Chapter IV: Observations on New Spain.iv'-1 (1)

The kingdom of New Spain[IV'-2] lies between 16° and 44° N. lat., and 96° and 118° W. long. It is divided into two separate and independent governments, and these again into various subdivisions.

I. The viceroyalty includes:

1. The administration of Guadalaxara,[IV'-3] which lies between 18° 30´ and 24° 30´ N. lat., and 104° and 109° W. long., and is bounded south and west by the South Sea, north by the provinces of Biscay [Nueva Viscaya] and Sinaloa; N. E. by the administration of Zacatecas; E. by the administration of Guanaxuato, and S. E. by that of Valladolid. It is 350 miles in length from northwest to southeast, and 250 in width east and west. Its population may be estimated at 100,000. It is one of the most luxuriant and rich administrations in the viceroyalty; and is watered from east to west by the great river de Santego [Rio Grande de Santiago], which receives most of its waters from Lac [Lago] de Chapala. Guadalaxara, the capital, was built by one of the Gusman family in 1551, and in 1570 the bishopric was removed from Compostela to that place. It is the seat of the audience of Guadalaxara, which includes Guadalaxara and the administration of Zacatecas. The population of this city may be estimated at 75,000; it stands in N. lat. 20° 50´, W. long. 105°.

2. The administration of Valladolid[IV'-4] lies between 22° 10´ and 18° 12´ N. lat., and 102° and 105° W. long., and is bounded south by the South sea [Pacific ocean] and part of Mexico, east and northeast by the latter, and north by that of Guanaxuato. Its greatest length from northeast to southwest is 230 miles, and its greatest width, east and west, 190 miles. Its population may be estimated at 360,000. Its capital of the same name is situated in about 20° N. lat., 103° 25´´ W. long. Population unknown.

3. The administration of Mexico[IV'-5] lies between 21° 30´ and 16° 30´ N. lat., and 99° and 105° W. long., and is bounded south by the South Sea, east by the governments of La Puebla and La Vera Cruz, north by that of St. Louis, and west by Valladolid and Guanaxuato. Its greatest length, north and south, may be 360 miles, and its greatest width, which is on the Western Ocean, is 200 miles. Its population may be estimated at 1,500,000 souls. The capital of this administration, and of the whole kingdom, is Mexico; a particular description of which is deemed unnecessary. From every information I could obtain from persons who had resided in it for years, it does not contain more than 200,000 inhabitants. Its being the residence of the viceroy, whose court is more splendid than that at Madrid; its central position as to the ports of Acapulco and Vera Cruz; together with the rich and luxuriant vale which surrounds it, will, whenever the Spanish Americans burst the present bonds of slavery in which they are bound, give to Mexico all those advantages which great wealth, a large population, and a commanding situation concentrate, and assuredly make it one of the greatest cities in the world. In point of population, it is now in the second rank, and in beauty, riches, magnificence, and splendor, in the first.

4. The administration of Oxaca [Oaxaca or Oajaca[IV'-6]] lies between 18° and 16° N. lat., and 98° and 112° W. long., and is bounded south by the South Sea, west by the government of La Puebla, north by Mexico and Vera Cruz, and east by the province of Gualamalia [Guatemala]. Its greatest length, east and west, is 230 miles, and its width, north and south, 175 miles. Its population may be estimated at 520,000 souls. Its capital is Oxaca, in 17° 30´ N. lat., 99° 25´ W. long.

5. The administration of Vera Cruz[IV'-7] lies between 17° and 22° N. lat., and 98° and 101° W. long., and is bounded north and east by the gulf of Mexico, south by Oxaca, west by Puebla and Mexico. Its greatest length, N. W. and S. E., is 430 miles, and its width, E. and W., not more than 60 miles. Its population may be estimated at 220,000. Its capital is Vera Cruz, which is the sole port of entry for all the kingdom on the Atlantic ocean, as that of Acapulco is on the Western. Its population may be estimated at 30,000 souls, and is in 19° 10´ N. lat. and 98° 30´ W. long. This city was taken and sacked by the English on the 17th of May, 1683, since which the works for its defense [present Castle of San Juan de Ulúa] have been made so very strong as almost to bid defiance to an attack from the sea.

6. The administration de la Puebla[IV'-8] lies between 20° and 16° N. lat., and 100° and 102° W. long., and is bounded south by the South sea, east by Oxaca and Vera Cruz, north and west by Mexico; it is near 300 miles in its greatest length from north to south, and 120 in its greatest width from east to west. Its population may be estimated at 800,000 souls. Its capital is the city of La Puebla, estimated at 80,000 souls, which is in 19° 12´ N. lat., and 100° 50´ W. long.

7. The administration of Guanaxuato [or Guanajuato[IV'-9]] lies between 21° 30´ and 23° 30´ N. lat., and 103° and 105° W. long., and is bounded south by Valladolid, east by Mexico, south by St. Louis [and] Zacataca, and west by Guadalaxara. Its greatest extent, from north to south, is 75 miles, and from east to west, 85. Its population may be estimated at 500,000 souls. Its capital city is Guanaxuato, in lat. 21° N., long. 103° W.

