Chapter XX: The Worship of the Oak (2)

Cervantes, _Don Quixote_, part ii. ch. 50, vol. iv. p. 133 of H. E.
Watts’s translation, with the translator’s note (new edition, London,
1895); Neumann und Partsch, _op. cit._ p. 380; P. Wagler, _Die Eiche
in alter und neuer Zeit_, i. (Wurzen, 1891) p. 35. The passage in _Don
Quixote_ was pointed out to me by my friend Mr. W. Wyse.

Footnote 1146:

_Encyclopædia Britannica_, 9th. Ed., xvii. 692.

Footnote 1147:

H. E. Watts, _loc. cit._

Footnote 1148:

_Encyclopædia Britannica_, _l.c._

Footnote 1149:

To avoid misapprehension, I desire to point out that I am not here
concerned with the evolution of Aryan religion in general, but only
with that of a small, though important part of it, to wit, the worship
of a particular kind of tree. To write a general history of Aryan
religion in all its many aspects as a worship of nature, of the dead,
and so forth, would be a task equally beyond my powers and my
ambition. Still less should I dream of writing a universal history of
religion. The “general work” referred to in the preface to the first
edition of _The Golden Bough_ is a book of far humbler scope.

Footnote 1150:

For examples of such ceremonies, see above, pp. 18-20, 34-38.

Footnote 1151:

For evidence of these aspects of Zeus and Jupiter, see L. Preller,
_Griechische Mythologie_, i. 4th ed., 115 _sqq._; _id._, _Römische
Mythologie_, 3rd Ed., i. 184 _sqq._ In former editions of this book I
was disposed to set aside much too summarily what may be called the
meteorological side of Zeus and Jupiter.

Footnote 1152:

See my note on Pausanias, ii. 17. 5; P. Wagler, _Die Eiche in alter
und neuer Zeit_, ii. (Berlin, 1891), pp. 2 _sqq._; A. B. Cook, “Zeus,
Jupiter, and the Oak,” _Classical Review_, xvii. (1903) pp. 178 _sqq._

Footnote 1153:

Aug. Mommsen, _Delphika_ (Leipsic, 1878), pp. 4 _sq._

Footnote 1154:

Strabo, Frag. vii. 3; Stephanus Byzantius, _s.v._ Δωδώνη; Suidas,
_s.vv._ Δωδωναῖον χαλκεῖον and Δωδώνη; Apostolius, _Cent._ vi. 43;
Zenobius, _Cent._ vi. 5; Nonnus Abbas, _Ad S. Gregorii orat. ii.
contra Julianum_, 19 (Migne’s _Patrologia Graeca_, xxxvi. 1045). The
evidence on this subject has been collected and discussed by Mr. A. B.
Cook (“The Gong at Dodona,” _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xxii.
(1902) pp. 5-28). The theory in the text is obviously consistent, both
with the statement that the sound of the gongs was consulted as
oracular, and with the view, advocated by Mr. Cook, that it was
supposed to avert evil influences from the sanctuary. If I am right,
the bronze statuette which, according to some accounts, produced the
sound by striking the gong with a clapper would represent Zeus himself
making his thunder.

Footnote 1155:

On the natural surroundings of Dodona, see C. Carapanos, _Dodone et
ses ruines_ (Paris, 1878), pp. 7-10.

Footnote 1156:

Above, pp. 140 _sq._

Footnote 1157:

Above, vol. i. p. 309. On the oak as the tree of Zeus, see Dionysius
Halicarn. _Ars rhetorica_, i. 6, vol. v. p. 230 ed. Reiske; Schol. on
Aristophanes, _Birds_, 480. On this subject much evidence, both
literary and monumental, has been collected by Mr. A. B. Cook in his
articles “Zeus, Jupiter, and the Oak,” _Classical Review_, xvii.
(1903) pp. 174 _sqq._, 268 _sqq._, 403 _sqq._, xviii. (1904) pp. 75
_sqq._, 327 _sq._

Footnote 1158:

Pausanias, i. 24. 3.

Footnote 1159:

Marcus Antoninus, v. 7.

Footnote 1160:

Theophrastus, _De signis tempestatum_, i. 24.

Footnote 1161:

Pausanias, i. 30. 4.

