Chapter XXVIII: Appendix: A. Classical Traditions 356

BRIEF REFERENCE-LIST OF AUTHORITIES BY CHAPTERS 361

A GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PHŒNICIAN HISTORY 363

INDIVIDUALITY OF PHŒNICIAN HISTORY AND ORIGIN OF THE NAME

BY RICHARD PIETSCHMANN

Translated for this work from his _Geschichte der Phönizier_.

The history of both the Egyptian and the Babylonian peoples is closely bound up with the territorial history of a limited tract of land, while with the Phœnicians it is quite otherwise. Their history is in a far less degree the history of their land. Among all civilised nations of antiquity, Phœnicia was the first that, maintaining its national individuality and its form of civilisation, learned to become independent of the clod of earth upon which this individuality had been developed. It was the first that, by means of emigration and the founding of settlements, gained sufficient space to attain to full historical importance.

Upon the determination of the balance of power of the old Orient, upon the political life of their neighbours, the petty states of this district in reality never exerted a positive influence. At the most, their existence and their policy of the moment helped in the decision of some questions of relatively small importance in the course of world-historic events. Would we be more interested in the history of Tyre and Sidon than in that of Gaza and Ashdod, if the first communication of the East with the West had not been opened chiefly by the Phœnicians; and if a Phœnician colony, Carthage, a most dangerous rival first to the Greek towns of Sicily, and afterward to the rising world-power of Rome, had not fought the bitter struggle for supremacy on the coast-lands of the western half of the Mediterranean--a struggle which, after a long past poor in feats of arms, immortalised the name of the Punic race? The fame that illuminates the figures of the generals Hamilcar and Hannibal is reflected on the history of the mother country.

It is no new thing in the history of races for a reorganisation of the national life of an active people to take place in its colonies and emigrant fragments. We may cite the foundation of the states of the Veragri, and of the Normans, and the rise of the United States of America out of the settlements of New England. But, as these examples show, this seldom comes to pass without the evidence of considerable sacrifice of national individuality. Generally such new political formations involve at the same time a more or less complete change of national character, a great portion of which is sacrificed in the adaptation to changed conditions of life; but few traces of such a change can be observed amid the Phœnicians in their colonial cities.

Moreover, we are only now, since excavations in Greece have brought to light considerable quantities of remains from pre-Homeric times, beginning to put a correct estimate upon the sum of fruitful suggestions and finished products which the Phœnician seafarers and traders together with their wares brought to the nations of the West, and above all to Greek art. In this way, the expansion of the Phœnicians exercised an enduring influence upon the whole course of the history of civilisation in all later times.

What fitted them to become, in this sense also, an historically important people was, besides the tenacity of will with which they pursued their aims, a high degree of intellectual receptivity, which enabled them to assimilate with ease the attainments of foreign culture; and also the adaptability and insight with which they could make themselves at home even in entirely foreign surroundings.

Of the favourableness, or unfavourableness of circumstances, they were no more independent than any other people on earth has been. It even appears that, in accordance with some law, they achieved results only when, in the course of their undertakings, they came in contact with nations whose civilisation was still in process of formation, or at least, during the period of contact, did not attain to any importance of its own.

But the skill with which they were able to turn just such circumstances to their own advantage, and to continue a national existence in the midst of such an environment (this highly developed capacity for adaptation was their peculiar inheritance) was something that at least would have been utterly impossible with the cultured races of the Nile and the Euphrates. It was chiefly due to the fact that, not national elements, but those which had been learned and borrowed from foreign races, predominated in Phœnician culture. This made culture a comfortable garment, took from it and its wearers the awkwardness that would have developed in case of a more independent origin, kept it free from many fast chains and immutable faults which come with a uniform national culture and an isolated history of development.

As the scene of the history of the Phœnicians varies in extent with the location of their settlements, Phœnicia is less a fixed geographical idea than a name, which would simply designate in general that portion of the Syrian coast, whose chief population was of Phœnician descent.

Accordingly, the origin of the name “Phœnicia” (Phoinike) which the Greeks gave to this stretch of coast, is to be found in the Greek name of the inhabitants: “Phoinix,” the plural “Phoinix” and not “Phoinikes” from the name of the country.

