Chapter IV: Observations on New Spain.iv'-1 (4)

[IV'-18] This paragraph is contradicted by the map, on which "Rio de S^ta. Buenaventura" runs W. into a nameless lake, S. of a certain Lac de Timpanagos, and is the first river, N. and W. of Green r., that does not connect with the Colorado. The Buenaventura is a ghost-river which haunted geography for many years. Nothing like such a river as this was represented to be exists--it is as much of a myth in Utah and California as Lahontan's fabulous Long r. in Minnesota and Dakota. But it is a rule with hardly an exception that every myth has some basis of fact. In so far as Pike's Buenaventura represents anything in nature, I imagine it to be an adumbration of Sevier r., and its sink to be Lake Sevier, in the western part of Utah, S. of Great Salt l. True, the Buenaventura is laid down very much out of the actual course of the Sevier; but not more wrongly than Green r. is, and the very curious way in which the Sevier winds about to reach its sink would hardly have been discovered and correctly delineated by those early travelers in the "Great American Desert." The nameless lake itself is not very far out of the way on Pike's map. Possibly also, the mysterious river, "whose mouth is unknown," may be intended for some section of the Sevier; for, if we were to connect this trace with Pike's Buenaventura, we should have a recognizable representation of the Sevier. But Pike heads his Rio S. Buenaventura, by a principal branch called "Rio de S^n. Clemente," in that portion of the continental divide he marks "Sierra Verde," _i. e._, Green mts., also the source of present Green r. We should note further in this connection the appearance on Pike's map of New Mexico of a certain river running northward, lettered "Rio de Piedro Amaretto del Missouri." Here, "Amaretto" is a mistake of the engraver for _Amarillo_, the phrase being Sp. Piedra Amarilla = F. Pierre Jaune or Roche Jaune = E. Yellow Stone, a principal branch of the Missouri. As we have repeatedly seen already, Pike was determined to interlock the headwaters of the Yellowstone, Platte, Arkansaw, and Rio Grande in some one spot in the Rocky mts.--and here we have it, just over the divide that separates these Atlantic waters collectively from those of the general basin of the Colorado. Observe, also, how nearly the dotted trail of the "Country explored by a Detachment of American Troops commanded by Captain Pike" reaches to the supposed Yellowstone.

The Sevier r. possesses a melancholy interest as the scene of the wanton and brutal murder by Piute Indians of Captain John Williams Gunnison and most of his companions, near Sevier l., Oct. 27th, 1853. The particulars are given by Lieutenant E. G. Beckwith, P. R. R. Rep., II. 1855, pp. 72-74. The massacre occurred at break of day of the 27th, not on the 26th, as usually reported. There was no provocation whatever, and no thought of danger on the part of the devoted band. Those killed, besides Captain Gunnison, were Mr. E. H. Kern, topographer and artist; Mr. F. Creuzfeldt, botanist; Mr. Wm. Potter, a citizen of Utah, guide; John Bellows, an employee; and three men of the military escort, which consisted of a corporal and six privates; only four of the whole party escaped with their lives. Lieutenant Beckwith expressly exonerates the Mormons from complicity in the outrage; public opinion thought otherwise; and the official record of Captain Gunnison's death stands "Killed 26 Oct. 53 by a band of Mormons and Inds near Sevier Lake Utah." The lamented and accomplished officer met his fate while conducting explorations and surveys for a railroad route near the 38° and 39° parallels of N. lat. He had graduated from the U. S. Military Academy at West Point July 31st, 1837, when he became a second lieutenant of the 2d Artillery; was transferred with that rank to the corps of Topographical Engineers July 7th, 1838; became first lieutenant May 9th, 1846; and obtained his captaincy Mar. 3d, 1853.

[IV'-19] Pike acquired a good idea of the Gila, for one who never saw it, and it is well laid down on his map; though it joins the Colorado a considerable distance above the head of the Gulf of California, the confluence is below 33°, being in lat. 32° 43´ 32´´ N., long. 114° 36´ 10´´ W. The Gila was known to the whites before the Mississippi was discovered; it was long better known than the Rio Grande, and down to the present century was far better known than the Rio Colorado. The valley of the Gila was the first seat of semi-civilization within the present limits of the United States; and Tucson, on the Santa Cruz r., disputes with St. Augustine in Florida the record of being the oldest continuously inhabited white settlement in our country; but St. A. was founded by Spaniards about the middle of the sixteenth century. An early if not the first name of the Gila was Rio de los Apostolos, more fully Rio Grande de los Apostolos, as the legend appears, for example, on Vaugondy's map, 1783, where so many apostolic and canonical towns are marked along the river as to give its valley the appearance of a well-settled region, including even that ancient and celebrated structure, the Casa Grande, still extant. Rio de los Apostolos or Apostles' r. appears on maps of the present century, as for example on the one which Captain Clark drew at the Mandans in the winter of 1804-5, and which Captain Lewis dispatched to President Jefferson April 7th, 1805, but which was never published of full size till September, 1893. Pike's first branch of the Gila is called "Rio de la Asuncion," with Rio Verde as its main fork. This is correct; for the river of the Assumption of the B. V. M., whatever may be the myth upon which such an extraordinary assumption was based, is that now known as Rio Salinas, Rio Salado, and Salt r., into which the Verde falls near Mt. McDowell and the fort of the same name. The confluence of Salt r. with the Gila is below Phoenix, present capital of Arizona, and but little above the point where the Agua Fria also falls into the Gila. The Verde is the principal river of central Arizona, for the most part flowing southward, though it starts northward by the headwater called Granite cr. and then makes a loop; this creek is the site of Prescott, first capital of Arizona on the establishment of the Territory in 1863, and of Fort Whipple, established by the troops to which I was attached in July, 1864. Pike's small branch of the Gila lettered "Rio de Ozul," for which read Rio Azul or Blue r., is the present San Carlos, of which we lately heard a good deal on account of the unruly Apaches at the agency of that name. Present Blue cr. is a small branch higher up on the same side, near Pike's Rio San Francisco, which latter he rightly charts as one of the initial forks of the Gila. His Rio San Pedro, still so called, is the principal Gileño tributary from the S. It acquired special importance in connection with the U. S. and Mexican Boundary Survey. Near this stream he marks "Pres[idio] de Tubson," at the town of "S^n. Xavier del bac," in the "Senora" (Sonora) of that day.