8. The administration of Zacataca [Zacatecas[IV'-10]] lies between 21° 20´ and 24° 52´ N. lat., and 103° and 105° 30´ W. long., and is bounded north by the internal province of Biscay, east by St. Louis, west by Guadalaxara, and south by Guanaxuato. Its greatest length is 210 miles, north and south, and its greatest width is 145 miles, from east to west. Its population may be estimated at 250,250 souls. The capital, Zacataca, stands in 23° N. lat. and 104° W. long.

9. The administration of St. Louis [San Luis Potosí[IV'-11]] lies between 21° 20´ and 28° 50´ N. lat., and 99° and 102° W. long., includes Texas and St. Ander [Nuevo Santander] in this dimension, and is bounded north by New Leon, east by the province of St. Ander, south by Guanaxuato and Mexico, and west by Zacataca. Its greatest length from north to south is 200, and its width from east to west is 170 miles. Its population may be estimated at 311,500 souls. Its capital is St. Louis de Potosi, the population of which is 60,000; it stands in 22° N. lat., 103° W. long., and was founded in 1568 [1576].

II. The province of Nuevo San Ander [Santander[IV'-12]] is bounded north by the province of Texas, west by Nuevo Leon and Cogquillo [Coahuila], south by St. Louis, and east by the Atlantic Ocean; from north to south it is about 500 miles in length, but from east to west not more than 150. Its population may be estimated at 38,000 souls. The capital, New San Ander [Nuevo Santander], is on the river of that name [also known as the Rio Jimenez, and Rio de las Palmas], about 40 miles from the sea, in 23° 45´ N. lat. and 101° W. long.

III. The kingdom of New Leon [Nuevo Leon[IV'-13]] is bounded east by New San Ander, north by Cogquilla, west by Biscay, and south by St. Louis and Zacataca; its greatest length north and south is 250 miles; width, east and west, 100 miles. Its population may be estimated at 30,000 souls. Its capital, Mont El Rey [Monterey], is situated on the headwaters of Tiger river, which discharges into the gulf of Mexico. The city of Mont El Rey contains about 11,000 souls, and is the seat of the bishop, Don Dio Premiro, who visited the port of Natchitoches when it was commanded by Captain Turner, of the 2d U. S. regiment of infantry. His episcopal jurisdiction extends over Nuevo San Ander, New Leon, Cogquilla, and Texas, and his salary is equal to $100,000 per annum. Mont El Rey is situated in 26° N. lat. and 102° W. long. There are many rich mines near the city of Mont El Rey, whence, I am informed, there are taken to be coined 100 mule-loads of bullion in silver and gold monthly, which may be presumed to be not more than the three-fifths of what is taken from the mines, as there are many persons who prefer never getting their metal coined, as then it is not so easily ascertained what they are worth, which is an all-important secret in a despotic government.

* * * * *

The foregoing nine administrations or intendencias, the province of Nuevo San Ander, and the kingdom of [Nuevo] Leon, are included in the two audiences of Guadalaxara and Mexico, and form, as I believe, the whole political government of the viceroy of Mexico; but I am not positive whether his jurisdiction does not include the audience of Guatimalia [Guatemala], which lies to the south, and includes the province of that name, that of Chiapa [Chiapas], Yucatan, Veraqua [Veragua], Costa Rica, and Honduras. An audience is the high court of appeals in which the viceroy presides and has two votes; it is intended as a check on his power and authority.

The administrations are governed by intendants, who are officers of high rank, and always Europeans.

The longitude given is from the meridian of Paris.

In the general view of New Spain,[IV'-14] I shall take some notice of the manners, customs, political force, etc., of the viceroyalty; but, as I do not pretend to be correctly informed as to that quarter of the kingdom, and there have been so many persons who have given statements on those heads, I shall confine my observations principally to the internal provinces through which I passed, and on which I made my observations.

INTERNAL PROVINCES.

1. NEW MEXICO. [_Geography._ The province of New Mexico] lies between lat. 30° 30´ and 44° N., and long. 104° and 108° W., and is the most northern province of the kingdom of New Spain. It extends northwest into an undefined boundary, is bounded north and east by Louisiana, south by Biscay and Cogquilla, and west by Senora and California.[IV'-15] Its length is unknown; its breadth may be 600 miles; but the inhabited part is not more than 400 miles in length and 50 in breadth, lying along the river del Norte, from lat. 37° to 31° 30´ N.; but in this space there is a desert of more than 250 miles.

_Air and Climate._ No persons accustomed to reside in the temperate climate of lat. 36° and 37° N. in the United States can form any idea of the piercing cold which is experienced on that parallel in New Mexico; but the air is serene and unaccompanied by damps or fogs, as it rains but once a year, and some years not at all. It is a mountainous country. The grand dividing ridges which separate the waters of the rio del Norte from those of California border it on the line of its western limits, and are covered, in some places, with eternal snows, which give a keenness to the air that could not be calculated upon or expected in a temperate zone.

_Timber and Plains._ The cotton tree [_Populus_] is the only tree of this province, except some scrubby pines and cedars at the foot of the mountains [and many other species there and elsewhere]. The former borders the banks of the rio del Norte and its tributary streams. All the rest of the country presents to the eye a barren wild of poor land, scarcely to be improved by culture, and appears to be only capable of producing sufficient subsistence for those animals which live on succulent plants and herbage.

_Mines, Minerals, and Fossils._ There are no mines known in the province, except one of copper situated in a mountain on the west side of the rio del Norte, in lat. 34° N. [see note 26, p. 637]. It is worked, and produces 20,000 mule-loads of copper annually. It also furnishes that article for the manufactories of nearly all the internal provinces. It contains gold, but not quite sufficient to pay for its extraction; consequently it has not been pursued.