Footnote 1162:

Pausanias, ii. 29. 7 _sq._; Isocrates, _Evagoras_, 14; Apollodorus,
iii. 12. 6. Aeacus was said to be the son of Zeus by Aegina, daughter
of Asopus (Apollodorus, _l.c._). Isocrates says that his relationship
to the god marked Aeacus out as the man to procure rain.

Footnote 1163:

Theophrastus, _De signis tempestatum_, i. 20, compare 24.

Footnote 1164:

Theophrastus, _op. cit._ iii. 43.

Footnote 1165:

Pausanias, i. 32. 2.

Footnote 1166:

Theophrastus, _op. cit._ iii. 43 and 47. Compare Aristophanes,
_Clouds_, 324 _sq._; Photius, _Lexicon_, _s.v._ Πάρνης.

Footnote 1167:

Pausanias, i. 32. 2.

Footnote 1168:

Pausanias, ii. 25. 10. As to the climate and scenery of these barren
mountains, see A. Philippson, _Der Peloponnes_ (Berlin, 1891), pp. 43
_sq._, 65.

Footnote 1169:

Joannes Lydus, _De mensibus_, iv. 48.

Footnote 1170:

Paton and Hicks, _The Inscriptions of Cos_ (Oxford, 1891), No. 382;
Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_, 2nd Ed., No. 735.
There were altars of Rainy Zeus also at Argos and Lebadea. See
Pausanias, ii. 19. 8, ix. 39. 4.

Footnote 1171:

Ἐπικάρπιος μὲν ἀπὸ τῶν καρπῶν, Aristotle, _De mundo_, 7, p. 401 a, ed.
Bekker; Plutarch, _De Stoicorum repugnantiis_, xxx. 8.

Footnote 1172:

_Corpus Inscriptionum Atticarum_, iii. No. 77; E. S. Roberts,
_Introduction to Greek Epigraphy_, ii. No. 142, p. 387; Ch. Michel,
_Recueil d’inscriptions grecques_, No. 692; L. R. Farnell, _Cults of
the Greek States_, i. 66 and 172.

Footnote 1173:

Hesiod, _Theogony_, 71 _sq._; L. Preller, _Griechische Mythologie_,
4th ed., i. 119.

Footnote 1174:

Pausanias, v. 14. 7; H. Roehl, _Inscriptiones Graecae antiquissimae_
(Berlin, 1882), No. 101; Fränkel, _Inschriften von Pergamon_, i. No.
232; Joannes Malalas, _Chronographia_, viii. p. 199, ed. L. Dindorf.

Footnote 1175:

Strabo, ix. 2. 11, p. 404.

Footnote 1176:

Pollux, ix. 41; Hesychius, _s.v._ ἠλύσιον; _Etymologicum Magnum_, p.
341. 8 _sqq._; Artemidorus, _Onirocrit._ 11. 9; Pausanias, v. 14. 10;
Dittenberger, _Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum_, 2nd Ed., No. 577,
with Dittenberger’s note.

Footnote 1177:

See above, p. 177.

Footnote 1178:

See above, vol. i. p. 310.

Footnote 1179:

See above, vol. i. p. 366.

Footnote 1180:

For more evidence that the old Greek kings regularly personified Zeus,
see Mr. A. B. Cook, “The European Sky-god,” _Folk-lore_, xv. (1904)
pp. 299 _sqq._

Footnote 1181:

Virgil. _Georg._ iii. 332, with Servius’s note; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._
xii. 3.

Footnote 1182:

As to the oak of Jupiter on the Capitol and the god’s oak crown, see
above, p. 176. With regard to the Capitoline worship of Thundering
Jupiter, see Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ ii. 21, xxxiv. 10 and 79, xxxvi. 50.
He was worshipped in many places besides Rome as the god of thunder
and lightning. See Festus, p. 229, ed. C. O. Müller; Apuleius, _De
mundo_, xxxvii. 371; H. Dessau, _Inscriptones Latinae selectae_, Nos.
3044-3053.