“Phoinix” is formed like “Cilix,” the “Cilician,” and denotes the Phœnician as a man of reddish-brown complexion, as in Greek “phoinos” is the name of a colour varying from a brownish to a deep red. The same root which is in “phoinos” and “Phoinix” is also found in “Pœnus,” “the Punic,” which was the form given by the Italian races to the name they heard from the mouths of the Greeks of Greece proper (Hellas).

Word formations like that of Phoinix, not being very common in Greek as names of races, the Greeks did not always keep in mind the fundamental meaning of Phoinix, and very early began to devise artificial etymologies for it, which have in part proved to be quite arbitrary and absurd but in part have found approval among modern savants. Nor have the latter, on their side, neglected to increase the number of unsuccessful attempts at interpretation. It is not necessary to enter here into a discussion of the majority of these explanations, upon a refutation of the assertion that the Phœnicians received their name from Phoinix, a brother of Cadmus, or that the word “dyers in red” designates them as “purple merchants,” or even “robbers” and “murderers,” and other such notions, for they are now things of the past. Nevertheless they are in some degree on the right track, inasmuch as in them Phoinike is regarded as the derived, and Phoinix the root word.

As the date-palm and its fruit first became known to the Greeks through the medium of the Phœnicians, this tree was likewise called by them Phoinix, the “Phœnician” palm. So in antiquity it was a widespread interpretation to make Phoinike come, not from Phoinix, “the Phœnician,” but from phoinix, “date palm,” making Phoinike signify the “land of palms,” “the land of the date palm.” Among moderns, Movers in particular has brought forward many reasons for the correctness of this explanation.

Athenæus expressly mentions dates as a valuable article of Phœnician trade; but it is perhaps a great mistake to take them for a product of Phœnicia instead of a mere article of commerce, for the fruit of the _Phœnix dactylifera_ does not reach maturity at all in Phœnicia. Little can be proved from the representation of the palm tree on coins whose origin may be traced solely to Grecian prototypes.

Finally, it is a philological impossibility that after the form Phoinike, as the name of the country, has been derived from phoinix, “date palm,” such a form as Phoinix as a designation of the inhabitants could ever have been in turn the result of derivation from this name of the country.

PHŒNICIAN HISTORY IN OUTLINE

A PRELIMINARY SURVEY COMPRISING A CURSORY VIEW OF THE SOURCES OF PHŒNICIAN HISTORY, THE SWEEP OF EVENTS, AND A TABLE OF CHRONOLOGY

Of the sources for this history it is hardly possible to do more than to say that they hardly exist in any tangible form, and to echo Heeren’s complaint:

“The severest loss which ancient history has to mourn, a loss irreparable, is that of the destruction of the records that should inform us of the affairs, the government, and the enterprises of the Phœnicians. In proportion to the vast influence which this nation had in the civilisation of mankind by its own great inventions and discoveries (the invention of alphabetical writing is alone sufficient to show their importance), by its numerous colonies established in every quarter, and by its commerce extending even beyond these; the more sensibly we feel the gaps which the loss of these records leaves in the history of the human race. It is the conviction of the extent of this loss that gives the few fragments which have been preserved out of the great mass, a peculiar attraction to the historian; and though it may be impossible to compile from them a history of the Phœnicians, yet they will probably enable him to draw a tolerably faithful picture of the general character and genius of this nation in its various undertakings.”

The Phœnicians were a Semitic people, probably an early offshoot, like the Canaanites, from the parent stock; a people of remarkable industry, intelligence, and enterprise. Their country lay in southern Syria, between the Lebanon Mountains and the Mediterranean Sea, a strip of land about two hundred miles in length by thirty-five at its greatest width. Phœnicia was never a united state, but rather a confederacy of cities. At the time of our earliest knowledge Sidon stood at the head, but in the thirteenth century, B.C. Tyre became the most important.

FIRST PERIOD--TO THE SUPREMACY OF TYRE (3800-1100 B.C.)

3800 B.C. The empire of Sargon of Agade is believed to have
included Syria and the shores of the Mediterranean.

2750 Foundation of Tyre, according to Herodotus’ account.

1950 One of the Elamite sovereigns of Babylon appears to have
reduced a large part of Syria to subservience, which
state of affairs does not last long.