The Indian tribes of the Gila valley which are located on the map may be here noted, as their names do not come up elsewhere in this work, and with these may also be conveniently considered those which Pike marks on the Colorado above the Gila. Such are, on the Gila: The Yumas (Cuchans); the "Cojuenchis"; the "Cucapa" (Cocopas); the Papagos; the "Cocomaricopas" (Maricopas); and on the Colorado: the "Chemequaba" (Chemehuevis, who are of Shoshonean stock, as we have already seen); the "Jalchedum"; the "Yabijoias" (Yavapais); the "Yamaya" (Amaquaqua, Amaqua, Majave or Mohave). All these Indians lived within the present territory of the United States, occupying the valley of the Gila on both sides from above the junction of the San Pedro down to the Colorado, and up the Colorado, on the Arizona side at least, to the Grand Cañon, to the almost entire exclusion of other tribes. They were bounded on the N. by Shoshonean tribes in California, Nevada, Utah, and a small part of Arizona; on the E. by Athapascan tribes, especially the Apaches; on the S., they stretched throughout Lower California, and far into Mexico. With the single exception just said, the names that I can identify all are now classed under two main family groups or linguistic stocks, Piman and Yuman; and all belong to the latter, excepting the Papagos and the Pimas themselves. 1. The Piman family is mainly Mexican, as of its nine tribes or divisions only three are Arizonian. Of these, the Sobaipuri, who lived on the Santa Cruz and San Pedro branches of the Gila, have entirely disappeared. The Pimas proper, Upper Pimas, or Pimas Altas (so called in distinction from the Lower Pimas, Pimas Bajas, or Nevomes, of Mexico), have lived for 200 years on the Gila and Salado, in the position assigned by Pike to the Cocomaricopas. The Papagos lived further S. and extended into Mexico. According to late official returns (for 1890), there were 4,464 Pimas and 5,163 Papagos under the Pima Agency on the Gila. 2. The Yuman family is less summarily to be disposed of, as the area of its distribution in the United States is more extensive and its divisions are more numerous, and several of them are entirely extralimital in Lower California and Mexico. The name _Yuma_ is given by Whipple as a Cuchan word meaning "sons of the river." In the early days of our occupation of Arizona some of the tribes along the Colorado were hostile; but since the subjugation of the Yumas and Mohaves, followed by the establishment of Fort Yuma and Fort Mohave, they have given very little trouble, with the exception of the Hualapais or Walapais. These may be properly classed as Yuman by linguistic affinities, but they are rather mountain than river Indians, and have within comparatively few years been most decidedly hostile. In January, 1865, it was my misfortune, which I shall never cease to regret, to be concerned in a cruel massacre--for I cannot call it a fight--in which about 30 Hualapais were killed, in the Juniper mts., a very few miles from the spot where Camp Hualapais was later established. My friend, the late Colonel William Redwood Price, when major of the 8th Cavalry (d. Dec. 30th, 1881), had the handling of the Hualapais after this; in 1867 they were about 1,500 people, with probably 400 warriors; he killed probably 175 of them, mostly men, and brought them to terms in 1869, when a batch of prisoners was sent to San Francisco. In 1881, when we reoccupied Camp Hualapais and named it Camp Price, a threatened outbreak was averted by putting a chief in irons. The Hualapais now number perhaps 750, in N. W. Arizona, and are almost the only members of the Yuman stock in the Territory whom we have not entirely broken down, pauperized, and debauched. The shocking syphilization of all the Yuman Indians along the Colorado has been notorious for many years. The Yumas or Umas proper, or Cuchans, have been segregated; there are or were lately about 1,000 at the Mission Agency in California, and 300 at the San Carlos in Arizona. Of the Mohaves, some 650 are at the Colorado River Agency in Arizona, 800 at San Carlos, and perhaps 400 at large. The disestablishment of Fort Mohave is quite recent; I was post surgeon there in 1881. There are about 300 Maricopas at the Pima Agency in Arizona. The Cocopas are a small tribe whose census is uncertain; they live on the California side of the Colorado up to the vicinity of the Gila. The Yavasupai or Aguazul Indians, who live in Cojnino or Cataract cañon, to the number of about 200, as already said, note 17, are entirely cut off from the world in the bottom of the chasm selected for their abode. Some of them I found occupying holes in the rock, which they walled up like old-fashioned cliff-dwellers; while others were sheltered in wickiups scattered about the few acres of arable ground they could find to irrigate for the cultivation of their corn, beans, melons, squashes, peaches, apricots, and sunflower-seeds.