Footnote 1183:

Petronius, _Sat._ 44. That the slope mentioned by Petronius was the
Capitoline one is made highly probable by a passage of Tertullian
(_Apologeticus_ 40: “_Aquilicia Jovi immolatis, nudipedalia populo
denuntiatis, coelum apud Capitolium quaeritis, nubila de laquearibus
exspectatis_”). The church father’s scorn for the ceremony contrasts
with the respect, perhaps the mock respect, testified for it by the
man in Petronius. The epithets Rainy and Showery are occasionally
applied to Jupiter. See Tibullus, i. 7. 26; Apuleius, _De mundo_,
xxxvii. 371; H. Dessau, _Inscriptiones Latinae selectae_, No. 3043.

Footnote 1184:

H. Dessau, _op. cit._ No. 3042; Apuleius, _l.c._

Footnote 1185:

Apuleius, _l.c._, “_Plures eum Frugiferum vocant_”; H. Dessau, _op.
cit._ No. 3017.

Footnote 1186:

On this subject see H. Munro Chadwick, “The Oak and the Thunder-god,”
_Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxx. (1900) pp. 22-42.

Footnote 1187:

Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xvi. 249.

Footnote 1188:

Maximus Tyrius, _Dissert._ viii. 8. H. D’Arbois de Jubainville
supposed that by Celts the writer here meant Germans (_Cours de la
littérature celtique_, i. 121 _sqq._). This was not the view of J.
Grimm, to whose authority D’Arbois de Jubainville appealed. Grimm says
that what Maximus Tyrius affirms of the Celts might be applied to the
Germans (_Deutsche Mythologie_, 4th ed., i. 55), which is quite a
different thing.

Footnote 1189:

Strabo, xii. 5. 1, p. 567. As to the meaning of the name see (Sir) J.
Rhys, _Celtic Heathendom_, p. 221; H. F. Tozer, _Selections from
Strabo_, p. 284. On the Galatian language see above, p. 126, note 2.

Footnote 1190:

G. Curtius, _Griech. Etymologie_, 5th Ed., pp. 238 _sq._; J. Rhys,
_op. cit._ pp. 221 _sq._; P. Kretschmer, _Einleitung in die
Geschichte der griech. Sprache_, p. 81. Compare A. Vanicek,
_Griechisch-lateinisch. etymologisches Wörterbuch_, pp. 368-370.
Oak in old Irish is _daur_, in modern Irish _dair_, _darach_, in
Gaelic _darach_. See G. Curtius, _l.c._; A. Macbain, _Etymological
Dictionary of the Gaelic Language_ (Inverness, 1896), _s.v._
“Darach.” On this view Pliny was substantially right (_Nat. Hist._
xvi. 249) in connecting Druid with the Greek _drus_, “oak,” though
the name was not derived from the Greek. However, this derivation
of Druid has been doubted or rejected by some scholars. See H.
D’Arbois de Jubainville, _Cours de la littérature celtique_, i.
(Paris, 1883), pp. 117 _sqq._; O. Schrader, _Reallexikon der
indogermanischen Altertumskunde_, pp. 638 _sq._

Footnote 1191:

See above, p. 242.

Footnote 1192:

The Gael’s “faith in druidism was never suddenly undermined; for in
the saints he only saw more powerful druids than those he had
previously known, and Christ took the position in his eyes of the
druid κατ’ ἐξοχήν. Irish druidism absorbed a certain amount of
Christianity; and it would be a problem of considerable difficulty to
fix on the point where it ceased to be druidism, and from which
onwards it could be said to be Christianity in any restricted sense of
that term” (J. Rhys, _Celtic Heathendom_, p. 224).

Footnote 1193:

P. W. Joyce, _Social History of Ancient Ireland_, i. 236.

Footnote 1194:

J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_, 4th ed., i. 55 _sq._ Tacitus often
mentions the sacred groves of the Germans, but never specifies the
kinds of trees of which they were composed. See _Annals_, ii. 12, iv.
73; _Histor._ iv. 14; _Germania_, 7, 9, 39, 40, 43.

Footnote 1195:

J. Grimm, _op. cit._ ii. 542.

Footnote 1196:

Willibald’s _Life of S. Boniface_, in Pertz’s _Monumenta Germaniae
historica_, ii. 343 _sq._; J. Grimm, _op. cit._ i. pp. 58, 142.

