Chapter XII: Regional Geography (2)

Heyd, _op. cit._, vol. i, 1885, p. 295. A brief of Innocent III of
1208 mentions the presence of Lombards, Danes, and English.

Footnote 1494:

Benjamin of Tudela, _Itinerary_, Adler’s edit., pp. 12–14.

Footnote 1495:

_Gesta Frid._, II, 13.

Footnote 1496:

Benjamin of Tudela traversed the length of Italy on his way to the
Orient. He gives in his _Itinerary_ (Adler’s edit., pp. 5–10) some
details regarding the cities which he passed through. Genoa and Pisa,
he said were governed “neither by king nor prince but only by the
judges appointed by the citizens.” Each was noted for its “turreted
houses for battle in time of strife.” Rome was “the head of the
kingdoms of Christendom,” but Benjamin dismissed with brief phrase her
claims to glory as the seat of the Papacy. On the other hand, he wrote
in some detail of the Jewish inhabitants of Rome and more especially
of the ruins, among them “eighty palaces belonging to eighty kings who
lived there, each called Imperator, commencing with King
Tarquinius ... and ... ending with Pepin, who freed the land of
Sepharad [Spain] from Islam, and was father of Charlemagne.” The
Colosseum, the Catacombs, statues of Samson and of Constantine the
Great, and “many other edifices” and “remarkable sights beyond
enumeration” aroused the admiration of the Hebrew traveler. Farther
south he spoke of the great school of medicine at Salerno; of Amalfi,
“the inhabitants of which are merchants engaged in trade, who do not
sow or reap, because they dwell upon high hills and lofty crags, but
buy everything for money;” of Benevento; of Trani, with a convenient
port where pilgrims gather to take ship to Jerusalem; of Brindisi;
and, finally, of Otranto, whence one crosses to Corfu.

Interesting details of a journey through Italy in the twelfth century
are also supplied in Abbot Nikulás’ _Itinerary_ (Werlauff, _Symbolae_,
1821, pp. 29–35).

Footnote 1497:

For a brief discussion of various regional divisions of Italy
suggested by writers from the time of Augustus to that of Dante and of
Flavio Biondo (fifteenth century) see Andriani, _La carta
dialettologica_, 1923, and below, p. 484, note 418.

Footnote 1498:

On another source of wealth of Northern Italy, its auriferous rivers,
as listed in the _Honorantie civitatis papie_, a document of the
second half of the ninth century, see F. Landogna, _Su alcuni fiumi
auriferi nell’ alto medio evo_, in: Rivista geografica italiana, vol.
xxxi, Florence, 1924, pp. 77–86.

Footnote 1499:

_Denumeratio_, p. 45.

Footnote 1500:

_Gesta Frid._, II, 13.

Footnote 1501:

_Ligurinus_, II, 131–143.

Footnote 1502:

_loc. cit._

Footnote 1503:

See above, pp. 180–181.

Footnote 1504:

Gregorovius, _City of Rome_ (Hamilton’s translation), vol. iv, pt. II,
1896, p. 655. Gregorovius comments on the decided preference given in
this book to the pagan as distinguished from the ecclesiastical city.
He also commends the work as being fairly accurate in its details. On
the interest in ruins that prevailed in our period, see Ganzenmüller,
_Naturgefühl_, 1914, pp. 213–215.

Footnote 1505:

One of the sources which Master Gregory used was a booklet entitled
_De septem miraculis mundi_. The wonders as given in this booklet
were: (1) the Capitol at Rome; (2) the lighthouse at Alexandria; (3)
the Colossus of Rhodes; (4) the statue of Bellerophon at Smyrna; (5)
the theater at Heraclea; (6) the baths of Apollonius of Tyana; and (7)
the temple of Diana at Ephesus. All of these, except the last, were
included by Gregory in his account of Rome, though he did not believe
that all were actually situated in Rome (James, _Magister Gregorius_,
1917, pp. 537–539).

Footnote 1506:

Conrad of Querfurt’s letter, in: Arnold of Lübeck, _Chron. Slav._, V,
19. See also Ganzenmüller, _Naturgefühl_, 1914, pp. 205–208.

Footnote 1507:

_Otia imper._, vol. i, p. 916.

Footnote 1508:

_Hist. adv. pag._, I, 2.

Footnote 1509:

_De imag. mundi_, I, 30.

Footnote 1510:

_Chron._, Rolls Series edit., vol. iii, p. 48.

Footnote 1511:

_ibid._, p. 176.

Footnote 1512:

_Gesta Frid._, II, 13.

Footnote 1513:

_loc. cit._

Footnote 1514:

Oehlmann, _Alpenpässe_, in: Jahrbuch, vol. iv, 1879, p. 304.

Footnote 1515:

_ibid._, in: Jahrbuch, vol. iii, 1878, p. 181.

Footnote 1516:

_Mon. Germ. hist._, Scriptores, vol. xvi, p. 340.

Footnote 1517:

Oehlmann, _op. cit._, in: Jahrbuch, vol. iii, 1878, p. 180.

Footnote 1518:

Schaube, _Handelsgeschichte_, 1906, pp. 334–338. The Great St. Bernard
Pass was the principal artery of trade between Northern Italy and the
fairs of Champagne. The Septimer Pass, now little used, was much
traveled in the Middle Ages and was a principal trade route between
Lombardy and southern and western Germany (Schaube, _op. cit._, p.
450; Oehlmann, _op. cit._, in: Jahrbuch, vol. iv, 1879, pp. 305–323).

Footnote 1519:

Oehlmann, _op. cit._, in: Jahrbuch, vol. iii, 1878, pp. 226–227.

Footnote 1520:

See especially Abbot Nikulás’ description of the route over the Great
St. Bernard Pass (Werlauff, _Symbolae_, 1821, pp. 18–19).

Footnote 1521:

Oehlmann, _op. cit._, in: Jahrbuch, vol. iii, 1878, pp. 257–267.

Footnote 1522:

_ibid._, vol. iv, 1879, pp. 304–323. The medieval history of the
Alpine passes is discussed in detail by Oehlmann, _op. cit._; see
also, Reinhard, _Pässe und Strassen_, 1903; Schulte, _Geschichte_,
1900; Scheffel, _Verkehrsgeschichte_, vol. ii, 1914, pp. 167–286. For
a more compact account of the Alpine passes in the Middle Ages and in
later times, see Coolidge, _The Alps_, 1908, pp. 150–198.

It would seem that the passes of the Central Alps were relatively
little known in our period in comparison with those farther east and
west. The Simplon and St. Gotthard, now so important, were only just
beginning to be frequented. Other routes across the main ranges of the
Alps made use of in the twelfth and early thirteenth centuries were
the Mont Genèvre and Little St. Bernard, leading from Italy into
France and French-speaking Switzerland; the Grimsel and possibly the
San Bernardino in the Central Alps; and farther east the
Reschen-Scheideck and the Pontebba. Shortly before the opening of our
period and during it many hospices were built to provide travelers
with shelter and hospitality on the passes and along the routes
leading to them.

Footnote 1523:

_Gesta Frid._, II, 1, 24, 28. See also Dietrich, _Geogr.
Anschauungen_, 1885, p. 99; Marinelli, _Scritti minori_, vol. i,
[1908?], pp. 600–601.