There is, near Santa Fe, in some of the mountains, a stratum of talc, which is so large and flexible as to render it capable of being subdivided into thin flakes, of which the greater proportion of the houses in Santa Fe, and in all the villages to the north, have their window-lights made.

_Rivers._ The river del Norte takes its source in the mountains which give birth to the headwaters of California, the Plata [South Platte], Pierre Jaune ["Yellowstone," _i. e._, North Platte] of the Missouri, and Arkansaw of the Mississippi, in lat. 40° N. and long. 110° W.[IV'-16] Its distance from its source to the gulf of Mexico may be, by its meanders, estimated at 2,000 miles, passing through the provinces of New Mexico, part of Biscay, Cogquilla, and New San Ander, where it falls into the gulf at lat. 26° N. It cannot, in any part of its course, be termed a navigable stream, owing to the sand-bars. In the flat country and mountains in the upper part, with which its course is interrupted, small boats might ascend as high as the Presidio de Rio Grande in Cogquilla, and it might be navigable for canoes in various parts of its course. In the mountains above Santa Fe it afforded amply sufficient water for canoe navigation, and even more than appeared to be flowing in its bed in the plains. This must be attributed to numerous canals and the dry sandy soil through which the river courses, where much of the water which flows from the mountains must be absorbed and lost. In the province of New Mexico it is called the Rio del Norte; below it is termed the Rio Grande; but in no instance did I hear it called the Rio Bravo, as many of our ancient maps designate it.

There are also, in the limits of this province, to the west, the rivers San Rafael, San Xavier, de los Dolores, also de los Anamas or Nabajoa, all of which join and form the great Rio Colorado of California.[IV'-17] The two first take their sources in the same mountains as the Rio del Norte, but on the west side.

The river Colorado, by its meanders, may be about 1,000 miles in length, from its sources to its discharge into the head of the gulf of California, in the 33d degree of N. lat. [about 32°]. It has been represented to me, by men of information and research, to be navigable for square-rigged vessels at least 300 miles from the gulf. By this river and the Arkansaw there could be the best communication established between the Pacific and the Atlantic oceans. There are represented to be various numerous and warlike nations of Indians on its banks. Through the whole of its course its banks are entirely destitute of timber, and indeed I was informed that for 300 miles there was not a tree ten inches in diameter.

The river S. Buenaventura empties into the Pacific ocean to the north of California in 39° 30´ N. latitude, and takes its source in the Sierre Madre to the north of the Colorado and del Norte.[IV'-18]

The Rio Gila[IV'-19] heads opposite the copper-mines, and discharges into the gulf of California, just below the Colorado, in the 33d degree of N. latitude.

The Rio Puerto [Pecos[IV'-20]] is a branch of the Rio del Norte; it comes from the north and joins that river about 100 miles below the Presidio del Norte.

None of the foregoing streams present any evidence of civilization on their shores excepting the Rio del Norte.

_Lakes._ I heard of no lakes in the province, except that of Tampanagos, the existence of which I consider very doubtful. It is said to commence, according to Father Escalante, in the 40th deg. N. lat., and to have been explored to the 42d deg. in a N. W. direction, where it enlarged its dimensions, and the discoverer thought proper to return.[IV'-21]

_Animals._ North Mexico produces deer, elk, buffalo, cabrie, the gresley [grizzly and] black bear, and wild horses.

_Population._ Its population is not far short of 30,000 souls, one-twentieth of which may be Spaniards from Europe, or Chapetones [Gachupines[IV'-22]], four-twentieths Creoles, five-twentieths Metifs, and the other half civilized Indians.

The capital is Santa Fe, situated on a small stream which empties into the east side of the Rio del Norte, at the foot of the mountains which divide the waters of that river from the Arkansaw and the Red river of the Mississippi, in 36° N. lat. and 100° W. long. It is an oblong square, extending about one mile from east to west on the banks of the creek. In the centre is the public square, one side of which forms the flank of the soldiers' square, which is closed and in some degree defended by the round towers in the angles which flank the four curtains; another side of the square is formed by the palace of the governor, his guard-houses, etc.; the third side is occupied by the priests and their suite, and the fourth by the Chapetones who reside in the city. The houses are generally only one story high, with flat roofs, and have a very mean appearance on the outside; but some of them are richly furnished, especially with plate.

The second cities in the province are Albuquerque and Passo [El Paso] del Norte. The latter is the most southern city of the province, as Tons [Taos] is the most northern. Between the village of Sibilleta and the Passo there is a wilderness of near 200 miles [including the Jornada del Muerto].

_Trade and Commerce._ New Mexico carries on a trade direct with Mexico through Biscay [Nueva Viscaya], also with Senora [Sonora] and Sinaloa; it sends out about 30,000 sheep annually, tobacco, dressed deer and cabrie skins, some furs, buffalo robes, salt, and wrought copper vessels of a superior quality. It receives in return, from Biscay and Mexico, dry goods, confectionery, arms, iron, steel, ammunition, and some choice European wines and liquors; from Senora and Sinaloa, gold, silver, and cheese. The following articles sell in this province, as stated, which will show the cheapness of provisions and the extreme dearness of imported goods: Flour sells, per hundred, at $2; salt, per mule-load, $5; sheep, each, $1; beeves, each, $5; wine del Passo, per barrel, $15; horses, each, $11; mules, each, $30; superfine cloths, per yard, $25; fine cloths, per yard, $20; linen, per yard, $4, and all other dry goods in proportion.

