Chapter VIII: , which treats of the contemporaries of Beethoven. Those

pages call attention to Spontini's historic grand opera, to Rossini's seductive charm, and to the "mellifluous fabrications of Donizetti and Bellini with which undramatic productions must be classed also the earlier works of Verdi in consequence of their voluptuous melodic exuberance."

VERDI (1813-1901) exhibits in the development of his creative power a series of progressive stages that are in some respects analogous to Wagner's evolutionary periods. Just as Wagner's operas and music dramas can be separated into three general groups, so may Verdi's productions be subjected to similar analytical treatment. It will be remembered, however, that the orchestration of Wagner necessitated a second independent classification which partially ignores the æsthetic and philosophical aspect of subject-matter. With Verdi, on the other hand, dramatic style, musical treatment and orchestration matured simultaneously and gradually.

There is no call to refer to works anteceding "Nabucco," which launched Verdi on his unprecedented career. The first group may therefore include such operas as "Nabucco," "I Lombardi," and "Ernani." The sole claim to merit that these works can offer is in their wealth of melody, further enhanced by considerable rhythmic variety. Displaying closer resemblance to Meyerbeer's style than to _il bel canto_ of Rossini, they further embody reminiscences of Bellini, and their favorable reception may have been aided by these very reminiscences. From an artistic standpoint they contain little worthy of commendation. They lack depth of feeling, whereas both form and instrumentation are conventional and commonplace. Orchestral color depends largely upon violent and frequently illogical dynamic contrasts.

Typical of the second group are "Rigoletto," "La Traviata," and "Il Trovatore." A further division might have been made in consequence of the superiority of "Il Trovatore" over "Rigoletto." Such exact distinctions, however, do not seem necessary in this discussion. These works show more earnest search for truthful and impressive expression, greater harmonic variety, and freer treatment of the inner and lower parts. The dramatic effects are of an intensity rarely surpassed. The music is, however, not only passionate but violent, and the tonal effects often suggest unnecessary noise rather than satisfying sonority. As Ferris expresses it: "Verdi storms the ear and captivates the senses, but does not subdue the soul." "Rigoletto" shows increased regard for judicious orchestration and that particularly in the deployment of the wood-wind. The scoring of "La Traviata" is picturesque and consistent. "Il Trovatore" presents passionate outbursts of feeling, a certain striving after effects, whereas the instrumentation reflects in its not infrequent coarseness the brutal tendencies of the subject-matter itself. As a whole, however, the orchestration possesses more independence and richer tonal variety than that of Verdi's preceding works.

The third and last group is comprised of the "Manzoni Requiem," the operas "Aïda," "Othello," and the lyric drama "Falstaff." The last named might almost be classified by itself, representing as it does the extreme phase of Verdi's involuntary adaptation of Teutonic dogmas both ancient and modern. In spite of his obvious intention to make this his masterpiece, it presents a line of departure not suited to his most felicitous style of writing. However, this _dramma lirico_ has borne fruit in so far as to be a source of inspiration to Puccini, Mascagni and Leoncavallo, although _their_ effusions take the form of "tragic operettas." In spite of the display of virile power in "Falstaff," Verdi reached his highest development in the orchestration of the Requiem, in the musical contents of "Aïda," and in the dramatic continuity of "Othello." In all these later works one finds unquestionable evidence of Wagnerian influence, at the least in respect to externals. Notwithstanding Verdi's repudiation of any such intentions, no composer surrounded by the spirit of the times could do other than progress. The most noticeable improvements in the third group consist of freer use of the dissonant element, better declamation, higher regard for faithful interpretation, painstaking finish of minor details, and above all an extreme advance in the art of instrumentation. The functions of the orchestra become more and more important, and the tonal colors acquire a richer and warmer hue. The scoring of the Requiem is dignified, religious, yet emotional. That of "Aïda" breathes the very atmosphere of its Egyptian setting. In "Othello," the orchestration is essentially dramatic and impassioned. "Falstaff" accepts the fundamental principles of Gluck, and the orchestra is raised to prominence equal to that of the voices. As a result of this concession, Verdi found Wagner's orchestral resources indispensable to his needs, and the resultant modern effects are a pleasant surprise. The vocal parts and the orchestra are here logically balanced, though Verdi's marvellous gift as a writer of pure and limpid melody continues in evidence.

With the evolution of this third period was instituted one of the mightiest transformations in the history of Italian opera. That country has as yet been unable to replace him. The efforts of Ponchielli, Gomez, Boïto, Sgambati, Buonamici, Puccini, are certainly praiseworthy, but sink into insignificance when compared with the splendid attainments of their venerable and venerated model. As to the rocket-like ascent and descent of Mascagni together with the present notoriety of Leoncavallo, time alone will decide whether the path they have chosen be meritorious or meretricious.

VIII.

It will take but a few words to conclude the record of musical activity displayed by the recent representatives of the Latin races. They have done practically nothing for the cause of orchestration other than to branch off into infrequented by-ways that have necessitated corresponding orchestral treatment. These final remarks must therefore deal not with the subject of instrumentation proper, but rather with the æsthetic and philosophical aspect of modern Italian music, the influence it has exerted, and the direction it is taking.