Footnote 1197:

J. Grimm, _op. cit._ i. 157. Prof. E. Maass supposes that the
identification of Donar or Thunar with Jupiter was first made in Upper
Germany between the Vosges mountains and the Black Forest. See his
work _Die Tagesgötter_ (Berlin, 1902), p. 280.

Footnote 1198:

Adam of Bremen, _Descriptio insularum Aquilonis_, 26 (Migne’s
_Patrologia Latina_, cxlvi. col. 643).

Footnote 1199:

Adam of Bremen, _l.c._

Footnote 1200:

E. H. Meyer, _Mythologie des Germanen_ (Strasburg, 1903), p. 290.

Footnote 1201:

Adam of Bremen, _op. cit._ 26, 27, with the Scholia (Migne’s
_Patrologia Latina_, cxlvi. coll. 642-644).

Footnote 1202:

J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_, 4th ed., i. 142 _sq._; L. Leger, _La
Mythologie slave_ (Paris, 1901), pp. 54-76.

Footnote 1203:

L. Leger, _op. cit._ pp. 57 _sq._, translating Guagnini’s _Sarmatiae
Europaeae descriptio_ (1578). The passage is quoted in the original by
Chr. Hartknoch (_Alt- und neues Preussen_, Frankfort and Leipsic,
1684, p. 132), who rightly assigns the work to Strykowski, not
Guagnini. See W. Mannhardt, in _Magazin herausgegeben von der
Lettisch-Literarischen Gesellschaft_, xiv. (1868) pp. 105 _sq._

Footnote 1204:

Procopius, _De bello Gothico_, iii. 14 (vol. ii. p. 357, ed. J.
Haury).

Footnote 1205:

Matthias Michov, “De Sarmatia Asiana atque Europea,” in Simon
Grynaeus’s _Novus Orbis regionum ac insularum veteribus incognitarum_
(Paris, 1532), p. 457; _id._, in J. Pistorius’s _Polonicae historiae
corpus_ (Bâle, 1582), i. 144; Martin Cromer, _De origine et rebus
gestis Polonorum_ (Bâle, 1568), p. 241; J. Maeletius (Menecius, Ian
Malecki), “De sacrificiis et idolatria veterum Borussorum, Livonum,
aliarumque vicinarum gentium,” _Scriptores rerum Livonicarum_, ii.
(Riga and Leipsic, 1848) p. 390; _id._, in _Mitteilungen der
Litterarischen Gesellschaft Masovia_, Heft 8 (Lötzen, 1902), p. 187;
Chr. Hartknoch, _Alt- und neues Preussen_ (Frankfort and Leipsic,
1684), pp. 131 _sqq._; S. Rostowski, quoted by A. Brückner, _Archiv
für slavische Philologie_, ix. (1886) pp. 32, 35; M. Töppen,
_Geschichte der preussischen Historiographie_ (Berlin, 1853), p. 190
(“_Perkunos ist in allen andern Ueberlieferungen so gross und hehr,
wie nur immer der griechische und römische Donnergott, und kein
anderer der Götter darf sich ihm gleich stellen. Er ist der Hauptgott,
wie nach andern Berichten in Preussen, so auch in Litthauen und
Livland_”); Schleicher, “Lituanica,” _Sitzungsberichte der
philosoph.-histor. Classe d. kais. Akademie d. Wissen._ (Vienna), xi.
(1853 pub. 1854) p. 96; H. Usener, _Götternamen_ (Bonn, 1896), p. 97.

Footnote 1206:

M. Praetorius, _Deliciae Prussicae_ (Berlin, 1871), pp. 19 _sq._; S.
Rostowski, _op. cit._ pp. 34, 35. On the sacred oaks of the
Lithuanians see Chr. Hartknoch, _op. cit._ pp. 117 _sqq._; Tettau und
Temme, _Volkssagen Ostpreussens, Litthauens und Westpreussens_, pp.
19-22, 35-38.

