tinged by a certain melancholy and even gloomy coloring. He was, like Mendelssohn, an ardent disciple of Bach, but his harmonies are freer and bolder than Mendelssohn's, and his pianoforte compositions show the influence more especially of Chopin. The chief characteristics of these works are _cantabile_ expression, intricacy, and the predominance of harmony and rhythm over melody. A multitude of ideas are frequently crowded into the space of a few bars. As a song writer Schumann rivalled and perhaps even excelled Schubert. The songs of these two peers, together with those of Franz (1815), represent the highest ideal of the German Lied, for the exquisite taste and sentiment of Franz appeal strongly to the cultivated musician. Although Schubert's influence upon Schumann's songs is plainly to be seen, Schumann enhanced the functions of the accompaniment and frequently assigned but a secondary rôle to the vocal part. Novelty of form and style characterize his works for soli, chorus and orchestra; portions of "Scenes from Faust," "Paradise and the Peri," "Manfred," represent his highest attainment and contain also some effective scoring. The instrumentation of his chamber music betrays more regard for sonority than for classic counterpoint. Of surpassing beauty are the quartets in A and in A minor, and the greatest of all, the quintet in E flat.

Schumann's four symphonies rank next in importance to those of Beethoven and Schubert, and in depth of sentiment and emotional power he proved himself a worthy successor to Beethoven. His symphonies are stamped with distinctive individuality, traditional form being subjected to certain modifications that were in keeping with the progressive tendencies of his nature. Thus the D minor symphony is intended to be played entire without a pause, and subject-matter from one movement reasserts itself in another. It would be a waste of time to analyze Schumann's instrumentation too closely. He followed but could not equal that of Mendelssohn. Artistic feeling for orchestral effects and occasional good scoring are to be found, but much of the latter is thick and heavy. He was apt to follow Rossini's more or less trivial methods of employing the third enlarged orchestral group. Even Schubert was not entirely exempt from this mannerism. Such incongruities as the employment of a bassoon as a bass to trombones could also be cited. Of material advantage, however, was his introduction into German orchestras of valve-horns and valve-trumpets. But in a word, it is the substantial worth of the music itself, not the instrumentation, that has made Schumann's orchestral works immortal.

VIII.

Among the prominent associates and disciples of Schumann should be mentioned Volkmann, Reinecke, Bargiel, and Jensen.

The compositions of Volkmann (1815) show affinity to Schumann's. His pianoforte works bear fanciful titles, and his symphonies and quartets are massive and musicianly. But like most satellites, he was not possessed of sufficient spontaneity to acquire wide-spread or enduring recognition. The compositions of Carl Reinecke (1824), who held the honorable position of director of the Gewandhaus Concerts from 1860 until 1895, show the influence more especially of Schumann, although that of Mendelssohn as well as of Wagner and Brahms is also apparent. He owes his reputation as a composer largely to his smaller works, in which the tastes of a refined pianist are much in evidence. Few could be compared with him as an interpreter of Mozart, and his activity not alone as a composer of merit but also as a prominent pianist and distinguished conductor has won him universal fame. Bargiel (1828) was one of the foremost disciples of Schumann whose principles he zealously disseminated, both in his capacity as a fine teacher and as composer. His symphonies, chamber music and quite especially his psalms for chorus and orchestra show considerable originality and fine musicianship. Likewise Jensen (1837) took Schumann unreservedly as his model in spite of being in sympathetic accord with Gade. His songs and pianoforte pieces in the lyric _genre_ are imbued with true feeling and rare sensuous charm.

IX.

In a general sense, all modern composers belong to the Romantic School, but for the sake of consistency in this general classification, Lachner, Jadassohn and Moszkowski should be mentioned as direct followers of both Mendelssohn and Schumann.

Franz Lachner (1803) was prominently connected with the musical life of Munich prior to the rise of Wagner worship in 1865. In spite of his untiring activity as a conductor, he was one of the most prolific and at the same time most popular composers of South Germany. His style betrays the mind of a learned man. The harmonies are modern, but his works are none the less imbued with a certain tinge of classicism. Lachner wrote several operas and oratorios, eight symphonies, and much chamber and church music; but of greatest importance are the suites for grand orchestra of which he wrote eight. They are magnificent specimens of contrapuntal knowledge. Some condemn his writings as being "Kapellmeistermusik" and as containing nothing truly original or great. Riemann's views are radically different:--"Lachner is at his best in his orchestral suites, which, as a kind of modern continuation of Bach-Händel orchestral movements, occupy a distinctive place in musical literature. Sovereign command of contrapuntal devices combined with nobility of invention will secure for them in the future greater appreciation than is accorded them at the present day."

Jadassohn (1831) holds an important position in the history of instrumentation, not so much, perhaps, as a result of his own composition as for the excellence of his teaching and of his theoretical works, which include the valuable "Lehrbuch der Instrumentation." A prominent feature of many of his works is the facility with which canonic writing is applied. Among the best-known and most popular of his orchestral compositions is the Serenade, opus 35.

Moszkowski (1854) is one of the younger composers whose writings are imbued with the spirit of Mendelssohn and Schumann rather than with the local coloring of Poland as might have been expected since his father was a native of that country. The most popular of his works are the "Spanische Tänze" for pianoforte, whereas the most important in orchestral form is the symphonic poem "Jeanne d'Arc." The style is dignified and musicianly, but lacks the true greatness of originality.

The list of faithful adherents to the pure romanticism of the early school is herewith properly concluded. Only an imaginary line, however, separates Spohr and Weber from Raff and Brahms; so the following chapter is nothing more than a continuation of the present discussion.

(Summary on page 175.)