Footnote 1524:

_Gesta Frid._, III, 15a; IV, 3.

Footnote 1525:

_ibid._, I, 8 (discussed in: Dietrich, _op. cit._, p. 99). Ragewin
used the term “Alemanni” to designate Germans in distinction from
“Italici” (_Gesta Frid._, III, 38).

Footnote 1526:

_De imag. mundi_, I, 24, 25.

Footnote 1527:

Notably by J. A. Endres, _Honorius Augustodunensis: Beitrag zur
Geschichte des geistigen Lebens im 12. Jahrhundert_, Kempten and
Munich, 1906, sect. 12. See Duhem, _Système_, vol. iii, 1915, p. 30.

Footnote 1528:

See above, p. 281.

Footnote 1529:

See above, p. 239.

Footnote 1530:

_Gesta Frid._, II, 46.

Footnote 1531:

_Denumeratio_, pp. 49–50. For descriptive passages in Godfrey’s
_Pantheon_ on various parts of Germany and Holland, especially on the
regions of Nimwegen, Bamberg, and Würzburg, see _Mon. Germ. hist._,
Scriptores, vol. xxii, pp. 159–161, 240 (cited by Ganzenmüller,
_Naturgefühl_, 1914, p. 194).

Footnote 1532:

_Ligurinus_, I, 377. See also Gaston Paris, _Dissertation critique_,
1872, pp. 85–86.

Footnote 1533:

Gunther (_Ligurinus_, _loc. cit._) also describes in detail the
frontier between the territory of Cologne and that of Mayence and
mentions other local details of this region.

Footnote 1534:

_Subtilitates_, II, 3–10.

Footnote 1535:

See above, pp. 185 and 201–202.

Footnote 1536:

_Gesta Hammenb. eccl. pont._, I, 1–5. This is taken from Einhard’s
_Vita Caroli magni_ (Beazley, _Dawn_, vol. ii, 1901, p. 533). Beazley,
_op. cit._, pp. 514–548, gives an excellent résumé of the geography of
Adam of Bremen. He asserts that Adam “possessed the geographical
instinct; almost every mention he makes of persons, places, or nations
is accompanied by some definition of their habitat or position”
(_ibid._, p. 516).

Footnote 1537:

Dietrich, _Geogr. Anschauungen_, 1885, p. 189. Adam gives, of course,
much fuller detail regarding this and other regions; we have merely
tried to bring out a few of his more important geographical ideas.

Footnote 1538:

_Gesta Danorum_, Praefacio, Holder’s edit., p. 4.

Footnote 1539:

_ibid._, pp. 4–5.

Footnote 1540:

“Iulinum, Iumne, Iomsburg, 935/60–1043 a fort of the Jom Vikings”
(Spruner-Menke, _Hand-Atlas für die Geschichte des Mittelalters und
der neueren Zeit_, 3rd edit., Gotha, 1880, pl. 37)—the site of the
present-day town of Wollin, according to some (Karl Baedeker, _Die
deutsche Ostseeküste: Handbuch für Reisende_, Leipzig, 1922, p. 122)
or of Swinemünde according to Dietrich, _op. cit._, p. 189, note 8.

Footnote 1541:

Dietrich, _loc. cit._ Helmold (_Chron. Slav._, I, 2) describes this
city, but by his time it had been destroyed by a Danish king.

Footnote 1542:

_Gesta Hammenb. eccl. pont._, IV, 18; Helmold, _Chron. Slav._ I, 1.
See Dietrich, _op. cit._, p. 192.

Footnote 1543:

_Chron. Slav._, II, 216.

Footnote 1544:

Moritz, _Geogr. Kenntnis_, 1904, p. 26.

Footnote 1545:

_Gesta Hammenb. eccl. pont._, IV, 10; IV, 15. In Adam of Bremen’s work
the designation “Baltic” probably appears for the first time. Adam
says it was so called “because it extends in the form of a belt
(baltei)” (Nansen, _Northern Mists_, 1911, vol. i, p. 185).

Footnote 1546:

Adam speaks of a bay trending northward at Birka (_Gesta Hammenb.
eccl. pont._, I, 62). See also Moritz, _op. cit._, p. 21.

Footnote 1547:

Nansen, _op. cit._, vol. i, p. 186. See also Marinelli, _Scritti
minori_, vol. i, [1908?], pp. 301–302, esp. footnote 1 on p. 302.

Footnote 1548:

_Gesta Danorum_, Praefacio, Holder’s edit., p. 8.

Footnote 1549:

Beazley, _Dawn_, vol. ii, 1901, pp. 516–520. For Adam of Bremen’s
conception of the geography of the North see the full treatment by
Björnbo, _Adam af Bremen_, 1909. Björnbo’s map showing his theory of
Adam’s geography is reproduced in Nansen, _Northern Mists_, 1911, vol.
i, p. 186. See also Tiander, _Poyezdki_, 1906, pp. 46–51, for a
Russian scholar’s identification of places mentioned by Adam.

Footnote 1550:

_Gesta Hammenb. eccl. pont._, IV, 30.

Footnote 1551:

Nansen, _op. cit._, vol. i, pp. 203–232.

Footnote 1552:

_Gesta Danorum_, Praefacio, Holder’s edit., p. 8.

Footnote 1553:

_Historia Norweg._, I, Storm’s edit., p. 83. See also Nansen, _op.
cit._, p. 204. A ski-runner is represented on the Hereford map of the
thirteenth century (Miller, _Mappaemundi_, reproduction accompanying
vol. iv, 1896; see also Nansen, _ibid._, p. 157).

Footnote 1554:

_Gesta Hammenb. eccl. pont._, IV, 31.

Footnote 1555:

Ragewin’s continuation of Otto of Freising, _Gesta Frid._, III, 1.

Footnote 1556:

_Ligurinus_, VI, 13–49.

Footnote 1557:

Traditions of cannibalism among the northern tribes of Europe and
Scythia were widespread in the ancient world and date back at least to
the time of Herodotus. Human sacrifice and cannibalism were
undoubtedly practiced by the early Scandinavians (Nansen, _Northern
Mists_, 1911, vol. 1, pp. 81, 148–149).

Footnote 1558:

_Chron._, VI, 30.

Footnote 1559:

Wattenbach, _Guido von Bazoches_, 1891 (under Guy of Bazoches in the
Bibliography), pp. 72–73.

Footnote 1560:

_Denumeratio_, pp. 47–48.

Footnote 1561:

_Otia imper._, vol. i, pp. 914, 923.

Footnote 1562:

_ibid._, p. 914.

Footnote 1563:

_Hist. adv. pag._, I, 2.

Footnote 1564:

_Etym._, XIV, 6, 38.

Footnote 1565:

_Otia imper._, vol. i, p. 914.

Footnote 1566:

_loc. cit._

Footnote 1567:

_De imag. mundi_, I, 29.

Footnote 1568:

_Otia imper._, vol. i, p. 922.

Footnote 1569:

See above, pp. 72–173 and 175.

Footnote 1570:

Benjamin of Tudela passed through the south of France. He gives a few
details (for the most part concerning the Jewish population) about
Narbonne, Béziers, Montpellier, Lunel, Posquières, Arles, and
Marseilles. Apparently he went by sea from Marseilles to Genoa
(_Itinerary_, Adler’s edit., pp. 2–5).