1635 Aahmes I visits Zahi (southern Phœnicia) in his invasion
of Asia, after the expulsion of the Hyksos.

1590 Tehutimes I appears to have made the Phœnicians pay tribute.

1530 Tehutimes III lays waste the land of Zahi; again in 1516.

1506 Arka (Akko) destroyed by Tehutimes III. Phœnicia is made
tributary.

1500 Settlement of the Phœnicians in Cyprus. From this time on
colonisation of the shore of the Mediterranean becomes
active. Rhodes, the Cyclades, the islands of the Thracian
coast, Samothrace, and Thasos are occupied. The stations on
the Ægean are early abandoned--but the Phœnicians remain in
Cyprus until ousted by the Dorians.

In the twelfth century B.C. the later Ramessides lose their
dominion over Phœnicia. Egyptian culture and civilisation
left little trace on Phœnicia, whereas the influence of
Babylonia was very strong. After the loss of Phœnicia by
Egypt, a number of petty feeble states arise.

About this time the colonists have reached the western shore
of the Mediterranean, and Gades (Cadiz) and Tarshish in
Spain are founded. The Atlantic is discovered, and according
to classical accounts tin is brought from the mines of the
Cassiterides, which by some authorities is said to mean the
Scilly Isles and Cornwall, by others the island near Vigo in
Spain.

1110 Tiglathpileser I of Assyria visits Phœnicia in his
military campaigns.

SECOND PERIOD (1100-538 B.C.)

Up till now Sidon has stood at the head of the Phœnician
cities, but the hegemony is lost to Tyre. The first king of
1020 whom we have any knowledge is =Abibaal.=

980 [or 969] =Hiram I=, his son, succeeds. He fortifies the
island of Tyre; makes war against the Cypriotes who have
refused tribute, and again subjugates them. Is the friend of
Solomon.

936 =Baalbazer=, Hiram’s son, succeeds him.

929 =Abdastarte=, his son, succeeds.

920 Is killed by a conspiracy of his foster-brothers.
=Metuastarte=, the eldest of the assassins seizes the throne.

908 =Astarte=, a scion of Hiram’s house, reigns in conjunction
with Metuastarte.

896 =Astarym=, brother of Metuastarte, succeeds.

887 Is murdered by another brother, =Phelles=, who takes the
throne, but the same year he also is killed by =Ithobaal= or
=Ethbaal=, a priest of Astarte, who thereby becomes king.

In after years Jezebel, Ithobaal’s daughter, marries Ahab of
Israel.

876 Asshurnazirpal of Assyria invades Phœnicia and erects
a stele at the Nahr-el-Kelb, near Berytus. Tyre, Sidon,
Tripolis, and Aradus hasten to send presents, and he does
not trouble them further. Ithobaal founds Botrys, probably
as a means of defence against the Assyrians, also Aoza in
Africa.

855 =Baalazar=, Ithobaal’s son, succeeds to the throne of Tyre.

854 Battle of Qarqar. Victory of Shalmaneser II over Ben-Hadad
II of Damascus and his allies. King =Mettenbaal= of Aradus
takes part with the Syrians in the battle.

849 =Metten I=, Baalazar’s son, succeeds.

842-839 According to Shalmaneser’s record he takes tribute from
Tyre, Sidon, and Byblus, but this may mean that voluntary
presents are sent.

820 =Pygmalion=, Metten’s son, succeeds at age of nine.

812 He slays his uncle Sicharbas, the regent.

813 Flight of Elissa, Pygmalion’s sister and Sicharbas’
wife. She founds Carthage.

804-803 Adad-nirari III’s armies reach Phœnicia, and exact
tribute from Tyre and Sidon.

773 Death of Pygmalion. The list of Phœnician kings given by
Menander comes to an end.

738 Tiglathpileser III invades Syria, where a coalition has
been formed to evade tribute. He returns to Assyria with
rich treasure; amongst it the tribute of =Hiram (II)= of
Tyre and =Sibittibi’li= of Byblus.

734 Byblus and Aradus pay tribute. Tyre does so under force.
Tyre is still practically an independent state.

728 =Elulæus=, king of Tyre, rules under the name of =Pylas=.

Revolt of the Cittæi in Cyprus subdued.