[IV'-20] This is the main fork or largest branch of the Rio Grande. As already remarked, note 23, p. 632, Pike maps it too high up; for it runs entirely E. of the mountains (Sacramento, Guadalupe, White, etc.), W. of which he traces it, and its mouth is 346 m. by the channel of the Rio Grande below the site of Presidio del Norte, in lat. 29° 40´ N., long. 101° 20´ W. The length of the river is supposed to be between 700 and 800 m. The Pecos heads in the mountains immediately W. of Santa Fé--on the E. side of the Santa Fé range and W. side of Las Vegas range, among such peaks as the Truchas, Cone, Baldy, Lake, etc., there flowing due S. before it bears off to the left. It receives numerous small tributaries, both above and below the point where it passes by the cañon, old pueblo, and modern town of Pecos. The name is derived from the old pueblo, which was situated on one of those tributaries in the mountains, some 25 m. S. E. of Santa Fé. The Pecos have for many years been currently reported to have been among the straitest sect of the Montezuman faith, and the belief is general that they were those who longest guarded the holy fire in their estufas and looked to the east for the advent of their paraclete. This is a traditional taradiddle which has no foundation in fact. Not that Montezuma Ilhuicamina and Montezuma Xocoyotzin were not real historical persons; nor that the latter, Montezuma II., was not euhemerized and apotheosized; simply, that the Pecos people never worshiped him. The myth recrudesced during the old Santa Fé trade, and was found in full swing on our peaceable conquest of New Mexico in 1846. _Pecos_ is corrupted from the (Tañoan) Jemez word _Paquiu_, applied later than the aboriginal name _Tshiquite_, rendered _Cicuique_ in old Sp. chronicles. Pecos "was in 1540 the largest Indian village or pueblo in New Mexico, containing a population of about 2,000 souls, which formed an independent tribe speaking the same language as the Indians of Jemez. In 1680 the Pecos rebelled with the others, but surrendered peaceably to Vargas in 1692, and thereafter remained loyal to Spain," Cent. Cyclop. Names, _s. v._ "What with the massacres of the second conquest, and the inroads of the Comanches, they gradually dwindled away, till they found themselves reduced to about a dozen, comprising all ages and sexes; and it was only a few years ago that they abandoned the home of their fathers and joined the Pueblo of Jemez," Gregg, Comm. Pra., I., 1844, p. 271. The pueblo was desolate and in ruins when our Army of the West came by in 1846: see Lieut. Emory's report, Ex. Doc. 41, 30th Congr., 1st Sess., pub. 1848, p. 30, with plate facing it; also, a different view, on the plate facing p. 447 of Lieut. Abert's report in the same volume. The latter says, p. 446: "In the afternoon [Sept. 26th, 1846] I went out on the hills to see the ancient cathedral of Pecos. The old building and the town around it are fast crumbling away under the hand of time. The old church is built in the same style as that of San Miguel; the ends of the rafters are carved in imitation of a scroll; the ground plan of the edifice is that of a cross. It is situated on a hill not far from the winding course of the river. High ridges of mountains appear to converge until they almost meet behind the town, and through a little gap one catches sight of a magnificent range of distant peaks that seem to mingle with the sky." Abert was told that the surviving remnant went to live with the Zuñis; but Gregg's statement is no doubt correct, especially as Emory says, _l. c._, that "they abandoned the place and joined a tribe of the original race over the mountains, about 60 miles south." The modern small village of Pecos grew up close by the original site, which was abandoned in 1840.

[IV'-21] Here we enter the legendary land where we are liable to be soon confronted with the standard specter of the northwest passage to India, and other well-dressed phantoms. The body of water which the map shows probably represents Utah l., south of Great Salt l., and connected therewith by the short course of the Jordan. This seems to be what Pike means by the legend: "This lake is known as high as the 40° of Lat. there it opens wider to the West and receives the Waters of the Rio Yampancas"; for we can readily understand this as a way of saying that the lake is connected with a larger one to the W. Utah l. is meridionally E. of Great Salt l. by a few miles, and entirely S. of it; the Jordan is a very short stream between them. In a broad sense, then, Pike's Lac de Timpanagos or Lake of Tampanagos includes both these bodies of water; and his Rio Yampancas answers to Bear r., the large stream which falls into Great Salt l. at Bear River bay. His Sierra de Tampanagos covers the mountains on the E. and S. E. of Great Salt l. A different form of the same word appears in his "Indiens Yamparicas" of that region, and yet another in the legend: "The Lake of Tampanagos is supposed to be the same as the Lake of Thequaio in the Chart d'Alzate de Thequao placed in 40° of Lat. some Historians pretend that the Aretiqui comes from this Lake."

[IV'-22] _Chapetones_ is a word which, with several variants in form, is pretty well known, and to be found in many dictionaries, though its origin may never have been satisfactorily shown, or at least agreed upon. In its application to un-American Spaniards in America the sense implied seems to have been always reproachful--perhaps something as our cowboys and other "rustlers" in the wild and woolly West would speak of a "tenderfoot" or "greeny." In Mexico the word corresponding to Chapeton or Chapetone was _Gachupin_ or _Gachupine_, "applied to natives of Spain who are called Chapetones in Peru and Maturrangos in Buenos Aires," as one of the authorities before me says. I am afraid that it is significant of some unpleasant matters already noted, to find Pike here using the word said to be current in Peru, instead of that which was usual in Mexico: see Memoir, _anteà_. Geo. W. Kendall's Narrative of the Texan Expedition of 1841, 2 vols., small 8vo, London, 1845, II. p. 75, speaks of "the _Gachupines_, or natives of Old Spain"; and p. 76: "the _Gachupines_ were indiscriminately slaughtered," etc. Gregg, Comm. Pra., I. 1844, p. 170, has: "_Gachupin_--a term used to designate European Spaniards in America." Wislizenus uses _Gachupins_.