William the Breton gives several striking descriptions of landscapes
in France in his _Philippis_. His descriptions of Château Gaillard, of
the vicinity of Tours, of Flanders, and of the region about Pontarlier
are cited and in part translated into German by Ganzenmüller,
_Naturgefühl_, 1914, pp. 196–197.

Footnote 1571:

Miller, _Mappaemundi_, vol. i, 1895, p. 50 and reproduction
accompanying the volume (reduced in Fig. 2, p. 69, above).

Footnote 1572:

_Hist. adv. pag._, I, 2.

Footnote 1573:

_Hist. nat._, IV, 16. Pliny gives Agrippa as authority for these
figures. He states that the width of Britain is 300 miles, not 200 as
according to Orosius (_loc. cit._).

Footnote 1574:

Miller, _op. cit._, vol. ii, 1895, pl. 10; vol. iii, 1895, p. 33.

Footnote 1575:

_De imag. mundi_, I, 31.

Footnote 1576:

_Otia imper._, vol. i, p. 916. Gervase quotes Orosius, _Hist. adv.
pag._, I, 2, 37, to the effect that Britain is 800 miles long by 200
broad, but adds that “more recent authorities” give its length as
twenty days’ journeys and its breadth as ten days’ journeys. Elsewhere
(_Otia imper._, vol. i, pp. 936–938) Gervase copies extensively from
Geoffrey of Monmouth’s _Historia Britonum_, which contains a long
account of various supernatural marvels of Britain.

Footnote 1577:

_De laud. div. sap._, V, 789–880.

Footnote 1578:

_ibid._, III, 825–938.

Footnote 1579:

Giraldus Cambrensis, _Top. Hiber._, I, 1.

Footnote 1580:

_ibid._, I, 2.

Footnote 1581:

_ibid._, I, 3.

Footnote 1582:

See above, pp. 211–212.

Footnote 1583:

_Top. Hiber._, I, 5.

Footnote 1584:

_ibid._, I, 6.

Footnote 1585:

_ibid._, I, 8.

Footnote 1586:

_ibid._, I, 9.

Footnote 1587:

_ibid._, III, 2.

Footnote 1588:

_ibid._, III, 10.

Footnote 1589:

_ibid._, III, 11–15.

Footnote 1590:

Giraldus Cambrensis, _Opera_, Rolls Series edit., vol. v, p. lxiii.

Footnote 1591:

_Top. Hiber._, I, 7.

Footnote 1592:

“Gratianus Lucius” (Dr. John Lynch), _Cambrensis eversus_, edited by
Matthew Kelly, 3 vols., Dublin, 1848–1851. This work, a violent attack
on Giraldus, was first published in 1662. Dr. Lynch believed that the
Welsh traveler had uttered a terrible calumny against the good name of
the Irish people and undertook to demolish practically everything he
had said.

Footnote 1593:

Kelly in his notes to the _Cambrensis eversus_, vol. i, 1848, pp.
117–119, shows how it would have been possible for Giraldus to have
made this mistake. From near the Shannon Pot, or source of the River
Shannon, other streams flow northward toward Ballyshannon; from Lough
Clean (Allen), also very near the Shannon Pot, it is only four miles
to the headwaters of the River Bennet, which flows westward into Sligo
Bay. These facts might easily give an impression that the Shannon
itself branches at its source in two directions, one branch running
down towards Ballyshannon or the Bennet, and the other flowing to the
southwest. The imperfect drainage development of Ireland would make
such an impression seem natural. Lough Hoyle, for instance, is
actually drained by two outlets at opposite ends of the lake.

Footnote 1594:

_Desc. Kamb._, 6.

Footnote 1595:

_loc. cit._

Footnote 1596:

_ibid._, 17.

Footnote 1597:

See above, pp. 178–179, 197, 215, and 216.

Footnote 1598:

_Desc. Kamb._, 6.

Footnote 1599:

An unusual treatment of linguistic geography is found, subsequent to
our period, in the _De vulgari eloquentia_ of Dante. Whereas Isidore
of Seville on Biblical authority had divided the languages of the
world into three main groups, the Japhetic, Hamitic, and Semitic,
Dante recognized the fact that these groups are further divisible into
secondary groups each consisting of several kindred languages. He
believed that there were three original European tongues: Greek,
spoken in the southeast and in Asia Minor; a language spoken in the
southwest; and one spoken in the north and east. “Man being a most
unstable and variable animal,” these three original tongues became
altered “according to the distances in place and time” with the result
that certain “vulgar tongues” were formed. These tongues in turn
underwent variations in different localities; the resultant forms were
still further subdivided, until by Dante’s time there were in
existence in Italy alone more than a thousand local dialectic
peculiarities. See Mori, _La geogr._, 1922, pp. 289–292.

Andriani, _La carta dialettologica_, 1923, discusses Dante’s study of
the local dialects of Italy as elaborated in the _De vulgari
eloquentia_. The poet divided the peninsula and Sardinia into fourteen
major dialectic regions. These correspond essentially with the
geographical regions established by Flavio Biondo in his _Italia
illustrata_ (fifteenth century). With the aid of the latter work
Andriani constructs a tentative dialectic map of Italy as Dante
probably would have conceived it. Modern research in the linguistic
geography of that country has served in general to confirm Dante’s
assertions on the subject.

Footnote 1600:

See Bibliography under William Fitzstephen.

Footnote 1601:

See above, p. 331–332.

Footnote 1602:

The preceding quotations from William Fitzstephen are taken from
Morley’s translation on pp. 22–26 of his edition of Stow’s _A Survay
of London ... 1598_, 1908.

Footnote 1603:

The quotations on the sports of the Londoners are from Stow’s
sixteenth-century translation in Morley’s edition of Stow, _op. cit._,
pp. 117–125.

Footnote 1604:

Miller, _Mappaemundi_, vol. iii, 1895, pp. 74–77.

Footnote 1605:

_ibid._, p. 75.

Footnote 1606:

See above, p. 335 and p. 483, notes 392 and 395. For these and other
legends quoted below, see Miller, _ibid._, pp. 75–82.

Footnote 1607:

“Pinlimon,” “Montes Chivieti,” “Mons Snaudun” (_ibid._, pp. 78, 79).

Footnote 1608:

“Regio montuosa et nemorosa, gentem incultam generans et pastoralem,
quia pars eius mariscus est et harundinetum” (_ibid._, p. 78).

Footnote 1609:

“Regia invia et aquosa.” “Patria palustris et invia, pecudibus et
pastoribus apta” (_ibid._).

Footnote 1610:

“Regio palustris, montuosa, nemorosa, invia, pastoribus accomoda,
incolas habet agiles, incultos et bellicosos” (_ibid._, p. 79). See
above, p. 233.

Footnote 1611:

“Sephe,” “Thanet,” “Vecta,” “V̄en̄.” (Alderney?), “Grenese”
(Guernsey), “Purland,” “Sulli,” “Lundeth,” “Engleseia insula,” “Man,”
“Tyren insula” (this may be either Tiree or the peninsula of Kintyre,
Miller, _ibid._, p. 75), “insula Columkilli” (Icolmkill, or Iona),
“Orkades Insule” (_ibid._, p. 75).

Footnote 1612:

_Top. Hiber._, II, 15.

Footnote 1613:

_ibid._, II, 11.