The journey with loaded mules from Santa Fe to Mexico, and returning to Santa Fe, takes five months. They manufacture rough leather, cigars, a vast variety and quantity of potters' ware, cotton, some coarse woolen cloths, and blankets of a superior quality. All those manufactures are carried on by the civilized Indians, as the Spaniards think it more honorable to be agriculturists than mechanics. The Indians likewise far exceed their conquerors in their genius for, and execution of, all mechanical operations.

About two miles above the town of Passo del Norte is a bridge over the river, where the road passes to the west side, at which place is a large canal [acequia]. This takes out an ample supply of water for the purpose of cultivation, which is here carried on in as great perfection as at any place that I visited in the provinces. There is a wall bordering the canal the whole way on both sides, to protect it from the animals; and when it arrives at the village, it is distributed in such a manner that each person has his fields watered in rotation. At this place were as finely cultivated fields of wheat and other small grain as I ever saw; and numerous vineyards, from which were produced the finest wine ever drank in the country, which was celebrated through all the provinces, and was the only wine used on the table of the commanding general.

_Agriculture._ They cultivate corn, wheat, rye, barley, rice, tobacco, vines, and all the common culinary plants cultivated in the same latitude in the United States. New Mexico has the exclusive right of cultivating tobacco. They are, however, a century behind us in the art of cultivation; for, notwithstanding their numerous herds of cattle and horses, I have seen them frequently breaking up whole fields with a hoe. Their oxen draw by the horns, after the French mode. Their carts are extremely awkward and clumsily made. During the whole of the time we were in New Spain I never saw a horse in a vehicle of any description, mules being made use of in carriages, as well as for the purposes of labor.

_Antiquities._ On the river St. Francis,[IV'-23] a large branch of the river Gila, which heads near the copper mines in New Mexico and discharges into the Red river of California, are the remains of old walls and houses which are ascertained to have been the work of the Mexicans on their route emigrating from the northwest to the plains of Mexico, where they finally established themselves. Those walls are of a black cement, the durability of which increases with its age, so that it has hitherto bid defiance to the war of time. Its composition is now entirely lost. There is also found at this place many broken pieces of earthenware, which still possess the glazing as perfectly as when first put on.

_Aborigines._[IV'-24] The Kyaways [Kiowas] wander on the sources of La Platte and are supposed to be 1,000 men strong. They possess immense herds of horses, and are at war with both Pawnees and Tetaus [Ietans, Comanches], as well as the Sioux. They are armed with bows, arrows, and lances, and hunt the buffalo. This nation, with the Tetaus and Utahs, all speak the same language. The Utahs wander at the sources of the Rio del Norte, are supposed to be 2,000 warriors strong, are armed in the same manner, and pursue the same game, as the Kyaways. They are, however, a little more civilized, from having more connection with the Spaniards, with whom they are frequently at war, but were then at peace, and waging war with the Tetaus.[IV'-25]

A battle was fought between them and the Tetaus in September, 1806, near the village of Tons [Taos]: there were about 400 combatants on each side, but they were separated by a Spanish alcalde riding out to the field of battle. There were 8 or 10 killed on each side. The Utahs gave all the horses taken to the Spaniards. This shows in a strong degree the influence the Spaniards have over those Indians.

The Nanahaws [Navajos[IV'-26]] are situated to the N. W. of Santa Fe. They frequently war with the Spaniards, and are supposed to be 2,000 warriors strong. They are armed in the same manner as the two preceding nations. This nation, as well as all the others to the west of them bordering on California, speak the language of the Appaches and Le Panis [Lipans[IV'-27]], who are in a line with them to the Atlantic.

The Appaches[IV'-28] are a nation of Indians who extend from the Black mountains in New Mexico to the frontiers of Cogquilla, keeping the frontiers of three provinces in a continual state of alarm, and making it necessary to employ nearly 2,000 dragoons to escort the caravans, protect the villages, and revenge the various attacks they are continually making on the subjects of his Catholic Majesty. This nation formerly extended from the entrance of the Rio Grande to the Gulf of California, and have waged a continual warfare, excepting short truces, with the Spaniards, from the time these pushed their enterprises back from Mexico into the internal provinces. It is extremely difficult to say what are their numbers at the present day, but they must be very much reduced, from their long and constant warfare, the wandering and savage life they lead in the mountains, which is so injurious to an increase of population, and in which they are frequently extremely pinched by famine.

At the commencement of their warfare the Spaniards used to take them prisoners and make slaves of them; but finding that their unconquerable attachment to liberty made them surmount every difficulty and danger in returning to their mountains, they adopted the mode of sending them to Cuba. This the Appaches no sooner learned than they refused to give or receive quarter, and in no instance have any been taken since that period, except those surprised when asleep, or knocked down and overpowered.