[IV'-23] That is, Rio San Francisco, one of the initial forks of the Gila: see the map, and note 19. The other is the main continuation of the Gila, sometimes called Rio San Domingo. The confluence is in Arizona, a few miles over the New Mexican border. There are mountains in this region called the San Francisco divide, and others known as the San Francisco range--both by no means to be confounded with the San Francisco mt. of the range in north-central Arizona. Whether the ruins of which Pike speaks as on this river be the work of the aboriginal colonists of Old Mexico from the northwest is, of course, in question; he simply renders a prevalent opinion of his time. The oldest _authentic_ ruins known to exist in Arizona have only very recently been brought to light by the exhumations conducted by my friend, Mr. Frank H. Cushing, of the Hemenway Archæological Expedition, in 1886-88, in the valley of the Salado or Salt r., near the town of Tempe, and not far from Phoenix. An account of these discoveries, from the pen of Dr. Washington Matthews, U. S. A., forms part of the Seventh Memoir of Vol. VI. of Mem. Nat. Acad. Sci., 1893, pp. 142-161, figs. 1-22. Mr. Cushing dug up mounds he supposes to be from 1,000 to 2,000 years old, full of bones and pottery, and revealing structures, some of which recall the long famous Casa Grande itself. The buildings represented by the cluster of mounds crowded an area some 6 m. long and ½ to 1 m. wide. Five of the best marked mounds, standing in the places of groups of houses, have been named Los Muertos, Los Guanacos, Los Hornos, Las Canopas, and Las Acequias. Four kinds of architecture have been recognized as priest-temples (style of Casa Grande); sun-temples, in some cases 200 feet long by 150 broad; certain great communal houses, a sort of several-storied prototypes of our modern city flats; and ultramural huts, jacals, or wickiups. I should have called them respectively hieroecias, helioecias, synoecias, and exoecias. Those old Saladoans had an extensive system of irrigation, the lines of acequias madres or mother-ditches alone representing over 150 m. of dug-way; some of these canals are now utilized by the new-comers. It took many thousand people many years to leave monuments like these. Their actual antiquity is unknown; that it is very great is obvious; it is great enough to have resulted in the disappearance of everything but bone and clay. There is no sign of wood-work or textile fabric. Conjecture of a thousand years or more may reasonably be based on comparison of the natural rate of decay of structures known since the historic period, 1540. Thus, the Casa Grande has not changed perceptibly in our day, except from vandalism, and probably looks much as it did 350 years ago. It would appear also that the same indefatigable explorer has settled the long-mooted question of the Seven Cities of Cibola (Cebola, Sibola, Zibola), against any theory of their being the Moki (Tusayan) villages, or being anywhere else than in the vicinity of Zuñi itself. The names which have come down to us since Coronado, 1541, are: (1) Ahacus, Avicu, Aquico, Jahuicu, Havico; (2) Canabe; (3) ...; (4) Aquinsa; (5) Alona; (6) Musaqui, Maçaque, Maçaquia; (7) Caquina. According to a certain phonetic system the preferable spelling is given as: (1) Hawiku; (2) Kyanawe; (3) Ketchupawe; (4) Apina or Pinawan; (5) Halona; (6) Matsaki; (7) Kyakima. All these were in what is now Valencia Co., N. M.; two were some miles S. W. of Zuñi, near the village of Ojo Caliente; two were nearer Zuñi, but E. of it; two were within 3 m. of Zuñi, S. of it; while one, Halona, occupied in part, at least, the site of the present pueblo. The ruin of Hishota-uthla, classed as "Cibolan" though not as one of the Seven Cities, is 12 m. N. E. of Zuñi, on the road to Fort Wingate; excavation there has revealed "a compactly-built, many-storied stronghold of stone containing a population of probably more than a thousand people," supposed to have been dead and gone long before Coronado passed that way. Zuñi, now one of the best known of all the extant pueblos in New Mexico, is also the best living exemplar of such places. Its antiquity is great, though hardly estimable with precision. Some of its inhabitants made a tour of the United States under Mr. Cushing's management in 1881 and 1882. Immense collections of implements, utensils, and the like were made about that time by the late Colonel James Stevenson, and deposited in our museums. I visited the town in the summer of 1864, when it was far from having been as well exploited as it has since become; so my own observations are obsolete. The Zuñi nation, otherwise Çuni, Sune, Soone, Suinyi, Shiwina, etc., sole member of the Zuñian linguistic stock, has but one permanent pueblo, though it also inhabits at times three other small villages, of the nature of "summer resorts," as we should say of our similar æstival refuges. These Indians numbered 1,613 by the census of 1890. They are well distinguished by their speech from all the various Tusayan, Tañoan, and Keresan pueblonians of New Mexico, Arizona, and Chihuahua: for some of which, see next note.

[IV'-24] I can find no better place than this to bring up some matters which require attention concerning certain pueblos which Pike locates on his map, but which, being off his route, he does not notice in his text. The Tañoan pueblos have been pretty fully noted in the foregoing itinerary, but the Tusayan and Keresan have not been sufficiently treated. We must first come to an understanding of the term "Pueblo Indians." This is simply a convenient phrase, or _façon de parler_, to designate various tribes which, in New and Old Mexico, and Arizona, settled in permanent habitations, became attached to the soil, practiced agriculture, kept flocks, and built the kind of towns called "pueblos." They are thus collectively distinguished from all roving and more or less warring tribes; they are settlers, not nomads; farmers and graziers rather than hunters, and of peaceful rather than predatory proclivities. This step in the direction of civilization was not however taken without some sacrifice of the strength of the natural wild animal, and they have suffered in consequence. They are never "bad" Indians; simply poor, tame ones, who for ages have been the prey of the priest, the trader, and the wild Indian. But the point to be insisted on is, that "Pueblo Indian" does not mean all one kind of Indians. It includes various tribes of distinct ethnic characters, the representatives of several linguistic lineages, who have severally yielded to their environments, and thus become collectively modified in a way that brings about that appearance of affinity which does not exist, and tends to obscure those radical distinctions of race which do exist. We say, for instance, "New Yorker," meaning anyone who lives in New York; but it would be as far from the fact to suppose that all Pueblo Indians are of one race as that all New Yorkers are Americans. The differences in language, and therefore in lineage, of the Tusayan, Keresan, Tañoan, and Zuñian pueblonians is as great as that of the English, French, German, and Spanish peoples. We must not be misled by the convenience of a phrase: see note 3, p. 598. The Pueblonians to be here noted belong either (1) to the Tusayan federation, or (2) to the Keresan linguistic family.