Footnote 1207:

M. Praetorius, _l.c._; S. Grunau, _Preussische Chronik_, ed. M.
Perlbach, i. (Leipsic, 1876) p. 78 (ii. tract. cap. v. § 2). The
chronicler, Simon Grunau, lived as an itinerant Dominican friar at the
beginning of the sixteenth century in the part of Prussia which had
been ceded to Poland. He brought his history, composed in somewhat
rustic German, down to 1529. His familiar intercourse with the lowest
classes of the people enabled him to learn much as to their old
heathen customs and superstitions; but his good faith has been doubted
or denied. In particular, his description of the images of the three
gods in the great oak at Romove has been regarded with suspicion or
denounced as a figment. See Chr. Hartknoch, _op. cit._ pp. 127 _sqq._;
M. Toeppen, _op. cit._ pp. 122 _sqq._, 190 _sqq._; M. Perlbach’s
preface to his edition of Grunau; H. Usener, _Götternamen_, p. 83. But
his account of the sanctity of the oak, and of the perpetual sacred
fire of oak-wood, may be accepted, since it is confirmed by other
authorities. Thus, according to Malecki, a perpetual fire was kept up
by a priest in honour of Perkunas (Pargnus) on the top of a mountain,
which stood beside the river Neuuassa (Niewiaza, a tributary of the
Niemen). See Malecki (Maeletius, Menecius), _op. cit._, _Scriptores
rerum Livonicarum_, ii. 391; _id._, _Mitteilungen der Litterarischen
Gesellschaft Masovia_, Heft 8 (Lötzen, 1902), p. 187. Again, the
Jesuit S. Rostowski says that the Lithuanians maintained a perpetual
sacred fire in honour of Perkunas in the woods (quoted by A. Brückner,
_Archiv für slavische Philologie_, ix. (1886) p. 33). Malecki and
Rostowski do not mention that the fire was kindled with oak-wood, but
this is expressly stated by M. Praetorius, and is, besides,
intrinsically probable, since the oak was sacred to Perkunas.
Moreover, the early historian, Peter of Dusburg, who dedicated his
chronicle of Prussia to the Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights in
1326, informs us that the high-priest of the nation, whom the
Prussians revered as a pope, kept up a perpetual fire at Romow, which
is doubtless the same with the Romowo or Romewo of Grunau
(_Preussische Chronik_, pp. 80, 81, compare p. 62, ed. M. Perlbach).
See P. de Dusburg, _Chronicon Prussiae_, ed. Chr. Hartknoch (Frankfort
and Leipsic, 1679), p. 79. Martin Cromer says that the Lithuanians
“worshipped fire as a god, and kept it perpetually burning in the more
frequented places and towns” (_De origine et rebus gestis Polonorum_,
Bâle, 1568, p. 241). Romow or Romowo is more commonly known as Romove.
Its site is very uncertain. See Chr. Hartknoch, _Alt- und neues
Preussen_, pp. 122 _sqq._ Grunau’s account of Romove and its sacred
oak, with the images of the three gods in it and the fire of oak-wood
burning before it, is substantially repeated by Alex. Guagnini. See J.
Pistorius, _Polonicae historiae corpus_ (Bâle, 1582), i. 52;
_Respublica sive status regni Poloniae, Lituaniae, Prussiae,
Livoniae_, etc. (Leyden, 1627), pp. 321 _sq._ I do not know whether
the chronicler, Simon Grunau, is the same with Simon Grynaeus, editor
of the _Novus Orbis regionum ac insularum veteribus incognitarum_,
which was published at Paris in 1532.

Footnote 1208:

S. Rostowski, _op. cit._ p. 35.

Footnote 1209:

D. Fabricius, “De cultu, religione et moribus incolarum Livoniae,”
_Scriptores rerum Livonicarum_, ii. 441. Malecki (Maeletius) also says
that Perkunas was prayed to for rain. See _Mitteilungen der
Litterarischen Gesellschaft Masovia_, Heft 8 (Lötzen, 1902), p. 201.