Ponchielli (1834) owes a foreign reputation to his opera "Gioconda," but endeared himself to his countrymen not alone as a dramatic writer but also as the author of the "Garibaldi Hymn," written in 1882, four years before his death. He enjoyed the reputation of being the greatest modern composer of Italian opera after Verdi. Since the Brazilian, Gomez (1839), practically adopted Italy as his home, he is mentioned in this connection. He was a painstaking composer, but his music frequently reminds one of Verdi's, whose ardent admirer he was. Boïto (1842) possesses not only the talents of an excellent composer, but of a highly gifted poet as well. He was the first prominent Italian to accept without reserve the fundamental principles governing the Germanic music drama, and thus became the head of the Wagnerian party in his own country. His "Mefistofele" did not succeed without a struggle, but it is now accepted as a standard opera of universal fame. The orchestral efforts of Sgambati (1843) are analogous to Boïto's adaptation of exotic principles bearing on operatic forms. To Sgambati belongs the honor of being the first Italian composer of the nineteenth century devoted to purely instrumental music and large orchestral forms. Already in his youth he attracted attention in consequence of an interesting pianoforte quartet. His structural form, moulded on classic lines, is logical and well proportioned, nor is it devoid of distinctive characteristics. His music embodies clear melodic delineation and free harmonization. The orchestration is, however, its best feature. It displays sound judgment, sentient appreciation for variety, contrast, and tone-color; these results are, moreover, attained by means of a comparatively small orchestra. Concert overtures, chamber music and the like are comprised in the works of Buonamici (1846) who was a pupil of both von Bülow and Rheinberger. His chief claim to recognition, however, like that of Puccini, depends upon his dramatic effects, which have attracted considerable attention. At the present moment Puccini is generally regarded by his countrymen as the foremost living Italian composer. His orchestration is rich and full, but his music, in spite of its pleasing melody and impassioned utterance, betrays the influence of Ponchielli who in turn drew inspiration from Verdi.

What shall be said about Mascagni and Leoncavallo? What have they done even indirectly for the cause of orchestration? Chronologically, Leoncavallo (1858) precedes Mascagni (1863), but without "Cavalleria rusticana" to establish a precedent, "I Pagliacci" might never have created the furor that it has. A discussion as to the relative merits and defects of their notorious productions would be here out of place. As to their relative orchestration, that of Mascagni shows, on the whole, a lack of genuine musicianly training. Although it must be conceded that he elicits highly dramatic and intensely passionate accents from the orchestra, the substance of his orchestration has, on the whole, a false ring to it and is of a hoarse quality of tone. It lacks balance, lacks taste, lacks judgment, and is at times coarse even to brutality. That of Leoncavallo is decidedly more refined and original. Here again the key-note is a striving after unnatural effects; but the orchestra is at least full of life, impassioned, descriptive.

The earlier achievements of Ponchielli, Boïto and Sgambati are assuredly of more enduring worth. These three representative men may be regarded as the only noteworthy Italian composers born after Verdi and before 1850.[90] Such is the present meagre record of a country that can boast of an illustrious throng of preceding prodigies![91]

[Footnote 90: Although Giacomo Puccini (1858) has long since been held by his countrymen at his true valuation, it is only during the past few years that the world at large has come to realize that his productions are more significant than those of Mascagni and Leoncavallo who, until 1896, had won an international reputation that temporarily overshadowed that of Puccini. Even though Puccini lays himself open to criticism as to the æsthetic value of his choice of librettos in which ultra-sensationalism frequently plays so conspicuous a rôle, there is no longer any doubt that his operas "La Bohème" and "Tosca" have now been permanently admitted to the standard repertoires of the dramatic stage, and, together with his recent success, "Madam Butterfly," have caused the entire musical world to put their stamp of approval upon the earlier verdict of Puccini's countrymen in regarding him as a worthy successor to Verdi and as the most gifted living representative of Italian operatic art.]

[Footnote 91: Wolf-Ferrari (1876) is probably the youngest living composer to whom already more than fleeting recognition has been accorded. It is not an easy matter to decide under what classification he should be placed. With a German father, his mother an Italian, and married to an American, his instincts are Italian, though he owes the stability of his musical training to Rheinberger at Munich. His melodic form is conspicuously Italian, while his harmonic substructure is more or less Teutonic. His orchestration is eclectic; on the other hand, its cardinal characteristic consists of a happy appropriation of Mozart's naïve touch. In a word, one might go yet farther and say that it is precisely this naïveté, not alone in orchestration but in musical substance as well, that makes Wolf-Ferrari's music so refreshing. He owes the opening up of his career to the opera "Die neugierigen Frauen," which has enjoyed a notable and wide-spread popularity in Germany, whereas he has already demonstrated his ability to handle large vocal and orchestral forces for concert performance by his setting of Dante's "La vita nuova," which has also excited favorable comment in Germany and has just been performed in New York with success.]

(Summary on page 178.)