1. Pike marks, W. of the Continental divide and in the region of the Colorado Chiquito, S. of the San Juan r., six Indian villages, which he calls Oraybe, Mosanis, Songoapt, Gualpi, Chacat, and Cumpa. For the last two, see note 21, p. 630; the other four are the well-known Moki Indians, living on the four Moki mesas, about 50 m. N. E. of the Colorado Chiquito, in N. E. Arizona. With a single (Tañoan) exception, those Indians are of Shoshonean stock; and without exception, they form the Tusayan confederacy. The ethnic affinities of Mokis are with such Indians as the Snakes, Utes, Comanches, and other well-known members of the Shoshonean race which overran so vast an area in western parts of the United States. But these settled down in Arizona and built pueblos, isolated from their kindred and surrounded by Athapascan (Navajo and Apache) tribes. They are at present the only Shoshonean tribe in Arizona, excepting the handful of Chemehuevis who live among Yuman tribes on the Colorado Grande, and unless there be also a few Kwaiantikwokets on the northern border about Mt. Navajo. The Mokis have resided in their present position for more than 200 years. This habitat is the plateau of moderate extent, commonly called the Moki mesa, some special elevations of which are well-known landmarks by the name of the Moki buttes, in full view from the main road which passes S. of them. Three of the most conspicuous of these buttes are called Chimney, Signal, and Spring. The mesa is between long. 110° and 111° W., in lat. 36° N. and southward, and thus to the S. W. of the Navajos; the locality is sometimes called the "Province of Tusayan." Here the Mokis proper, of Shoshonean stock, built six villages; and a seventh village, probably also about 200 years old, called Hano (or Tewa) was built with them by Tañoan (Tewan or Teguan) refugees from the Rio Grande. Thus even the compact and isolated Moki establishment is not quite homogeneous, ethnically speaking. The Tusayan census is about 2,000; the Tañoans there were lately counted as 132. Among the names of the seven villages, the four which Pike gives can be recognized under their modern spellings, as Oraybe=Oraibi, etc. One authority I have consulted renders Oraibi, Shipauliwisi, Shongapavi, Mishongnivi, Shichoamavi, Walpi (or Hualpee), and Tewa (_i. e._, Hano). Another, and probably preferable set of orthographies, is Oraibi, Shupaulovi, Shumepovi, Mashongnavi, Sichumovi, Walpi, and Hano. The name Tusayan, which varies to Tuçayan, Tuzan, etc., is derived from a Zuñian word Usaya, applied to certain pueblos once inhabited by the confederacy. The Tusayans' name of themselves is a word variously rendered Hopituh, Hapitu, Hopee, Hopi, Opii, etc. Other words designating them, or some of them, are Cinyumuh, Shenoma or Shinumo, and Totonteac. The term now usually rendered Moki was longest current as Moqui; it is also found as Maqui, Magui, Mohace, Mohotse, and "Monkey."

2. The Keresan family consists entirely of Pueblo tribes who live in New Mexico along the Rio Grande and some of its tributaries, where their pueblos are interspersed with others of Tañoan stock, in the moderate area to which their range is thus restricted. The family name is variously rendered by different authors, as Keres, Keran, Kera; Queres, Queris, Quera, Quirix; Chuchacas or Chuchachas; also, Keswhawhay. Some ethnists divide these people into two dialectal groups: one including the pueblos of Acoma and Laguna and their outliers; the other, all the rest of the pueblos about to be named. Acoma is the only pueblo which exists on the site occupied at the date of the earliest Spanish annals. Laguna dates from 1699. There were five Keresan pueblos in 1582; there had been seven in 1542. The full list of Keresan pueblos, as given by Powell in alphabetical order, with the census for 1890, is: 1. Acoma, including the summer pueblitos of Acomita and Pueblita; pop. 566. 2. Cochití, on the W. bank of the Rio Grande, 27 m. S. W. of Santa Fé; pop. 268. "The inhabitants formerly successively occupied the Potrero de las Vacas, the Potrero San Miguel, the now ruined pueblo of Cuapa, and the Potrero Viejo," Cent. Cyc., _s. v._ 3. *Hasatch. 4. Laguna, including the eight other places whose names are here starred; pop. 1,143. Laguna is thus really a group of small pueblos situated on and near Rio San José, W. of the Rio Grande. The original foundation was by Zuñians as well as by Keresans, and the place was called Kawaiko. 5. *Paguate. 6. *Punyeestye. 7. *Punyekia. 8. *Pusityitcho. 9. San Felipe; pop. 554. This is called by the name of the mission which the Spanish founded there. 10. Santa Ana, pop. 253, on the Rio Jemez, W. of the Rio Grande. This Spanish name is also that of a mission, usurping the native name Tamaya. 11. Santo Domingo; pop. 670. 12. *Seemunah. 13. Sia, on the Jemez; pop. 106; also called Chea, Chia, Cia, Cilia, Silla, Tsea, Tsia, Tzia, Zia. "In 1582 Sia was said to be the largest of five villages forming a province called Punames. The recent pueblo dates from about 1692, when the village formerly occupied was abandoned. The tribe, which was once comparatively populous, now numbers but 106. The decrease is attributed largely to infectious disease and to the killing of persons accused of witchcraft," Cent. Cyc., _s. v._ 14. *Wapuchuseamma. 15. *Ziamma. Total pop. 3,560 for the 17 places, of which 15 (all but Acomita and Pueblita) are permanent pueblos, and 7 are officially rated as principal and distinct. Those which are given by Pike in his itinerary have been already noted, along with the Tañoan pueblos as they occur in his text.