Their arms are the bow and arrow, and the lance. Their bow forms two demi-circles, with a shoulder in the middle; the back of it is entirely covered with sinews, which are laid on in so nice a manner, by the use of some glutinous substance, as to be almost imperceptible; this gives great elasticity to the weapon. Their arrow is more than the "cloth yard" of the English, being three feet and a half long, the upper part consisting of some light rush or cane, into which is inserted a shaft of about one foot, made of some hard, seasoned light wood; the point is of iron, bone, or stone, and, when the arrow enters the body, in attempting to extract it the shaft comes out of its socket and the point remains in the wound. With this weapon they shoot with such force as to go through the body of a man at a distance of 100 yards, and an officer told me that in an engagement with them, one of their arrows struck his shield and dismounted him in an instant. Their other weapon of offense is a lance of 15 feet in length, with which they charge with both hands over their heads, managing their horses principally with their knees. With this weapon they are considered an overmatch for any Spanish dragoon single-handed; but, for want of a knowledge of tactics, they can never stand the charge of a body which acts in concert. They all carry shields. Some few are armed with guns and ammunition taken from the Spaniards. Those, as well as the archers, generally march to war on foot; but the lancemen are always mounted. Numerous are the anecdotes I have heard related of their personal bravery and the spirit of their partisan corps. Not long before I went into that country a cornet, with 63 dragoons, between New Mexico and Biscay, was surrounded by about 200 Apaches' infantry. Instead of charging through them, as [he should have done, since] it was on the plain, he ordered his dragoons to dismount and fight with their carabines; in consequence of which he and his whole party fell a sacrifice.

Malgares related an instance when he was marching with 140 men and they were attacked by a party of Appaches, both horse and foot, who continued the fight for four hours. Whenever the Spanish dragoons would make a general charge, the Appaches' cavalry would retreat behind their infantry, who met the Spaniards with a shower of arrows, who immediately retreated; and even the gallant Malgares spoke of the Spanish cavalry's breaking the Appaches infantry as a thing not to be thought of.

Malgares assured me that, if the Appaches had seconded the efforts and bravery of their chieftain, the Spaniards must have been defeated and cut to pieces; that in various instances he rallied his men and brought them up to the charge, and that when they fled, he retired indignantly to the rear. Seeing Malgares very actively engaged in forming and bringing up the Spaniards, the Appache chieftain rode out ahead of his party and challenged him to single combat with his lance. This my friend refused, as he said that the chief was one of the stoutest men he knew, carried a remarkably heavy lance, and rode a very fine charger; but one of his corporals, enraged to see the Spaniards thus braved by this savage, begged permission to meet the "infidel." His officer refused his request and ordered him to keep his ranks; but he reiterating the request, his superior in a passion told him to go. The Indian chief had turned his horse to join his party, but seeing an enemy advancing, he turned, gave a shout, and met him at full speed. The dragoon thought to parry the lance of his antagonist, which he in part effected; but not throwing it quite high enough, it entered his neck before and came out at the nape, when he fell dead to the ground, and his victorious enemy gave a shout of victory, in which he was joined by all his followers. This enraged the Spaniards to such a degree that they made a general charge, in which the Indian cavalry again retreated, notwithstanding the entreaties of their gallant leader.

In another instance a small smoke was discovered on the prairie; three poor savages were surrounded by 100 dragoons and ordered to lay down their arms; they smiled at the officer's demand, and asked him if he could suppose that men who had arms in their hands would ever consent to become slaves. The officer, being loath to kill them, held a conference for an hour; when, finding that his threats had as little effect as his entreaties, he ordered his men to attack them at a distance, keeping out of the reach of their arrows, and firing at them with their carabines, which they did, the Indians never ceasing to resist as long as life remained.

In a truce which was held a Spanish captain was ordered to treat with some of the bands. He received their deputies with hauteur, and they could not come upon terms. The truce was broken, and the Indians retreated to their fastnesses in the mountains. In a day or two this same officer pursued them. They were in a place called the Door in the Mountain, where but two or three dragoons could enter at a time, and there were rocks and caves on the flanks behind which the Indians secreted themselves until a number of the Spaniards had come in. Then the Indians sounded a trumpet; the attack began, and continued on the side of the Appaches until the Spanish captain fell, when the Indian chief caused the firing to cease, saying that the man who had so haughtily spurned the proffered peace was now dead. On this occasion they deviated from their accustomed rule of warfare, and made a prisoner of a young officer, who, during the truce, had treated them with great kindness, and sent him home safe and unhurt.

Some of the bands have made temporary truces with the Spaniards, and received from them 25 cents per diem each. Those people hang round the fortifications of the country, drink, shoot, and dissipate their time; they are haughty and independent. Great jealousy exists between them and the Spaniards. An officer was under trial, when I was in the country, for anticipating an attack on his fortress by attacking the chiefs of the supposed conspiracy, and putting them to death before they had time to mature and carry their plan into execution. The decision of his case I never learned; but those savages who have been for some time about the forts and villages become by far the most dangerous enemies the Spaniards have, when hostile, as they have acquired the Spanish language, manners, and habits, pass through the populated parts under the disguise of civilized and friendly Indians, commit murders and robberies, and are not suspected. There is in the province of Cogquilla a partisan by the name of Ralph, who, they calculate, has killed more than 300 persons. He comes into the towns under the disguise of a peasant, buys provisions, goes to the gambling-tables and to mass, and before he leaves the village is sure to kill some person or carry off a woman, which he has frequently done. Sometimes he joins people traveling on the road, insinuates himself into their confidence, and takes his opportunity to assassinate them. He has only six followers, and from their knowledge of the country, activity, and cunning, he keeps about 300 Spanish dragoons continually employed. The government has offered $1,000 for his head.