727 According to Josephus, Shalmaneser IV attacks Elulæus.
Sidon, Akko, and Palætyrus submit, and Tyre is captured
after a five years’ siege. But there is no mention of this
in Shalmaneser’s records, and it is extremely probable that
Josephus confuses these events with those that actually took
place in the reign of Sennacherib.

In his annals, Sargon II speaks of Tyre as of a town that
belongs to him.

701 Sennacherib invades Syria where Hezekiah of Judah and
other princes are planning a strong rebellion against
Assyria. =Elulæus= (=Luli=), king of Sidon, flees at the
Assyrian’s approach. Sennacherib makes the city the capital
of a new province, and =Ithobaal= its king. The cities
of the coast are ravaged, and Phœnician commerce greatly
interfered with.

The colonial power of Tyre now begins to decay. The
Assyrians settle themselves in Cyprus, and the Dorian
migration has already driven the Phœnicians from the
Grecian islands.

695 An independent kingdom is established at Tarshish.

690 The Phœnicians begin to lose their hold on Sicily.

680 =Abd-milkot=, king of Sidon, with Sandurri of Kundu
and Sizu, revolts against Assyria. Abd-milkot flees at
Esarhaddon’s approach and the latter besieges Sidon.

678 Fall of Sidon after a siege of nearly three years. The
city is destroyed, and a new one, Kar-Asshur-akhe-iddin
built on its ruins.

Abd-milkot beheaded.

Phœnician and Cypriote kings make submission to Assyria.

671 =Baal I= of Tyre revolts unsuccessfully against Esarhaddon.
In submission he sends his own son Yahi-melek to the
Assyrian court.

668 Asshurbanapal succeeds Esarhaddon on the Assyrian
throne. With the help of Tyre he compels =Yakinlu=, king
of Aradus, to submit. Subsequently Yakinlu is deposed
and his son =Azebaal= given the throne. After this time
the Phœnicians begin to throw off the Assyrian yoke, an
achievement made easy by Asshurbanapal’s struggle with
Shamash-shum-ukin in Babylonia. The recovery of
independence is a peaceable one.

636 Is the last date we possess of an Assyrian governor in
Phœnicia.

625 The Scythian tribes invade Phœnicia from the northeast.

610 Africa circumnavigated for Neku II by Phœnician seamen.

608 Battle of Megiddo, and submission of Syria to Neku II.
Phœnicia once more under Egyptian dominion.

605 Battle of Carchemish. Defeat of Neku by Nebuchadrezzar.
Phœnicia comes under the rule of Babylonia. Phœnicia now
remains docile to Nebuchadrezzar until stirred up by
Uah-ab-Ra, Pharaoh of Egypt, who enters into an alliance
against Babylonia with Tyre and Sidon, after proceeding
against them by land and sea.

587 Nebuchadrezzar besieges Tyre, of which =Ithobaal II= is
king.

574 Fall of Tyre. Ithobaal removed to Babylon and =Baal II=
put in his place.

564 Death of Baal II. The government of Tyre is reorganised,
and a suffet is placed over the city.

563 A three months’ interregnum in which the high priest
=Abba= is at the head of affairs, then a rule of two
suffets--one for the island and one for Palætyrus. A
state of anarchy arises.

557 =Balatorus=, an elected king, rules for one year.

556 =Maharbaal= (or =Merbaal=), a member of the exiled royal
family is sent from Babylon to be king.

552 =Hiram III= succeeds his brother Maharbaal.

538 Capture of Babylon by Cyrus of Persia. Phœnicia becomes
a Persian province. Tyre sinks into insignificance and Sidon
becomes the leading city. Aahmes II of Egypt occupies Cyprus.

THIRD PERIOD (538-332 B.C.)

532 Death of Hiram III. Phœnicia, Palestine, and Syria
become the fifth Persian satrapy.

530 Carthage becomes an independent power.

525 The Phœnicians furnish a fleet for Cambyses’ war in
Egypt.

496 Phœnician fleet shares in the Persian victory off Lade.

480 =Tetranestus=, king of Sidon, =Mapen= of Tyre and
=Merbaal= of Aradus accompany Xerxes to Greece. Phœnician
fleet takes part in the expedition.