[IV'-25] For remarks on the Indians mentioned in this paragraph which would be introduced here had I not recently given them elsewhere, the reader is referred to Lewis and Clark, ed. 1893, p. 55, note 7; p. 58, note 11; p. 60, note 15; and p. 477, note 3.

[IV'-26] The Navajos, Navahos, or, as they call themselves, Tennai, are one of the three main divisions of the southern group of Athapascan Indians (the other two being the Lipans and the Apaches). They have always lived, so far as is known to history, in the country where they do now, and whence they raided in every direction before their final subjugation in our times. They focused on the upper waters of the Rio San Juan, in N. W. New Mexico, whence they habitually ranged down the river in Colorado and Utah, and S. of it in Arizona. They were thus in contact and conflict with Shoshonean tribes on the N., and warred when they pleased with the various Apache tribes of their own stock which were about them; they were of course a terror to the peaceful Pueblonians, who had to hold their own as best they could against all the battlesome savages by whom they were beset on every hand. They were powerful, and are still one of the largest tribes with which we have to do, like the Comanches and some of the divisions of the Sioux. A late census returns about 17,000, nearly all on the large Navajo reservation which occupies the contiguous N. W. corner of New Mexico and N. E. corner of Arizona.

An interesting account of the expedition of Colonel Doniphan and some of his officers to the Navajos in 1846, together with the text of the first treaty of peace concluded between them, the New Mexicans, and Americans, at Ojo Oso (Bear spring), Nov. 22d, occupies Chaps. IX-XI of Hughes' Don. Exp., 8vo, ed. of 1847, pp. 61-76.

[IV'-27] The Lipans or Sipans cut no figure now in the United States, where they are practically extinguished, though the case may be different in Mexico. They were a numerous and roving tribe of stalwart Indians who scoured the plains of Texas from Red r. to the Rio Grande. They were a sort of Apaches, having their nearest affinities with the latter, and in fact might be considered the Apaches of the plains as distinguished from those of the mountains. They have been commonly called Lipan Apaches, and such is no incorrect designation, though they are rather more distinct from most bands of Apaches than these are from one another. They extend in Mexico as far S. as Durango. A Lipan collision which made some history, and enriched the cabinet of S. G. Morton, the craniologist of Philadelphia, may be read in Hughes' Don. Exped., pp. 130-132, and Wislizenus, Mem., pp. 71, 72: see also note 5, p. 697.

[IV'-28] There is no historic period when the Apaches were not the scourge of the country they inhabited, down to the time when they were brought to terms by General Crook, in his Arizona campaigns of 1872 _seq._, and even since then their repeated escapades are matters of recent notoriety. They always warred with other Indians, always warred with the whites, and not seldom with one another. In Arizona particularly, so far as we are concerned, they did more to retard the development of the country than all other causes combined. For some years after the Territorial government was established, it was at the risk of life that one went out of sight of Prescott or Fort Whipple alone or with a small party. The Apaches lurked behind every rock, and hid in every bush; or, failing that, under cover of every three blades of grass--a trick they did to perfection--and reddened with blood every trail that led to the capital or the post. People were killed and stock was run off within a few hundred paces of both these places, and more than one pitched battle came off within ear-shot. A regular part of my business for two years was the extraction of Apache arrow-heads. The arrows used by the tribes nearest us were exactly such as Pike describes, though, so far as my observation went, the heads were all of stone, quite small and sharp, and very brittle, so that they usually shivered when they struck a bone and the fragments were not easily removed. They were only held in place with gum in the shallow notch at the end of the small hardwood stick that was set in the large reed, and thus were always left in the wound when the stick was pulled out. It is within my certain knowledge that they were in some cases poisoned; the common opinion was that the septic substance was derived from a deer's liver into which a rattlesnake had been made to inject its venom, and which was then left to putrefy in the sun; but how this case may really be, I never ascertained to my satisfaction. We continually hunted Apaches and killed a good many; a particular friend of mine, Mr. Willard Rice, who saved my life on a very ticklish occasion, when we were on a deer-hunt together without other companions, and who is still living near Prescott, is to be credited with at least 20 "good" (dead) Apaches--none of the score women or children, either. But such desultory operations as we could conduct in those years seemed to make little difference; it required Crook's systematic campaigns, on a large scale, to render the country inhabitable. The other side of the picture is, that the Apache has never committed an atrocity that we have not exchanged in kind, with the sole exception that we have probably never put a prisoner to death by slow torture, as was the Apache custom; that the Apache has not broken faith with us oftener than we are proud to say we have with him, and has not robbed us of more than we would like to take from him, if he had anything left to steal and we had an opportunity. The secrets of Indian agencies, like those of the Roman confessional, only leak out under great pressure. The Apaches that troubled us most in that particular vicinity of which I speak were known or supposed to be those of the Tonto basin, commonly called Tontos (Pinal Coyoteros). In scientific classification the Apache tribes and sub-tribes are numerous. The alphabetical list now recognized by high authority is: Arivaipa, Chiricahua, Faraone, Gileño (Gilans, or Apaches of the Gila, with four sub-tribes, Coyotero, Mimbreño, Mogollon, and Pinal Coyotero or Tonto), Jicarilla, Lipan, Llanero, Mescalero, Naisha, Querecho, Tchikun, Tchishi. All the Apaches within our jurisdiction have been brought under military subjection and restraint. The largest body of Apaches is now on the San Carlos reservation; their number is uncertain, say 2,000, representing several different tribes. Nearly as many more are in charge of the military at Camp Apache, in Arizona, say 1,900, known collectively as White Mountain Apaches. About 800 Jicarillas are on the Southern Ute Reservations in Colorado; some 500 Mescaleros are on the reservation of that name in New Mexico; and 300 other Apaches are on the Kiowa, Comanche, and Wichita Reservation in Indian Territory. After a recent outbreak had been quelled 356 prisoners were sent to Mount Vernon Barracks in Alabama. There are about 150 children at school in Carlisle, Pa. The total of perhaps 6,000 Apaches with which we have still to deal is not large in comparison with the numbers of some other tribes--but it is enough.