Footnote 1210:

According to Prof. H. Hirt, the name Perkunas means “the oak-god,”
being derived from the same root _querq_, which appears in the Latin
_quercus_ “oak,” the _Hercynian_ forest, the Norse god and goddess
_Fjörygn_, and the Indian _Parjanya_, the Vedic god of thunder and
rain. See H. Hirt, “Die Urheimat der Indogermanen,” _Indogermanische
Forschungen_, i. (1892) pp. 479 _sqq._; _id._, _Die Indogermanen_
(Strasburg, 1905-1907), ii. 507; P. Kretschmer, _Einleitung in die
Geschichte der griechischen Sprache_, pp. 81 _sq._ The identity of the
names Perkunas and Parjanya had been maintained long before by G.
Bühler, though he did not connect the words with _quercus_. See his
article, “On the Hindu god Parjanya,” _Transactions of the (London)
Philological Society_, 1859, pp. 154-168. As to Parjanya, see below,
pp. 368 _sq._

Footnote 1211:

Fr. Kreutzwald und H. Neus, _Mythische und magische Lieder der Ehsten_
(St. Petersburg, 1854), pp. 16, 26, 27, 56, 57, 104; F. J. Wiedemann,
_Aus dem inneren und äusseren Leben der Ehsten_, pp. 427, 438.
Sometimes, however, a special thunder-god Kou, Koo, Piker or Pikne is
distinguished from Taara (Tar). See F. J. Wiedemann, _op. cit._ p.
427; Kreutzwald und Neus, _op. cit._ pp. 12 _sq._

Footnote 1212:

Boecler-Kreutzwald, _Der Ehsten abergläubische Gebräuche, Weisen und
Gewohnheiten_ (St. Petersburg, 1854), p. 2.

Footnote 1213:

J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_, 4th ed., i. 146.

Footnote 1214:

F. J. Wiedemann, _op. cit._ p. 427.

Footnote 1215:

See above, p. 367, note 3.

Footnote 1216:

_Rigveda_, Book v. Hymn 83, R. T. H. Griffith’s translation (Benares,
1889-1892), vol. ii. pp. 299 _sq._

Footnote 1217:

_Rigveda_, Book vii. Hymn 101, Griffith’s translation (vol. iii. pp.
123 _sq._).

Footnote 1218:

_Rigveda_, Book vii. Hymn 102, Griffith’s translation (vol. iii. p.
124). On Parjanya see further G. Bühler, “On the Hindu god
_Parjanya_,” _Transactions of the (London) Philological Society_,
1859, pp. 154-168; _id._ in _Orient und Occident_, i. (1862) pp.
214-229; J. Muir, _Original Sanscrit Texts_, v. 140-142; H. Oldenberg,
_Die Religion des Veda_, p. 226; A. Macdonnell, _Vedic Mythology_, pp.
83-85.

Footnote 1219:

G. Bühler, _op. cit._ p. 161.

Footnote 1220:

L. H. Morgan, _League of the Iroquois_ (Rochester, 1851), pp. 157
_sq._

Footnote 1221:

J. Spieth, _Die Ewe-Stämme_ (Berlin, 1906), pp. 424-427.

Footnote 1222:

E. J. Payne, _History of the New World called America_, i. (Oxford,
1892) pp. 407 _sq._

Footnote 1223:

N. Seidlitz, “Die Abchasen,” _Globus_, lxvi. (1894) p. 73.

Footnote 1224:

P. Wagler, _Die Eiche in alter und neuer Zeit_, ii. (Berlin, 1891) p.
37.

Footnote 1225:

J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_, 4th ed., i. 59.

Footnote 1226:

P. Wagler, _Die Eiche in alter und neuer Zeit_, i. (Wurzen, 1891) pp.
21-23. For many more survivals of oak-worship in Germany see P.
Wagler, _op. cit._ ii. 40 _sqq._

Footnote 1227:

M. Praetorius, _Deliciae Prussicae_ (Berlin, 1871), p. 16.

Footnote 1228:

J. G. Kohl, _Die deutsch-russischen Ostseeprovinzen_ (Dresden and
Leipsic, 1841), ii. 31; compare 33.

Footnote 1229:

Schleicher, “Lituanica,” _Sitzungsberichte der philos.-histor. Classe
der kais. Akademie der Wissenschaften_, xi. (1853, pub. 1854) p. 100.

Footnote 1230:

James Piggul, steward of the estate of Panikovitz, in a report to
Baron de Bogouschefsky, _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_,
iii. (1874) pp. 274 _sq._

Footnote 1231:

The evidence will be given later on, when we come to deal with the
fire-festivals of Europe. Meantime I may refer the reader to _The
Golden Bough_, Second Edition, iii. 347 _sqq._, where, however, the
statement as to the universal use of oak-wood in kindling the
need-fire is too absolute, exceptions having since come to my
knowledge. These will be noticed in the third edition of that part of
_The Golden Bough_.