The civilized Indians of the province of New Mexico are of what were formerly 24 different bands, the different names of which I did not become acquainted with, but the Keres were one of the most powerful; they form at present the population of St. Domingo, St. Philips, Deis, and one or two other towns.[IV'-29] They are men of large stature, round full visage, fine teeth, appear to be of a gentle, tractable disposition, and resemble the Osage more than any nation of whom I possess any knowledge. They are not the vassals of individuals, yet may properly be termed the slaves of the State, for they are compelled to do military duty, drive mules, carry loads, or, in fact, perform any other act of duty or bondage that the will of the commandant of the district, or of any passing military tyrant, chooses to ordain.

I was myself eye-witness of a scene which made my heart bleed for those poor wretches, at the same time that it excited my indignation and contempt, that they would suffer themselves, with arms in their hands, to be beaten and knocked about by beings no ways their superiors, unless a small tint of complexion could be supposed to give that superiority. Before we arrived at Santa Fe, one night, we were near one of the villages where resided the families of two of our Indian horsemen. They took the liberty to pay them a visit in the night. Next morning the whole of the Indian horsemen were called up, and because they refused to testify against their imprudent companions, several were knocked down from their horses by the Spanish dragoons with the butt of their lances; yet, with the blood streaming down their visages, and arms in their hands, they stood cool and tranquil--not a frown, not a word of discontent or palliation escaped their lips. Yet what must have been the boiling indignation of their souls at the indignities offered by the wretch clothed with a little brief authority! The day of retribution will come in thunder and in vengeance.

Those savages are armed with bow and arrows, and with lances, or escopates. Although they are said to be converted to Christianity, they still retain many of their ancient rituals, feasts, and ceremonies, one of which is so remarkable it must not be passed unnoticed. Once a year there is a great feast prepared for three successive days, which they spend in eating, drinking, and dancing. Near this scene of amusement is a dark cave, into which not a glimpse of light can penetrate, and in which are prepared places to repose on. To this place persons of all description, of both sexes and of all ages, after puberty, repair in the night, when there is an indiscriminate commerce of the votaries, as chance, fortune, and events direct. Those revels certainly have great affinity to some of the ancient mystic rites of Greece and Rome.

_Government and Laws._ The government of New Mexico may be termed military, in the pure sense of the word; for although they have their alcaldes, or inferior officers, their judgments are subject to a reversion by the military commandants of districts. The whole male population are subject to military duty, without pay or emolument, and are obliged to find their own horses, arms, and provision. The only thing furnished by the government is ammunition. It is extraordinary with what subordination they act when they are turned out to do military duty. A strong proof of this was exhibited in the expedition of Malgares to the Pawnees. His command consisted of 100 dragoons of the regular service and 500 drafts from the province. He had continued down the Red river until their provision began to be short; they then demanded of the lieutenant where he was bound and the intention of the expedition. To this he haughtily replied, "Wherever my horse leads me." A few mornings after he was presented with a petition, signed by 200 of the militia, to return home. He halted immediately, caused his dragoons to erect a gallows, and then beat to arms. The troops fell in; he separated the petitioners from the others, then took the man who had presented the petition, tied him up and gave him 50 lashes, and threatened to put to death, on the gallows erected, any man who should dare to grumble. This effectually silenced them, and quelled the rising spirit of sedition; but it was remarked that it was the first instance of a Spaniard receiving corporal punishment ever known in the province.

_Morals, Manners, etc._ There is nothing peculiarly characteristic in this province that will not be embraced in my general observations on New Spain, except that, being on the frontier and cut off, as it were, from the more inhabited parts of the kingdom, together with their continual wars with some of the savage nations who surround them, renders the people the bravest and most hardy subjects in New Spain; being generally armed, they know the use of arms. Their want of gold and silver renders them laborious, in order that the productions of their labor may be the means of establishing the equilibrium between them and the other provinces where those metals abound. Their isolated and remote situation also causes them to exhibit, in a superior degree, the heaven-like qualities of hospitality and kindness, in which they appear to endeavor to fulfill the injunction of the scripture which enjoins us to feed the hungry, clothe the naked, and give comfort to the oppressed in spirit; and I shall always take pleasure in expressing my gratitude for their noble reception of myself and the men under my command.

_Military Force._ There is but one troop of dragoons in all New Mexico of the regular force, which is stationed at Santa Fe, and is 100 strong. Of this troop the governor is always the captain, entitling himself captain of the royal troop of Santa Fe dragoons; but they are commanded by a first lieutenant, who is captain by brevet. The men capable of bearing arms in this province may be estimated at 5,000, of which probably 1,000 are completely armed, 1,000 badly, and the rest not at all.

_Religion._ The catholic religion is practiced in this province after the same manner as in the other provinces, and will hereafter be taken notice of generally.