Footnote 1614:

_ibid._, II, 13.

Footnote 1615:

_ibid._, II, 17.

Footnote 1616:

C. H. Haskins, _The De Arte Venandi cum Avibus of the Emperor
Frederick II_, in: English Historical Review, vol. xxxvi, London,
1921, p. 346, note 8; idem, _Studies_, 1924, p. 316, note 104.
“Gallandia” here may mean Greenland, although in Ordericus Vitalis
(_Hist. eccles._, II, 5) “Gollanda” is probably Gotland (see below, p.
487, note 455). Abu-l-Ḥasan, a Moslem geographer of the thirteenth
century, places the island of the white falcons to the west of
Denmark. “Its length from west to east is about seven days and its
breadth about four days.” He reports that white falcons are brought
from here for the Sultan of Egypt. He also speaks of a white bear in
these regions, which goes out into the sea and swims and catches fish
(Nansen, _Northern Mists_, 1911, vol. ii, pp. 208–209).

Footnote 1617:

_Íslendingabók_, 1, 2–3; translation from Nansen, _op. cit._, vol. i,
p. 254. The pre-Norse Christians in Iceland were Irish hermits, whose
visits to Thule or Iceland are described by Dicuil, _De mens. orb.
ter._, 7 (Letronne’s edit., p. 38). See also (_ibid._, pp. 165–166).

Footnote 1618:

_Hist. de antiq. reg. norwag._, 3, Storm’s edit., p. 8; translation
from Nansen, _op. cit._, vol. i, p. 254. See above, p. 412, note 122.

Footnote 1619:

_Hist. Norweg._, I, Storm’s edit., p. 92; translation from Nansen,
_op. cit._, vol. i, p. 255.

Footnote 1620:

Translation from Nansen, _loc. cit._

Footnote 1621:

On Norse settlements and voyages on the coasts of Greenland, see
Nansen, _op. cit._, vol. i, pp. 258–311. The _Landnámabók_, I (transl.
in Vigfusson and York Powell, _Orig. Island._, vol. i, 1905, pp.
14–15) gives the distances in days’ sailing from points on the coast
of Iceland to points on the coasts of Norway, Greenland, Ireland, and
to “Svalbard” (possibly Spitsbergen; see above, p. 349). It was said
to have been a journey of seven _doegr_ from Cape Stat in Norway to
Cape Horn on the east coast of Iceland, of three (according to one
version of the _Landnámabók_) or of five (according to another
version) from Reykyanes to the Mare’s Leap in Ireland, of four _doegr_
from the northeasternmost cape of Iceland to Svalbard, and of one
across to Greenland at what was probably the narrowest passage. These
figures are difficult to interpret. The relative times given in no way
correspond to the actual relative distances, and we are not absolutely
certain what is meant by _doegr_. In fact Nansen writes that it is
hopeless to look for any system in these data (_op. cit._, vol. ii, p.
170). If we take _doegr_ to be a journey of twelve hours (as would
seem to be indicated by the _Heimskringla_, Morris and Magnússon’s
transl., vol. ii, p. 242; interpreted by Nansen, _op. cit._, pp. 170,
171, and note) the passage from Norway to Iceland would require
sailing at a rate of 155 sea miles in twenty-four hours, not
altogether excessive under favorable conditions. On the other hand,
the passage from Iceland to Ireland and to Greenland would necessitate
a speed of either 475 or 385 sea miles in twenty-four hours
respectively, which would be excellent speed for a modern liner. See
Nansen, _loc. cit._, and E. Magnússon’s note on the sailing directions
of the _Landnámabók_ in: Transactions of the Cambridge Philological
Society, vol. i, for 1872–1880, London, 1881, pp. 316–318.

Footnote 1622:

_Konungs-Skuggsjá_, 16 (Brenner’s edit.), pp. 47–48; translation from
Nansen, _Northern Mists._, 1911, vol. i, pp. 279–280.

Footnote 1623:

_Gesta Hammenb. eccl. pont._, IV, 39; translation from Nansen, _op.
cit._, vol. i, p. 195.

Footnote 1624:

_Gesta Danorum_, VIII, Holder’s edit., pp. 287–292.

Footnote 1625:

_Hist. Norweg._, I, Storm’s edit., pp. 75–76; translation from Nansen,
_op. cit._, vol. ii, p. 167.

Footnote 1626:

_Hist. Norweg._, I, Storm’s edit., pp. 78–79; translation from Nansen,
_op. cit._, vol. ii, p. 168. On the relation of this gulf with the
mythical Ginungagap (see above, p. 147) see Nansen, _op. cit._, vol.
ii, p. 239–240.

Footnote 1627:

_Landnámabók_, I, 1 (transl. in Vigfusson and York Powell, _Orig.
Island._, vol. i, 1905, p. 15.) See Nansen, _op. cit._, vol. ii, p.
166.

Footnote 1628:

Nansen, _loc. cit._

Footnote 1629:

It is of course not certain that Spitsbergen is meant by the
“Svalbard” of the _Icelandic Annals_. See the discussion in Nansen,
_op. cit._, vol. ii, pp. 166–171.

Footnote 1630:

Reeves, _Wineland_, 1890, p. 10.

Footnote 1631:

_ibid._, p. 81.

Footnote 1632:

English translation of these in Reeves, _op. cit._, pp. 28–52, 64–78.

Footnote 1633:

See above, p. 405, note 90. This part of the geographical description
is probably not the work of Abbot Nikulás Bergsson. See Nansen, _In
Northern Mists_, 1911, vol. i, p. 313.

Footnote 1634:

Nikulás Bergsson’s geographical description of the world, in:
Werlauff, _Symbolae_, 1821, p. 14.

Footnote 1635:

_Gesta Hammenb. eccl. pont._, IV, 38; translation from Reeves, _op.
cit._, p. 92.

Footnote 1636:

“Orcades insulae et Finlanda. Islanda quoque et Grenlanda, ultra quam
ad Septentrionem terra non reperitur, aliaeque plures usque in
Gollandam regi Noricorum subjiciuntur, et de toto orbe divitiae
navigio illuc advehuntur” (_Hist. eccles._, pt. III, bk. X, 5, in:
Migne, _Pat. lat._, vol. clxxxviii, col. 727). “Finlanda” here refers
to Wineland (Rafn, _Antiq. americanae_, 1837, p. 337).

Footnote 1637:

See Rafn, _op. cit._, p. 338, note g; Lappenberg, in his edition of
Adam of Bremen in _Scriptores rerum germ._, Hanover, 1876, p. xvii,
maintained that this was a later interpolation made by Adam himself.
See Nansen, _op. cit._, vol. i, p. 195; vol. ii, pp. 147–155.

Footnote 1638:

_Gesta Hammenb. eccl. pont._, IV, 38; translation from Reeves, _op.
cit._ pp. 92–93.

Footnote 1639:

_De imag. mundi_, I, 36.

Footnote 1640:

E. Renan, _Essais de morale et de critique_, 3rd edit., Paris, 1868,
p. 445, quoted by F. Michel, _Les voyages merveilleux de St. Brandan_,
Paris, 1878, p. vii.

Footnote 1641:

Schröder, _Sanct Brandan_, 1871 (under Brandan in the Bibliography),
p. vi.