466 Battle of Salamis. Phœnician and Persian fleet defeated
by the Greeks at Eurymedon.

455 Phœnician fleet is sent to aid Persians to reconquer
Egypt for Artaxerxes I.

449 Defeat of the Phœnician fleet by the Athenians off
Cyprus.

405 Battle of Ægospotami. Phœnician fleet aids Athens to
defeat the Spartans.

400 =Straton I= comes to the throne of Sidon. He is the son
of =Tabnit= (=Tennes I=), and grandson of =Eshmunazer I=, a
descendant of Tetranestus, and succeeds his elder brother
=Eshmunazer II=, who has died a minor.

394 Phœnician fleet helps the Athenians to defeat the
Spartans at Cnidus. Friendly relations between Sidon and
Athens.

390 Evagoras of Salamis in Cyprus storms Tyre, which is
now in an enfeebled condition.

361 Straton I of Sidon joins Tachus of Egypt against the
Persians and is killed by his wife to prevent falling into
the hands of the enemy. =Tabnit (Tennes) II= succeeds him.

352 Tennes leads a revolt of Phœnicia against Persia, Cyprus
joins him.

345 Tennes betrays Sidon to Artaxerxes III, who afterwards
puts the king of Sidon to death. Cyprus subdued. Tyre
resumes the leading position in Phœnicia.

333 Battle of Issus. Aradus and Byblus and Sidon join
Alexander the Great. Tyre besieged by Alexander.

332 Capture of Tyre by Alexander. =Azemilcus=, the king, is
spared, but eight thousand Tyrians are slain, and thirty
thousand sold as slaves. End of Tyre’s political existence.
The foundation of Alexandria also makes it lose much trade.
The Phœnicians cease to be a great nation.

FOURTH PERIOD (332 B.C.-636 A.D.)

331 Alexander forms Phœnicia, Syria, and Cilicia into one
province, over which he places Menes.

323 Death of Alexander. Phœnicia occupied alternately by
Ptolemy and by Antigonus and his son Demetrius. Ptolemy
finally retains possession (287).

315 Siege of Tyre by Antigonus.

246-198 Struggle between the Seleucidæ and Ptolemies for
Phœnicia.

The Seleucidæ left in possession of Phœnicia after the
surrender of Sidon (198).

The trade of Media and the Red Sea is diverted to Alexandria
in Egypt.

125 Tyre and Sidon are practically independent after the
Tyrians put Demetrius II to death.

86 Syria, worn out by the civil wars of the Seleucidæ puts
itself under the dominion of Tigranes, king of Armenia.

67 Phœnicia and Syria return for a short time to the
Seleucidæ after the victories of Lucullus.

63 Pompey reduces Syria to a Roman province.

44-42 Cassius divides Phœnicia into small principalities.
Antony gives Phœnicia to Cleopatra, but reserves freedom of
Tyre and Sidon.

20 Augustus deprives Tyre and Sidon of their liberties. He
founds a Roman colony called Augustana, at Beirut (Berytus),
which has a famous law school under the dominion of Rome.
Tyre and Sidon have no political importance, but retain
their commercial and manufacturing interests. They continue
to have no historical importance until

193-194 A.D. Tyre and Laodicea take part in the struggle of
Septimius Severus and Pescennius Niger for the emperorship.
Niger sends troops to Tyre, which burn and pillage the city.

201 Severus recruits the population of Tyre and gives it
a colonial title. Tyre and Berytus enjoy the monopoly of
producing that dye known as the imperial purple. As part
of the second Syrian province of Rome, their prosperity
616 increases until the Persian king, Chosroes II, subjugates
Syria (including Phœnicia) and rules it until
622 when the Byzantine emperor regains control.

636 Battle of the Hieromax. As a result the Emperor
Heraclius abandons Syria to the Mohammedans.

FIFTH PERIOD (633-1516 A.D.)

Under the rule of the caliphs Phœnician civilisation suffers
no decay. Tyre maintains its commercial importance.

1100-1110 Baldwin and the Crusaders capture all the
Phœnician cities except Tyre.

1111 Siege of Tyre begun by Baldwin. He abandons it during
the winter.

1124 Siege and capture of Tyre by the Crusaders.

1187 Saladin overthrows the kingdom of Jerusalem.

Tyre begins a heroic defence against him.