[IV'-29] See note 13, p. 615, note 14, p. 616, note 15, p. 618; also, note 24, p. 743. The towns here mentioned are those usually called San Domingo, San Felipe, and Sandia--the latter being the Tañoan one Pike elsewhere speaks of as St. Dies.

[IV'-30] Juan de Oñate, first governor of New Mexico, b. Guadalajara, Mex., about 1555, d. after 1611. "He was a son of the founder of Guadalajara, and was married to a granddaughter of Hernando Cortés. In 1595 his proposition to settle New Mexico was accepted by the viceroy Velasco, and after much delay the grant was confirmed by the Count of Monterey. Oñate left Zacatecas in Jan., 1598, with 130 men besides Indians, a large wagon- and cattle-train, etc.; reached the Rio Grande, probably at El Paso, April 20; took formal possession April 30; crossed the river; and in Aug. founded the first capital, San Juan (Santa Fé was founded later). After the first year he had little trouble with the Indians. Early in 1599 he explored a part of Arizona, and in 1604 followed the Gila river down to the Gulf of California. He probably ceased to rule as governor in 1608." (Cent. Cyc. Names, _s. v._) (See Nadal and Niza, in the Index.)

[IV'-31] The province which Pike calls indifferently Biscay and New Biscay was properly Nueva Vizcaya. It was named Reino de la Nueva Vizcaya by Francisco de Ibarra, who invaded it about 1560-70, and retained the name until after the independence. As a colonial division of New Spain it had been originally called Copala, and was much more extensive than Pike's Biscay, as it corresponded to the present states of Sonora, Sinaloa, Chihuahua, Durango, and a southern part of Coahuila. This region was included among the Provincias Internas in 1777, and such was its status in Pike's time; but meanwhile it had become contracted in extent by the exclusion of Sonora and Sinaloa, so that in Pike's time it was little if any more than equivalent to the two present states of Chihuahua and Durango. Present Chihuahua has Sinaloa and Durango on the S. Present Durango is surrounded by Sinaloa, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Zacatecas, and Jalisco.

[IV'-32] Wislizenus, Mem., p. 55, quotes this passage, and adds: "By rubbing the hair of cats and dogs in the dark, I could elicit here a greater mass of electricity than I had ever seen produced in this way. Some persons, entitled to confidence, informed me that by changing their woollen under-dress in the night, they had at first been repeatedly frightened by seeing themselves suddenly enveloped in a mass of electrical fire. The remarkable flames that appeared after a thunder-storm in the mountains south of El Paso, already mentioned by me [Mem. p. 43], were no doubt connected with electricity. I recollect also, from an account published in relation to the battle of Buena Vista, that during a sultry evening electrical flames were seen on the points of the bayonets among the sentinels stationed in the mountains."

[IV'-33] For these, see the itinerary, Apr. 30th-May 13th, pp. 668-678, and notes there. The lakes Pike proceeds to mention are in or on the border of present Coahuila. The situation of the Presidio del Norte, where the Conchos discharges, is lat. 29° 33´ 53´´ N., long. 104° 36´ 27´´ W., by the river 346 m. above the mouth of the Pecos, and 348 below El Paso--both of these distances much in excess of the direct line between these points. "Batopilis" is very far out for the source of the Conchos, unless Pike refers to some other place than the modern Batopilas. This is situated below lat. 27° N., and in the Pacific water-shed, being on a branch of the Rio del Fuerte, which runs from Chihuahua through Sinaloa and empties into the Gulf of California at Point Ahome.

[IV'-34] Before undertaking to answer this query, it would be well to ascertain the fact. The scorpions which Pike describes are known by the Spanish name _alacran_, and I presume are closely related to the widely distributed _Androctonus biaculeatus_, if not the same species. Kendall's Narrative of the Texan Expedition of 1841, pub. Lond., 1845, II. p. 114, cites Pike in this connection, and also has: "I believe that the city of Durango is somewhat celebrated for the beauty and talent of its women--I know that it is noted for the numbers and venomous qualities of its _alicrans_, or scorpions. Frequently, while travelling through the State of Durango, were we regaled with Mexican stories of the swarms of poisonous _alicrans_ which infest the capital.... A bounty of some three or six cents ... is paid by the authorities for each insect secured, and according to some of the stories told us, no inconsiderable business is carried on in catching and bottling the much dreaded scorpions." When Gregg was in Durango, March, 1835, he noted that city "as being the headquarters, as it were, of the whole scorpion family. During the spring, especially, so much are the houses infested by these poisonous insects, that many people are obliged to have resort to a kind of mosquito bar, in order to keep them out of their beds at night. As an expedient to deliver the city from this terrible pest, a society has already been formed, which pays a reward of a _cuartilla_ (three cents) for every _alacran_ (or scorpion) that is brought to them. Stimulated by the desire of gain, the idle boys of the city are always on the look-out; so that, in the course of a year, immense numbers of this public enemy are captured and slaughtered. The body of this insect is of the bulk and cast of a medium spider, with a jointed tail one or two inches long, at the end of which is a sting whose wounds are so poisonous as often to prove fatal to children, and are very painful to adults. The most extraordinary peculiarity of these scorpions is, that they are far less dangerous in the north than in the south, which in some manner accounts for the story told Capt. Pike, that even those of Durango lose most of their venom as soon as they are removed a few miles from the city," says Gregg, very sensibly, Comm. Pra., II. 1844, p. 89. Hughes, Doniphan Exp., p. 128: "the soldiers would sometimes shake their blankets, toss ... the lizards and _alacrans_, exclaiming angrily, 'd----n the scorpion family!'"