Footnote 1642:

This résumé of the voyages of St. Brandan in the present text was made
from the Latin text of the _Peregrinatio_ given by Schröder, _op.
cit._, pp. 3–36. Reference has already been made to various aspects of
the voyages; see above, pp. 197–198, 224–225, 230–231.

Footnote 1643:

_De mensura orbis terrae_, 7 (Letronne’s edit., p. 40).

Footnote 1644:

The _Peregrinatio_ (Schröder, _op. cit._, p. 32) describes Paul’s
islet as being as long as it was broad and of equal height. This
suggests the lonely Rockall, some 280 miles west of the Outer
Hebrides. See J. B. Charcot, _Les croisières du “Pourquoi pas?” en
1921_, in: La Géographie, vol. xxxvi, Paris, 1922, pp. 475–476.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE

Those who wish to carry out detailed investigations of the various topics discussed in the present volume will find in the Notes and Bibliography references to the original sources and to secondary works. Owing, however, to the scattered nature of the references in the Notes and to the alphabetical arrangement of the Bibliography it is impossible from them alone to gain a rapid introduction to the outstanding publications on the subject. To supply such an introduction is the purpose of the following note.

Titles are not as a rule here cited in full, and the reader should therefore turn to the Bibliography for the full titles, for indications of the place and manner of publication, and for other bibliographical details. The relatively few titles of publications mentioned here only are given in full and are followed by the words “(not in Bibliography).”

BIBLIOGRAPHIES

The study of the geographical lore of the Middle Ages has been approached by scholars from many different points of view. This is reflected in the character of the bibliographies dealing specifically or incidentally with this field. We may group these bibliographies arbitrarily into three classes: (a) historical bibliographies; (b) geographical bibliographies; (c) bibliographies devoted to the history of science.

Historical Bibliographies

Among the historical bibliographies mention should first be made of Chevalier’s _Répertoire des sources historiques du moyen âge_, 1894–1907. Two volumes of this work, with the subtitle _Bio-bibliographie_, list alphabetically a large number of personages of importance in the Middle Ages. Brief biographical notes are given, followed by extensive lists of references to publications by or in any way relating to these personages. A great difficulty in using the _Bio-bibliographie_ lies in the fact that no clues are given regarding the type of publications to which reference is made. We are not told whether these publications are printed texts of medieval works, scholarly treatises, or merely passing and relatively unimportant allusions. In a third volume of Chevalier’s _Répertoire_ (with the subtitle _Topo-bibliographie_) the effort is made to list alphabetically a multitude of topics relating to medieval history and life and, as in the _Bio-bibliographie_, to give references to publications upon these topics. Here again, owing to the lack of critical evaluation of the references as well as to the somewhat arbitrary selection of the topical headings, the work is of very uneven utility.

Whereas Chevalier attempts to cover the entire range of medieval civilization, the writings of the historians and chroniclers of the age are dealt with in Potthast’s indispensable _Bibliotheca historica medii aevi_, 1896. The main part of these volumes consists of an alphabetical repertory of names and titles with references to manuscripts, editions, translations, and secondary works explanatory of the sources. There are also included highly useful synopses of the contents of the great collections of medieval sources (see below, pp. 493–495) and an appendix in which the titles of the original sources are given chronologically within regional divisions.

For a general guide to many of the more important books and articles on medieval history, L. J. Paetow’s _Guide to the Study of Medieval History for Students, Teachers, and Librarians_ (University of California Syllabus Series, no. 90), Berkeley, Cal., 1917 (not in Bibliography), is valuable. A large part of Paetow’s book is devoted to medieval culture. Though by no means exhaustive, the _Guide_ is excellent for orienting the student in an unfamiliar field.

We refrain from mentioning other historical bibliographies of regions and topics relating to the Middle Ages. References to many of these may readily be found in the first chapter of Paetow’s _Guide_ and in the various paragraphs entitled “Bibliographies” appended to the topical sections of that publication.

Geographical Bibliographies

The bibliography of ancient and medieval geography has been dealt with at some length in the summaries of the progress of geographical research that have appeared from time to time in the _Geographisches Jahrbuch_ published by Justus Perthes, Gotha (not in Bibliography), which since 1880 has been edited by Professor Hermann Wagner of Göttingen. The ancient period has been covered by Professor Eugen Oberhummer in vols. xix (1896), xxii (1899), xxviii (1905), and xxxiv (1911); the medieval by Professors Sophus Ruge and Walther Ruge in vols. xviii (1895), xx (1897), xxiii (1900), xxvi (1903), and xxx (1907). These reports are running commentaries on the progress of current investigation, with references to the literature in the footnotes.

A section on the history of geography, with occasional references to publications in the medieval field, has appeared regularly in the _Bibliographie géographique annuelle_ (not in Bibliography) of the periodical Annales de Géographie, published by Armand Colin, Paris, 1893–1914, and in its continuation, _Bibliographie géographique 1915–1919, 1920–1921, 1922_ (not in Bibliography), published under the auspices of the Association de Géographes Français. References to secondary works in medieval geography are also given in the annual volumes of _Bibliotheca Geographica_ (not in Bibliography), published by the Gesellschaft für Erdkunde Berlin, and covering 1891 to 1912.

Bibliographies of the History of Science

References to publications on medieval geography as a part of the history of science may be found in the critical bibliographies that have been included since its inception in 1913 in each number of the periodical Isis: International Review Devoted to the History of Science and Civilization, Brussels.

DICTIONARIES

Research in the field covered by the present volume requires a working knowledge of medieval Latin, the language in which most of the original sources were written. Medieval Latin is not difficult—except in occasional passages—for one who has some knowledge of classical Latin. The great dictionary of C. D. Du Cange, _Glossarium ad scriptores mediae et infimae latinitatis_ (not in Bibliography), first published at Paris in 1678 and subsequently in other editions (the latest at Niort, 1883–1887), is indispensable. For medieval French, consult F. E. Godefroy, _Dictionnaire de l’ancienne langue française_, 10 vols., Paris, 1881–1902 (not in Bibliography).

MANUSCRIPTS

Many of the works of medieval authors have never been printed. They can be consulted only in the collections of manuscripts of the libraries of Europe and, to a limited extent, of America. While research in manuscripts is not absolutely essential for a general study like the present, no detailed research can very well be conducted without direct recourse to unprinted documents.

The use of medieval manuscripts is an art in itself, requiring some familiarity with paleography. The handwritings of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, however, are frequently not difficult to decipher. On this subject consult: E. M. Thompson, _An Introduction to Greek and Latin Palaeography_, Oxford, 1912 (not in Bibliography), and, for abbreviations commonly used in manuscripts, A. Cappelli, _Lexicon abbreviaturarum ...: Dizionario di abbreviature latine ed italiane ..._, Milan, 1899, 2nd edit., Milan, 1912 (not in Bibliography).

A list of catalogues of collections of manuscripts will be found in a publication of the Bibliothèque Nationale of Paris: _Collection alphabétique des livres imprimés mis à la disposition des lecteurs dans la salle de travail, suivi de la liste des catalogues usuels du département des manuscrits_, Paris, 1910 (not in Bibliography). Useful references to manuscripts of some of the writings on geography and natural science of the Middle Ages are included in Beazley, _Dawn of Modern Geography_, 1897–1906, in Thorndike, _History of Magic and Experimental Science_, 1923, and in Haskins, _Studies in the History of Mediaeval Science_, 1924. References to manuscript maps will be found in Miller, _Mappaemundi_, 1895–1898.