Footnote 1232:

See above, pp. 186, 365, 366.

Footnote 1233:

The only positive evidence, so far as I know, that the Celtic oak-god
was also a deity of thunder and rain is his identification with Zeus
(see above, p. 362). But the analogy of the Greeks, Italians, Teutons,
Slavs, and Lithuanians may be allowed to supply the lack of more
definite testimony.

Footnote 1234:

It is said to have been observed that lightning strikes an oak twenty
times for once that it strikes a beech (J. Grimm, _Deutsche
Mythologie_, 4th ed., iii. 64). But even if this observation were
correct, we could not estimate its worth unless we knew the
comparative frequency of oaks and beeches in the country where it was
made. The Greeks observed that a certain species of oak, which they
called _haliphloios_, or sea-bark, was often struck by lightning
though it did not grow to a great height; but far from regarding it as
thereby marked out for the service of the god they abstained from
using its wood in the sacrificial rites. See Theophrastus, _Histor.
plant._ iii. 8. 5; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xvi. 24.

Footnote 1235:

M. Abeghian, _Der armenische Volksglaube_, p. 90.

Footnote 1236:

E. B. Tylor, _Early History of Mankind_, 3rd Ed., pp. 223-227. For
more evidence of this wide-spread belief see M. Baudrouin et L.
Bonnemère, “Les Haches polies dans l’histoire jusqu’au XIXe siècle,”
_Bulletins et Mémoires de la Société d’Anthropologie de Paris_, Ve
Série, v. (1904) pp. 496-548; Lieut. Boyd Alexander, “From the Niger,
by Lake Chad, to the Nile,” _The Geographical Journal_, xxx. (1907)
pp. 144 _sq._; A. B. Ellis, _Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast_,
pp. 37 _sq._; H. Seidel, “Der Yew’e Dienst im Togolande,” _Zeitschrift
für afrikanische und oceanischen Sprachen_, iii. (1897) p. 161; H.
Klose, _Togo unter deutscher Flagge_, pp. 197 _sq._; L. Conradt, “Die
Ngumbu in Südkamerun,” _Globus_, lxxxi. (1902) p. 353; Guerlach,
“Mœurs et superstitions des sauvages Ba-hnars,” _Missions
Catholiques_, xix. (1887) pp. 442, 454; J. A. Jacobsen, _Reisen in die
Inselwelt des Banda-Meeres_ (Berlin, 1896), pp. 49 _sq._, 232; C.
Ribbe, “Die Aru-Inseln,” _Festschrift des Vereins für Erdkunde zu
Dresden_ (Dresden, 1888), p. 165; E. Thurston, _Ethnographic Notes in
Southern India_, p. 351; Rev. P. O. Bodding, “Ancient Stone Implements
in the Santal Parganas,” _Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_,
lxx. Part iii. (1901) pp. 17-20; E. M. Gordon, _Indian Folk-tales_
(London, 1908), p. 75; _County Folk-lore, III. Orkney and Shetland
Islands_, collected by G. F. Black (London, 1903), p. 153; P. Hermann,
_Nordische Mythologie_, pp. 339 _sq._, 352; M. Toeppen, _Aberglauben
aus Masuren_ 2nd Ed., (Danzig, 1867), pp. 42 _sq._ Dr. E. B. Tylor has
pointed out how natural to the primitive mind is the association of
spark-producing stones with lightning (_Primitive Culture_, 2nd Ed.,
ii. 262).

Footnote 1237:

L. Preller, _Griechische Mythologie_, 4th ed., i. 116 _sq._; _id._,
_Römische Mythologie_, 3rd Ed., i. 184 _sqq._ As to Jupiter see in
particular Augustine, _De civitate Dei_, vii. 19, “_Coelum enim esse
Jovem innumerabiliter et diligenter affirmant_”; and Ennius, quoted by
Cicero, _De natura deorum_, ii. 25, 65, “_Aspice hoc sublimen candens,
quem invocant omnes Jovem_.”