[IV'-35] Gregg, Comm. Pra., II. 1844, p. 114, cites Pike in his own description of Chihuahua, as it appeared to him in 1839, and the two accounts may be here brought together. Noting the regularity of the city in comparison with Santa Fé, the dressing of the best buildings with hewn stone, the paving of some of the streets, and the population of about 10,000, this author continues:

"The most splendid edifice in Chihuahua is the principal church, which is said to equal in architectural grandeur anything of the sort in the republic. The steeples, of which there is one at each front corner, rise over 100 feet above the azotea [roof]. They are composed of very fancifully-carved columns; and in appropriate niches of the frontispiece, which is also an elaborate piece of sculpture, are to be seen a number of statues, as large as life, the whole forming a complete representation of Christ and the 12 Apostles. This church was built about a century ago, by contributions levied upon the mines (particularly those of Santa Eulalia, 15 or 20 miles from the city), which paid over a percentage on all the metal extracted therefrom; a _medio_ [6¼ cents], I believe, being levied upon each _marco_ of eight ounces. In this way, about a million of dollars was raised and expended in some 30 years, the time employed in the construction of the building. It is a curious fact, however, that, notwithstanding the enormous sums of money expended in outward embellishments, there is not a church from thence southward, perhaps, where the interior arrangements bear such striking marks of poverty and neglect. If, however, we are not dazzled by the sight of these costly decorations for which the churches of Southern Mexico are so much celebrated, we have the satisfaction of knowing that the turrets are well provided with bells, a fact of which every person who visits Chihuahua very soon obtains auricular demonstration. One, in particular, is so large and sonorous that it has frequently been heard, so I am informed, at the distance of 25 miles.

"A little below the _Plaza Mayor_ stand the ruins (as they may be called) of San Francisco--the mere skeleton of another great church of hewn stone, which was commenced by the Jesuits previous to their expulsion in 1767, but never finished. By the outlines still traceable amid the desolation which reigns around, it would appear that the plan of this edifice was conceived in a spirit of still greater magnificence than the Parroquia which I have been describing. The abounding architectural treasures that are mouldering and ready to tumble to the ground bear sufficient evidence that the mind which had directed its progress was at once bold, vigorous, and comprehensive.

"This dilapidated building has since been converted into a sort of state prison, particularly for the incarceration of distinguished prisoners. It was here that the principals of the famous Texan Santa Fé Expedition were confined, when they passed through the place, on their way to the City of Mexico. This edifice has also acquired considerable celebrity as having received within its gloomy embraces several of the most distinguished patriots, who were taken prisoners during the first infant struggles for Mexican independence. Among these was the illustrious ecclesiastic, Don Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, who made the first declaration at the village of Dolores, September 16, 1810. He was taken prisoner in March, 1811, some time after his total defeat at Guadalaxara; and being brought to Chihuahua, he was shot on the 30th of July following, in a little square back of the prison, where a plain white monument of hewn stone has been erected to his memory. It consists of an octagon base of about 25 feet in diameter, upon which rises a square, unornamented pyramid to the height of about 30 feet. The monument indeed is not an unapt emblem of the purity and simplicity of the curate's character.

"Among the few remarkable objects which attract the attention of the traveller is a row of columns supporting a large number of stupendous arches which may be seen from the heights, long before approaching the city from the north. This is an aqueduct of considerable magnitude which conveys water from the little river of Chihuahua, to an eminence above the town, whence it is passed through a succession of pipes to the main public square, where it empties itself into a large stone cistern; and by this method the city is supplied with water. This and other public works to be met with in Chihuahua, and in the southern cities, are glorious remnants of the prosperous times of the Spanish empire. No improvements on so exalted a scale have ever been made under the republican government.... -¡Ojalá por los dias felices del Rey!-"

[IV'-36] Sonora then was nearly the same as the present State of that name, but lost a northern strip (the Gadsden Purchase) to our Arizona, and also lost its New Mexican line. For the present boundary between it and the United States, running on lat. 31° 20´ N. to long. 111° W., see note 32, p. 645. In Mexico, Sonora is now bounded on the E. by Chihuahua, on the S. by Sinaloa, and on the W. by the Gulf of California, except the short extent to which the Colorado r. separates it from Lower California. Area, 77,550 sq. m.; pop. 140,500; capital, Hermosillo, pop. 7,000; principal seaport, Guaymas, pop. 5,500, situated in lat. 27° 56´ N., long. 110° 36´ W.

[IV'-37] The whole Sonoran water-shed is Pacific, and the river-system runs on general S. and S. W. courses to the Gulf, in a series of somewhat parallel streams. The northernmost one of these, of any size, which Pike calls Ascencion r., I find lettered Rio Altar; its main branch is Rio Magdalena; some of its ultimate sources are in Arizona, in the country about Arivaca, Tubac, and old Fort Mason; it discharges between George's bay and Cape Tepoca. The Sonora is much larger, with a main branch called San Miguel; it discharges opposite Tiburon isl. Arizpa, which Pike speaks of as near the head of the Yaqui, is high up on the right bank of the Sonora; lower down is Hermosillo (lat. 29° 10´ N., long. 110° 45´ W.). The Yaqui is the largest Sonoran river, falling into the Gulf below Guaymas and above Point Lobos. It has two main forks, Rio Moctezuma and Rio Bavispe. Rio Matape, a small river, is the one that falls in at Guaymas, and not the Yaqui. Another small one, Rio Mayo, falls in below Vacamora and Point Rosa. Rio Alamos, which heads in Sonora, falls over the Sinaloan boundary.