COLLECTIONS OF ORIGINAL SOURCES

The great printed collections of historical sources dealing with the Middle Ages are discussed in Paetow’s _Guide_ (see above, p. 492) and analyzed in Potthast’s _Bibliotheca_ (see above, p. 491). In the Bibliography of the present volume reference is made to printed texts of individual works. It will therefore not be necessary here to do more than indicate the titles of a few of the collections most important from the point of view of medieval geography.

The _Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum latinorum_, 1866 ff., is a collection of critically edited texts of the writings of the Latin Church Fathers. Migne, _Patrologiae cursus completus ... series latina_ (referred to in the Notes as _Pat. lat._), 1844–1864, contains texts, for the most part uncritical, not only of the writings of the Church Fathers but also of a vast assemblage of works bearing directly or indirectly on the medieval Church.

In nearly all the nations of Europe the publication has been carried through or is in progress of great collections of sources dealing with the national history during the Middle Ages. To mention briefly a few of these, we may refer first to the _Rerum britannicarum medii aevi scriptores_, 1858–1891, usually known as the “Rolls Series.” This series includes not only the works of the historians and chroniclers of Britain of the Middle Ages but also those of many British writers on matters of geography and natural science. The _Monumenta Germaniae historica_, 1826–1874 and 1876 ff., contains in its magnificent volumes documents relating to all aspects of the history and life of the medieval Germans and incidentally of Europe as a whole. Many of the texts of the _Monumenta_ have been more critically edited in the _Scriptores rerum germanicarum in usum scholarum ex Monumentis Germaniae historicis recusi_, 1840 ff. For France there are the _Rerum gallicarum et francicarum scriptores_, or _Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France_, Paris, 1738–1904 (not in Bibliography), and the publications of the Société de l’Histoire de France, Paris, 1835 ff. (not in Bibliography); for the Crusades the most important collection is the _Recueil des historiens des croisades_, 14 vols., Paris, 1841–1898 (not in Bibliography).

Collections dealing more especially with texts of geographical importance are, for ancient geography, Müller’s _Geographi graeci minores_, 1882, and Riese’s _Geographi latini minores_, 1878. Itineraries to and descriptions of the Holy Land will be found in Tobler, _Descriptiones terrae sanctae_, 1874, Tobler, _Itinera ... saec. iv-xi_, 1877, Michelant and Reynaud, _Itinéraires à Jerusalem_, 1882, and Tobler, Molinier, and Kohler, _Itinera ... bellis sacris anteriora_, 1880–1885. English translations of certain medieval travels in Palestine will be found in Thomas Wright, _Early Travels in Palestine_, 1848, and in the _Library_ of the Palestine Pilgrims’ Text Society, 1885–1897. Texts and English translations for the early exploration of Iceland will be found in Vigfusson and Yorke Powell, _Origines islandicae_, 1905. Documents relating to the Norse discovery of America are included in Rafn, _Antiquitates americanae_, 1837–1841; and Reeves, _The Finding of Wineland the Good_, 1890, gives English translations of the Vineland voyages. On the texts of the great Asiatic voyages of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, which do not fall within the scope of the present volume, see above, pp. 269–270, and p. 465, notes 70, 71, 74, 75.

The primary collection of facsimiles of medieval maps prior to the appearance of the portolan charts is Miller, _Mappaemundi_, 1895–1898; critical texts with references to manuscripts and discussions are here given. Reproductions of early medieval maps are also given in the atlases to Santarem, _Essai sur l’histoire de la cosmographie et de la cartographie_, 1849–1852, and to Lelewel, _Géographie du moyen âge_, 1852–1857.

A selection of medieval texts dealing with meteorology will be found in Hellmann, _Denkmäler mittelalterlicher Meteorologie_, 1904.

SECONDARY WORKS

We may divide our treatment of secondary works into two parts: first, a discussion of publications dealing with the broader background of medieval life and thus, incidentally, with the geographical lore of the period; second, a discussion of publications dealing directly with the geographical and related lore of antiquity and the Middle Ages or with the enlargement of geographical knowledge. The titles of secondary works relating to the specific writings or authors referred to in the present volume may readily be found by using the cross-references in the Bibliography.

Background of Medieval Intellectual Life

In order not to expand our discussion beyond due measure, we shall restrict ourselves in this section to mentioning a very few publications the majority of which have been of direct service in the preparation of the present volume.

For a broad and brilliantly written treatment of medieval intellectual activity in its many phases, we may refer to H. O. Taylor, _The Mediaeval Mind: A History of the Development of Thought and Emotion in the Middle Ages_, 2 vols., New York, 1911, revised edit., 1914 (not in Bibliography). Haskins’ _Studies in the History of Mediaeval Science_, 1924, which appeared while the present volume was in press, is fundamental for the history of science in Western Europe in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Several of its chapters are revisions of articles which had previously appeared, but other parts of the work are entirely new contributions. The volume is based to a very large extent upon hitherto unpublished sources; many critical and interesting passages of Latin texts are published in it for the first time. Poole’s _Illustrations of the History of Medieval Thought and Learning_, 1920, is a discussion of the work of a few selected exponents of typical modes of medieval thought. The original work of the scholars of Chartres in the Middle Ages is the subject of Clerval’s _Écoles de Chartres_, 1895.

The Latin literature of the period as a whole is dealt with in Gröber, _Übersicht über die lateinische Literatur von der Mitte des 6. Jahrhunderts bis 1350_, 1888–1902, and medieval Latin literature prior to the middle of the eleventh century is treated in greater detail in M. Manitius, _Geschichte der lateinischen Literatur des Mittelalters_, vol. 1, 1911. On the Latin poetry of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries consult Francke, _Geschichte der lateinischen Schulpoesie_, 1879. For the French literature of the age there is the important volume of Gaston Paris, _La littérature française au moyen âge_, 1914, or the English translation.

Medieval philosophy is outlined in De Wulf, _Histoire de la philosophie médiévale_, 1900, or the English translation.

On the art of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries as expressing the thought of the time the student should read Mâle’s two volumes, _L’art religieux du xii^e siècle_, 1922, and _L’art religieux du xiii^e siècle_, 1910, or the English translation of the volume dealing with the thirteenth century.

An old but highly suggestive treatise on the natural science of the early twelfth century is that of C. B. Jourdain, _Dissertation sur l’état de la philosophie naturelle_, 1838. Natural science, magic, and legendary lore of the first thirteen centuries of the Christian era form the topics of Thorndike’s learned _History of Magic and Experimental Science_, 1923. Some of these subjects as they were embodied in medieval French encyclopedias compiled for the use of the layman are illustrated in C. V. Langlois, _La connaissance de la nature_, 1911. Legendary lore more especially is the theme of Denis’ little _Monde enchanté_, 1843, of Berger de Xivrey’s _Traditions tératologiques_, 1836, and, more recently, of Graf’s _Miti, leggende e superstizioni_, 1892–1893.

The relation between theology and natural science in the Middle Ages has been a matter of controversy. From a point of view relatively favorable to medieval science the subject was discussed by Zöckler, _Geschichte der Beziehungen zwischen Theologie und Naturwissenschaft_, vol. i, 1877; from a more critical point of view, by Draper, _Conflict Between Religion and Science_, 1875, and in White’s scholarly _Warfare of Science with Theology_, 1895.