1189 Relief of Tyre by Guy de Lusignan. Capture of Acre
(Akko) by Philip Augustus and Richard Cœur-de-Lion.

1192 Treaty of peace with the Mohammedans. The Christian
territory extends from Joppa to Tyre.

Acre becomes the chief commercial centre of the Phœnician
coast and 1291 is taken by the sultan of Egypt, to whom
other Syrian towns also submit.

1516 Selim I conquers the whole of Syria, which since then
has been included in the Ottoman empire.

CARTHAGINIAN HISTORY IN OUTLINE

FIRST PERIOD (813-410 B.C.)

814-813 B.C. Carthage, according to tradition, is founded by
Elissa, sister of King Pygmalion of Tyre, who fled from her
brother. The Phœnicians find the land occupied by Libyans
whom they dispossess. They also manage to get some kind of
control over the nomads in the outlying regions of their
new domain. The official heads of the government were the
suffets, similar to the Roman consuls. There may have been
only two in office at a time, serving for one year, but
capable of re-election.

600-550 Malchus, mentioned by Justin, who calls him “king”
of Carthage. Successful wars in Africa and Sicily undertaken
to extend the city’s commerce. Malchus defeated in Sardinia;
he turns against Carthage.

550-500 Decline of Tyre after Persian conquest. Carthage
becomes independent (530). Mago, father of Hasdrubal and
Hamilcar succeeds Malchus. It is to the efforts of this
family that Carthage owed her supremacy. Hasdrubal’s sons
are Hannibal, Hasdrubal, and Sappho; Hamilcar’s are Himilco,
Hanno, and Gisco. Carthaginian supremacy established over
Sardinia, Balearic Isles, parts of Sicily, Liguria, and
Gaul; in the course of which conquests there occurred a
536 sea-fight of the Etruscans and Carthaginians against
the Phocæans of Aleria, in Corsica. Phocæans victorious,
but their losses oblige them to abandon Corsica.

509 Commercial treaty between Carthage and Rome restricting
Roman commerce in Punic waters.

500 Expedition of Hanno and Himilco to colonise west
African coast, and to explore the Atlantic. Britain
discovered.

480 Expedition against Agrigentum and Syracuse in
conjunction with Persian invasion of Greece. Battle of
Himera. Hamilcar defeated with great loss by Gelo of
Syracuse.

SECOND PERIOD (410-264 B.C.)

410 Renewal of attempts of Carthage to reduce Sicily. Hannibal,
son of Gisco, storms Selinus. Agrigentum destroyed by
Hannibal and Himilco. Death of Hannibal. Himilco attacks
Gela.

405 Treaty between Carthage and Dionysius of Syracuse
secures Carthaginian conquests in Sicily.

398 Dionysius attempts to expel Carthaginians from Sicily.
In the ensuing war all Sicily falls before the Punic arms.
Dionysius is besieged in Syracuse, but pestilence breaks
out among the Carthaginians, and they are defeated. Himilco
starves himself to death.

397 Libyans revolt against Carthage. The city has a narrow
escape.

396-392 Mago leads an expedition against Syracuse, which is
not successful.

380 Mago’s second Sicilian expedition defeated at Cabala.
The whole of Sicily is nearly lost, but Mago’s victory
at Corsica restores the Carthaginian power. The Halycus
recognised as boundary to Carthaginian possessions in Sicily.

368 Dionysius again tries to expel the Carthaginians.
Is unsuccessful and dies. Dionysius II makes peace with
Carthage.

345 Timoleon of Corinth, having liberated Syracuse from her
tyrants, makes war on Carthage.

340 Battle of the Crimissus. Carthaginians defeated with
severe loss. Peace restores the boundary on the Halycus.
Greek cities declared free.

333 Carthaginians send help to the Tyrians besieged by
Alexander the Great.

310 Agathocles of Agrigentum besieges Carthage, but is
recalled by revolt of Agrigentum.

306 Peace between Carthage and Agrigentum. It lasts
until Agathocles dies (289). His death encourages the
Carthaginians to extend their dominions, until
277 the Syracusans call on Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, for help
against Carthage, and he aids them to drive the
Carthaginians from the west of Sicily and besieges them
in Lilybæum. Carthage and Rome united against him.