_History._ In the year 1594 two friars came out from Old Mexico to New Mexico, and were well received by the savages. They returned, and the ensuing year Juan de Ouate,[IV'-30] a monk, went out, explored the country, and returned. After this 100 troops and 500 men, women, and children came out and settled on the Rio del Norte, at some no very great distance from where Santa Fe now stands. They entered into an arrangement with the Indians on the subject of their establishment; but a few years after [in 1680] the Indians rose _en masse_, fell on the Spaniards by surprise, killed most of the soldiers, and obliged them to retreat to the Passo del Norte; whence it acquired its name. Here they awaited a re-enforcement from Biscay, which they received, of 70 men and two field-pieces, with which they recommenced their march and finally arrived at Santa Fe, then the capital Indian village, to which they immediately laid siege. The Indians maintained themselves 22 days, when they surrendered and entered into a second negotiation; since which time the Spaniards have been engaged in continual warfare with the various savage tribes which surround them on all sides. These have been near ruining the Spaniards several times, and obliged them to apply for re-enforcements from Biscay and Senora. A few years since the Tetaus carried on a warm and vigorous war against them, but are now at peace and considered as their firmest allies.

In the history of New Mexico it may not be improper to record the name of James Pursley, the first American who ever penetrated the immense wilds of Louisiana, and showed the Spaniards of New Mexico that neither the savages who surround the deserts which divide them from the habitable world, nor the jealous tyranny of their rulers, was sufficient to prevent the enterprising spirit of the Americans from penetrating the arcanum of their rich establishment in the new world. Pursley was from near Baird's town, Kentucky, which he left in 1799. In 1802, with two companions, he left St. Louis and traveled west, on the head of the Osage river, where they made a hunt; thence they struck for the White river of the Arkansaw, and intended to descend it to Orleans; but, while making preparations, the Kans stole their horses. They secured their peltries, and pursued the Kans into the village. The horses were there, but the Indians refused to give them up. Pursley saw his horse, with an Indian on him, going to the water at the edge of the town, pursued him, and with his knife ripped open the horse's bowels. The Indian returned to the village, got his gun, and came and snapped it at Pursley, who pursued him into the village with his knife. The Indian took refuge in a lodge surrounded by women and children. This struck the chiefs with astonishment and admiration of the "mad Americans," as they termed them, and they returned the other horses to the hunters. This anecdote was related by traders who had been in the village at the time.

Pursley and his companions then returned to where they had buried their peltry, and determined to pursue the route by land to St. Louis; but some persons stole their horses a second time, when they were at no great distance from the Osage river, on which they formed a rough canoe and descended that stream. Near the entrance of the Missouri they overset their canoe and lost their whole year's hunt, but saved their arms and ammunition, which is always the primary object in a desert. On the Missouri they met Monsieur [Blank] in his barge, bound to the Mandanes. Pursley embarked with him for the voyage; his two companions preferred returning to their homes. On their arrival at the point of destination, his employer dispatched Pursley on a hunting and trading tour with some bands of the Paducahs and Kyaways, with a small quantity of merchandise. In the ensuing spring they were driven from the plains by the Sioux into the mountains which give birth to La Platte, the Arkansaw, etc., and it was their sign which we saw in such amazing abundance on the headwaters of La Platte [in South Park, Col., Dec. 16, 1806]. Their party consisted of near 2,000 souls, with 10,000 beasts. The Indians, knowing they were approximating to New Mexico, determined to send Pursley, with his companions and two of their body, into Santa Fe, to know of the Spaniards if they would receive them friendly and enter into a trade with them. This being acceded to by Governor Allencaster, the Indian deputies returned for their bands; but Pursley thought proper to remain with a civilized people, among whom a fortuitous event had thrown him--a circumstance of which, he assured me, he had at one time entirely despaired.

He arrived at Santa Fe in June, 1805, and has been following his trade as a carpenter ever since; at this he made a great deal of money, except when working for the officers, who paid him little or nothing. He was a man of strong natural sense and dauntless intrepidity. He entertained me with numerous interesting anecdotes of his adventures with the Indians, and of the jealousy of the Spanish government. He was once near being hanged for making a few pounds of gunpowder, which he innocently did as he had been accustomed to do in Kentucky, but which is a capital crime in these provinces. He still retained the gun which he had with him his whole tour, and said confidently that if he had two hours' start not all the province could take him. He was forbidden to write, but was assured he should have a passport whenever he demanded it, and was obliged to give security that he would not leave the country without permission of the government. He assured me that he had found gold on the head of La Platte, and had carried some of the virgin mineral in his shot-pouch for months; but that, being in doubt whether he should ever again behold the civilized world, and losing in his mind all the ideal value which mankind have stamped on that metal, he threw the sample away. He had imprudently mentioned it to the Spaniards, who had frequently solicited him to go and show a detachment of cavalry the place; but, conceiving it to be in our territory, he had refused, and was fearful that the circumstance might create a great obstacle to his leaving the country.

2. BISCAY. _Geography._ [The province of Nueva Vizcaya[IV'-31]] lies between lat. 33° and 24° N., and long. 105° and 111° W. It is bounded on the north by New Mexico, on the west by Senora and Sinaloa, and on the east by New Leon and Cogquilla. It is 600 miles in length from northwest to southeast, and 400 miles in width from east to west, taking it at its greatest extent.