The influence of classical scholarship upon medieval thought was potent. This topic as a whole is dealt with in much detail in Sandys’ monumental _History of Classical Scholarship_, 3rd edit., vol. i, 1921. On the use of classical works in the Middle Ages see also the two monographs of M. Manitius, _Beiträge zur Geschichte der römischen Prosaiker_, 1890, and _Philologisches aus alten Bibliothekskatalogen_, 1892. In regard to medieval Latin translations from the Greek, Arabic, and Hebrew, the formerly authoritative treatises of Amable Jourdain, _Recherches critiques_, 1843, and Wüstenfeld, _Übersetzungen arabischer Werke_, 1877, have to a large extent been superseded by the researches of Steinschneider (_Hebräische Übersetzungen_, 1893; _Europäische Übersetzungen_, 1905–1906), Mandonnet (_Siger de Brabant_, 1908, 1911), Grabmann (_Forschungen über die lateinischen Aristotelesübersetzungen_, 1916), Haskins (_Studies in the History of Mediaeval Science_, 1924), and others (see above, pp. 95–102, and notes 32–70 on pp. 398–403).

The Geographical Lore of Antiquity and of the Middle Ages

The publications dealing with ancient and medieval geographical lore may be divided into three groups: those devoted to (a) the history of geography as a whole; (b) the history of geography in particular periods; (c) the history of particular aspects of geography.

_The History of Geography as a Whole_

With the exception of a few brief popular works, the writer knows of only three general histories of geography in which the attempt is made to cover the entire field. These are Louis Vivien de St. Martin, _Histoire de la géographie et des découvertes géographiques depuis les temps les plus reculés jusqu’à nos jours_, with atlas, Paris, 1873 (not in Bibliography); Peschel, _Geschichte der Erdkunde_, 1877; and Günther, _Geschichte der Erdkunde_, 1904. The first is concerned primarily with explorations and the expansion of regional knowledge; in its pages the medieval period receives but scant attention. Peschel aimed to cover both exploration and scientific geography, and his work, though old, is of great value: scholarly, well balanced, and clearly written. Whereas Peschel stopped with the early nineteenth century, Günther carries the record through that century; his book contains a wealth of detail and of useful bibliographical notes.

_The History of Geography in Particular Periods_

1. _Ancient Geography._ Bunbury’s _History of Ancient Geography_, 1879, remains to the present day the only work of large scope on Greek and Latin geography as a whole. Tozer’s delightful _History of Ancient Geography_, 1897, is a good introduction to the subject but is inadequate for detailed research. A scholarly treatment of the scientific geography of the Greeks is Berger’s _Geschichte der wissenschaftlichen Erdkunde der Griechen_, 1903. The most extensive recent treatment of classical geography as a whole, with numerous references, is Gisinger’s article “Geographie” in _Paulys Real-Encyclopädie_, 1924. The evolution of those theories of ancient geography which prepared the way toward the discovery of America is admirably outlined in the now somewhat out of date but nevertheless useful and stimulating chapter by Tillinghast, _Geographical Knowledge of the Ancients in Relation to the Discovery of America_, in the first volume of Winsor’s _Narrative and Critical History_, 1889. Alexander von Humboldt in the first part of the _Examen critique de l’histoire de la géographie du nouveau continent et des progrès de l’astronomie nautique aux quinzième et seizième siècles_, Paris, 1st edit., 1814–1834 (not in Bibliography), probed deeply into the history of ancient geography. See also C. B. Jourdain, _De l’influence d’Aristote ... sur la découverte du Nouveau-Monde_, 1861.

2. _Medieval Geography._ Santarem’s _Essai sur l’histoire de la cosmographie et de la cartographie_, 1849–1852, marks one of the earliest attempts in modern times to open up the subject of medieval geography. It consists of a mass of detailed notes on the regional geographical theories of the cosmographers of the Middle Ages. Lelewel’s _Géographie du moyen âge_, 1852–1857, is a work of erudition exasperating in the confusion of its arrangement, the difficulty of its style, and the untenability of many of its theories. Lelewel, however, went beyond Santarem in his endeavor to take into consideration the work of Arabic as well as of Occidental geographical authors.

The most recent broad history of medieval geography is Beazley’s important _Dawn of Modern Geography_, 1897–1906. These three volumes are the result of long and arduous research and will probably remain for many years to come on the whole the most satisfactory general treatment of the subject. They cover the period from 300 to 1420 A. D. Attention is given to the explorations and geographical science not only of the Christians but also of the Arabs and Chinese (the two latter subjects, however, having been studied through translations and secondary works only). Throughout, especial stress is laid upon the record of travel and exploration and upon the historical events that led to the acquisition of geographical information by travel and exploration. In the first two volumes, on the period until 1260, extensive chapters are devoted to “Geographical Theory,” but in the third, covering 1260 to 1420, only 29 out of a total of 541 pages are given to geographical theory, and the chapter on geographical theory of the period from 900 to 1260 in the second volume barely touches upon the various topics discussed in Chapters V to X of the present book. To illustrate the theoretical “earth-knowledge” of the “Central Middle Age period” Beazley discusses three examples only, the work of Constantine Porphyrogenetos, that of Adam of Bremen, and the chief maps of the age. There is either the briefest passing mention or else no reference whatever to the writings of the highly characteristic authors the study of whose geographical opinions is the main purpose of the present volume—such writers as Peter Abelard, Peter Comestor, Hildegard of Bingen, Bernard and Theodoric of Chartres, Adelard of Bath, William of Conches, Gerard of Cremona, Michael Scot, Robert Grosseteste, Gervase of Tilbury, Otto of Freising, Gunther of Pairis, Giraldus Cambrensis, Saxo Grammaticus, Guy of Bazoches, and the various translators from the Arabic. Furthermore, Beazley makes no attempt to give a systematic analysis of the various elements that constituted the geographical lore of the scholar or educated reader of Western Europe in the age of the Crusades.

A scholarly account of the geography of the Church Fathers is Marinelli, _La geografia e i padri della chiesa_, 1882 (also translated into German). Very full references are here given in footnotes.

On the geography of the Moslems of the Middle Ages the first volume of Reinaud’s _Géographie d’Aboulféda_, 1848, though now more than seventy years old, is still, to our knowledge, the only thoroughly scholarly work covering the whole field in detail. More recent, but much briefer treatments are those of Baron Carra de Vaux in the second volume of his _Penseurs de l’Islam_, 1921, and of Carl Schoy in various articles (cited in the Bibliography under his name), especially the article in the Geographical Review, 1924.

_The History of Particular Aspects of Geography_

1. _Cosmogony and Cosmology._ Duhem’s great _Système du monde_, 1913–1917, is now the fundamental history of the evolution of cosmological doctrines from the time of Plato to the fourteenth century. To it the writer owes, to a large extent, his guidance to the original sources as well as much of the material which he has necessarily accepted at second hand in those parts of the present book which deal with the origins and the larger relations of the earth to the remainder of the universe. For the twelfth and thirteenth centuries Werner’s two monographs, _Die Kosmologie ... Wilhelm von Conches_, 1873, and _Die Kosmologie ... des Roger Baco_, 1879, are important. On the development of Christian theories of the Creation one should also consult Zöckler, _Geschichte der Beziehungen zwischen Theologie und Naturwissenschaft_, 1877–1879, and Robbins, _Hexaemeral Literature_, 1912. See also A. C. McGiffert, _The God of the Early Christians_, New York, 1924 (not in Bibliography), for the theologians’ view of the Creation in the early centuries of our era. An interesting monograph on the ancient theory of the periodic destruction and rebirth of the universe is that of Günther, _Die antike Apokatastasis_, 1916.