276 Pyrrhus quits Sicily.

265 Carthaginians go to the aid of Campanian mercenaries
besieged in Messana (Messina) by Hiero of Syracuse. Another
party in Messana appeals to Rome.

THIRD PERIOD (264-146 B.C.)

264 First Punic war (for the possession of Sicily). Romans
occupy Messana. Retreat of the Carthaginians and Syracusans.
Hiero joins the Romans. Roman successes in Sicily.

260 Sea-fight off Mylæ. Carthaginians defeated by Romans.

256 Sea-fight off Ecnomus. Carthaginian fleet defeated.
Romans invade Africa.

255 Carthaginians under Xanthippus defeat the Romans under
Regulus. Loss of Roman fleet on homeward voyage.

254 Roman victory at Panormus.

253 Roman fleet destroyed in a storm.

249 Battle of Drepanum. Carthaginian victory.

248-243 Success of Carthaginians under Hamilcar Barca on
Italian coast and in Sicily.

242 Battle off Ægates islands. Romans under Catulus defeat
Carthaginian fleet.

241 Hamilcar Barca makes peace, agreeing to evacuate Sicily
and to pay indemnity. Sicily lost to the Carthaginians.

241-237 Civil war in Carthage. Mercenaries rise against the
citizens.

238 Sardinia and Corsica lost by Carthage to Rome.

236-219 Carthaginian conquests in Spain under Hamilcar,
Hasdrubal, and Hannibal. Attempt to convert Spain into a
Carthaginian province. By an understanding with the Romans,
the Ebro is recognised as the Carthaginian boundary.

219 Saguntum captured by Hannibal.

218 Second Punic war (for the possession of Italy). Roman
army despatched to Africa.

218 Hasdrubal opposes the Scipios in Spain. Hannibal crosses
the Alps and wins victories of the Ticinus and the Trebia.
Hannibal crosses the Apennines.

217 Battle of Lake Trasimene. Hannibal defeats the Romans
and ravages the country as far as Apulia.

216 Battle of Cannæ. Roman army annihilated. Hasdrubal
ordered to join Hannibal in Italy. He is prevented by a
defeat on the Ebro.

215 Philip of Macedon allies himself with Carthage.

214 Carthaginians land in Sicily.

212 Romans recover their position in Sicily. Carthaginian
successes in Spain.

211 Philip of Macedon’s attention occupied by a coalition
against him in Greece. Romans besiege Capua. Hannibal fails
to relieve Capua. Hannibal at the gates of Rome. Hannibal’s
retreat from Rome. Fall of Capua.

209 New Carthage in Spain taken by the Romans. Battle of
Bæcula and defeat of Hasdrubal. Hasdrubal crosses the
Pyrenees and Gaul, and appears in the north of Italy.

207 Battle of Metaurus. Hasdrubal defeated and slain. The
last hope of the Carthaginians is gone.

206 Carthaginians finally expelled from Spain.

204 Scipio invades Africa.

203 Scipio defeats the Carthaginians. Hannibal recalled to
Carthage.

202 Battle of Zama. Scipio defeats Hannibal.

201 Peace with Rome. Carthage resigns the right to wage
foreign wars and promises to pay a heavy indemnity. The
supremacy of the West passes to Rome. Hannibal governs
Carthage, and reforms the Constitution. He plans an
alliance with Antiochus of Syria against Rome.

195 Hannibal expelled from Carthage.

183 Death of Hannibal.

183-150 Internal dissensions between the Roman and
national parties. Encroachments of Masinissa of Numidia.

151 War between Carthage and Masinissa. The Romans claim
this a breach of treaty and prepare for a siege of Carthage.

149 Third Punic war. Siege of Carthage.

146 Carthage taken and destroyed. Her territories become
Roman provinces, and are organised as such.

FOURTH PERIOD (146 B.C.-697 A.D.)

122 Caius Gracchus leads a colony which founds the city of
Junonia on the site of Carthage. The colony is unsuccessful.

29 Augustus sends out a colony which attains to great
prosperity.

439 A.D. Genseric captures Carthage and makes it the capital of
the Vandal kingdom.

533 Carthage is stormed by Belisarius and incorporated in
the eastern Roman empire.

697 Carthage destroyed by the general of caliph
Abdul-malik.