_Air and Climate._ The air is dry and the heat very great at that season of the year which precedes the rainy season, which latter commences in June and continues until September by light showers. During the other part of the year there is not the least rain or snow to moisten the earth. The atmosphere had therefore become so electrified that when we halted at night, in taking off our blankets the electric fluid would almost cover them with sparks, and in Chihuahua we prepared a bottle with gold-leaf as a receiver, and collected sufficient electric fluid from a bear-skin to give a considerable shock to a number of persons. This phenomenon was more conspicuous in the vicinity of Chihuahua than in any other part that we passed over.[IV'-32]

_Mines and Minerals._ This province abounds in silver and gold mines, which yield an immense quantity of those metals, but not so great a revenue to the king as those which are nearer the mint, and consequently present a greater facility to coinage. I am not acquainted with the proportion of the metals which the mineral yields in any instance, except in one of the silver mines at Chihuahua, which belonged to a friend of mine, who informed me that his mine yielded him $13.50 per cwt. I one day, with Robinson, went through many of these furnaces and noticed the manner which they pursued in analyzing the mineral and extracting the metals; but, as I had previously asked several Spanish officers to accompany me, who had always declined or deferred it to a future period, I conceived it probable it was too delicate a subject to make a minute inquiry into. I, however, so far observed the process as to learn that the mineral was brought from the mines in bags, on mules, to the furnace; it was then ground or pounded into small lumps, not more than the size of a nut, and precipitated into water, in a sieve which permitted the smaller particles to escape into a tub, through several progressive operations. From the small particles which remained at the bottom of the tubs, after it had been purified of the earthy qualities, there was a proportion of metal extracted by a nicer process; but the larger parts were put into a furnace similar to our iron furnaces, and when the mass was in a state of fusion, it was let out into a bed of sand prepared for it, which formed it into bars about the size of our common pig iron, averaged in value at about $2,500. The gold was cast into a mold similar to a bowl and stamped with its value, as was each bar of silver, by the king's assayer of metals. They were worth from $8,000 to $10,000. These masses of silver and gold are received into the king's treasury in payment, and in fact have a currency through the kingdom; but there are vast speculations made on the coinage, as people who have not large capital prefer selling their bullion in the internal provinces, at a considerable discount, to being obliged to transport it to Mexico, in order to have it converted into specie. The present C[ommandant?], I was informed, was engaged in this traffic, on which, from the province of Senora, he sometimes made 25 per cent. Numbers of the proprietors who have no immediate use for their bullion put it into their cellars, where it remains piled up for their posterity, of no service to themselves or the community.

There are at Chihuahua and in its vicinity 15 mines, 13 silver, one gold, and one copper, the furnaces of all of which are situated round the town and suburbs, and present, except on Sundays, volumes of smoke arising to the eye in every direction, which can be seen from a distance long before the spires of the city strike the view. It is incredible the quantity of cinders which surround the city in piles 10 or 15 feet high; next the creek they have formed a bank of it to check the encroachments of the stream, and it presents an effectual barrier. I am told that an European employed some hands and wrought at the cinders, which yielded $1.25 for each per day; but that this not answering his expectations, he ceased his proceedings.

At Mausseme [Mapimi] there are one gold and seven silver mines. At Durango there are many rich mines, but the number to me is unknown. There are also gold mines in the Sierra Madre, near Alomas [Alamos], and many others of which I have no knowledge. There is in the province, about 100 miles south of Chihuahua, a mountain or hill of loadstone. Walker, who had been on the ground and surveyed it, informed me it appeared to be in solid strata, as regular as those of limestone, or any other of the species. He had brought home a square piece of near a foot and a half, was preparing some to be sent to Spain, and likewise forming magnets to accompany it, in order that their comparative strength might be ascertained with magnets formed in Europe.

_Rivers._[IV'-33] Rio Conchos is the largest in the province. It takes its source in the Sierra Madre, near Batopilis, in lat. 28° N., and discharges itself into the Rio del Norte [at the Presidio del Norte] in lat. 31°, after a course of about 300 miles. It is the largest western branch of the Rio del Norte, and receives in its course the Rio Florido from the east and San Paubla [now San Pedro] from the west. Where we struck the Conchos, it appeared to be nearly as large as the Rio del Norte at the Passo.

The Rio San Paubla is the largest western branch of the Conchos; it heads in lat. 28° 50´ N., and empties into the latter at Bakinoa[?]. Its whole course is about 150 miles; in summer it is nearly dry, and in the rainy seasons impassable.

The Rio Florido takes its rise in lat. 26° 30´ N., and after a course of about 150 miles discharges into the Conchos. Guaxequillo is situated on its east bank, about its center.

The Rio Nassas [Nasas] is in part the line between Biscay and Cogquilla; it runs north and sinks in the lake du Cayman [Laguna del Muerto]; it is nearly dry in the dry seasons, but at some seasons it is impassable.

_Lakes._ Lac du Cayman and lac du Parras are two small lakes situated at the foot of the mountains [in the Bolson de Mapimi], and are full of fish.

_Animals, Insects, etc._ There are some few bears, deer, and wild horses, but they are not in abundance. The scorpions of Durango are one of the most remarkable instances of the physical effects of climate or air that I ever saw recorded. They come out of the walls and crevices in May, and continue about a fortnight in such numbers that the inhabitants never walk in their houses after dark without a light, and always shift or examine the bed-clothes and beat the curtains previous to going to bed; after which the curtains are secured under the bed, similar to the precautions we take with our mosquito curtains. The bite of those scorpions has been known to prove mortal in two hours. The most extraordinary circumstance is that by taking them 10 leagues from Durango they become perfectly harmless and lose all their venomous qualities. Query: Does it arise from a change of air, sustenance, or what other cause?[IV'-34]