2. _Larger problems of terrestrial geography._ These problems are dealt with by Kretschmer in the monograph discussed in the following subsection (3).

Several important studies have been written on the medieval beliefs regarding the shape of the earth. Günther, in his _Studien zur Geschichte der mathematischen und physikalischen Geographie_, 1877–1879, treated the subject from the point of view shared by many Protestants; Schneid, _Die Lehre von der Erdrundung_, 1877, replied to Günther from the Catholic point of view. More recently the matter has been discussed by Betten (see above, p. 384, note 48). Proofs of the curvature of the earth adduced in antiquity and during the Middle Ages are the topic of a monograph by Günther, _Optische Beweisung für die Erdkrümmung_, 1920.

On the Eratosthenic measurement of the size of the earth and its subsequent influence the fundamental work is now the two volumes of Thalamas, _Étude bibliographique de la géographie d’Ératosthène_, 1921, and _La géographie d’Ératosthène_, 1921. Other interesting studies in this field are those of Mori, _La misurazione eratostenica_, 1911, Decourdemanche, _Note sur l’estimation de la longeur du degré terrestre_, 1913, and Miller, _Die Erdmessung im Alterthum_, 1919.

The problems of the antipodes and the austral continent are sketched historically by Rainaud, _Le continent austral_, 1893; the antipodes more particularly by Boffito, _La leggenda degli antipodi_, 1903.

Three important discussions of the evolution of ancient and medieval theories regarding the relative positions and extent of areas of land and water on the earth’s surface and of the relations which obtain between the spheres of land and of water are Günther, _Ältere und neuere Hypothesen_ ..., forming part iii of his _Studien zur Geschichte der mathematischen und physikalischen Geographie_, 1879; Boffito, _La controversia dell’acqua e della terra prima e dopo di Dante_, forming Memoria I of his _Intorno alla “Quaestio de aqua et terra,”_ 1902; and Norlind, _Das Problem des gegenseitigen Verhältnisses von Land und Wasser_, 1918.

3. _Physical Geography._ An important monograph on the physical geography of the Christian Middle Ages is Kretschmer, _Die physische Erdkunde im christlichen Mittelalter_, 1889. After a discussion of the sources—both Greek and Latin—Kretschmer takes up systematically the problems of the size and shape of the earth, the question of the antipodes, medieval theories of the divergent centers of the spheres of earth and water, the compass, and the physical geography of the waters, the atmosphere, and the lands. The topics dealt with are similar to those treated in parts of Chapter VI and in Chapters VII, VIII, and IX of the present volume. On the other hand, Kretschmer neglects the interesting question of theories of the origin of the earth. In dealing with physical geography he gives little attention to the writers of the age of the Crusades. With the exception of William of Conches, he neglects the same authors of that age whom Beazley neglects (see above, p. 498).

Several works on particular phases of ancient and medieval physical geography deserve special mention. An elaborate study of the meteorological lore of the Greeks is that of Gilbert, _Die meteorologischen Theorien des griechischen Altertums_, 1907. A German doctoral dissertation is devoted to the theories of the Church Fathers in regard to meteorology: Hoffmann, _Die Anschauungen der Kirchenväter über Meteorologie_, 1907 (see also Günther, _Notiz zur Geschichte der Klimatologie_, 1887). Medieval wind-roses are discussed in Cusa, _Sulla denominazione dei venti_, 1884; Revelli, _Una “rosa dei venti,”_ 1910; and Bertolini, _L’orologio solare di Aquileia e la sistemazione della rosa dei venti_, 1916. Dissertations by Frahm (_Das Meer und die Seefahrt in der altfranzösischen Literatur_, 1914) and Koch (_Das Meer in der mittelhochdeutschen Epik_, 1910) deal respectively with the sea as depicted in old French literature and in the Middle High German epic. The basic study of the history of theories of the tides in antiquity and during the Middle Ages is Almagià, _La dottrina della marea_, 1905. Material, pleasingly presented, on the history of geology, with, incidentally, some interesting observations on medieval physical geography, will be found in Geikie, _Founders of Geology_, 1905. Medieval beliefs regarding the interior of the earth, volcanoes, and earthquakes are outlined by Stegmann in a dissertation, _Die Anschauungen ... über die endogenen Erscheinungen der Erde_, 1913. Classical and medieval ideas of the arrangement of the mountains of the earth’s surface form the subject of Benl’s dissertation, _Hypothesen über die regelmässige Anordnung der Erdgebirge_, 1905.

4. _Feeling for Nature._ The feeling for nature as expressed in the Latin literature of antiquity is the topic of a delightful book by Geikie, _The Love of Nature Among the Romans_, 1912. On the feeling for nature in the medieval period we may refer to the works of Biese, _Die Entwicklung des Naturgefühls_, 1892 (or the English translation), and of Ganzenmüller, _Das Naturgefühl_, 1914. To the latter the writer is especially indebted for numerous references to source material that might otherwise have been overlooked. Interesting studies of early mountain climbing are those of Gribble, _The Early Mountaineers_, 1899; Günther, _Wissenschaftliche Bergbesteigungen_, 1896; and W. W. Hyde, _The Development of the Appreciation of Mountain Scenery in Modern Times_, in: Geographical Review, vol. iii, 1917, pp. 107–118 (not in Bibliography), though none of these devotes a great deal of attention to the period of the Crusades.

5. _Astronomical Geography._ On the history of the invention and use of methods of determining latitude, see Schoy, _Die geschichtliche Entwicklung der Polhöhenbestimmung_, 1911; on longitudes, Schoy’s _Längenbestimmung und Zentralmeridian_, 1915. See also the various articles and monographs on Ptolemy cited in the cross-references under Ptolemy in the Bibliography. Knowledge of latitudes and longitudes in the Christian West in the Middle Ages is discussed by J. K. Wright, _Notes on the Knowledge of Latitudes and Longitudes_, 1923.

6. _Cartography._ The history of cartography is discussed in the works mentioned in the sections on the history of geography as a whole and in particular periods, pp. 497–498 above. To the cartography of the ancient period as a whole are devoted two important recent publications: Kubitschek’s article “Karten” in _Paulys Real-Encyclopädie_, 1919, and Cebrian, _Geschichte der Kartographie_, 1923. The most complete single study of the medieval cartography of the period with which we have to deal is Miller, _Mappaemundi_, 1895–1898. Other publications which deal incidentally but significantly with the cartography of the pre-portolan period are the works of Pullé, Simar, and Langenmaier referred to in subsection 7, immediately below.

7. _Regional Geography._ The fundamental study of belief in the Terrestrial Paradise is that of Coli, _Il paradiso terrestre_, 1897, although the matter has also been discussed by Graf in his _La leggenda del paradiso terrestre_, 1878, and in his _Miti, leggende e superstizioni_, 1892–1893.