Chapter V: Persian Civilisation 634

BRIEF REFERENCE-LIST OF AUTHORITIES BY CHAPTERS 662

A GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PERSIAN HISTORY 663

PERSIAN HISTORY IN OUTLINE

A PRELIMINARY SURVEY COMPRISING A CURSORY VIEW OF THE SWEEP OF EVENTS, AND A TABLE OF CHRONOLOGY

THE MEDIAN OR SCYTHIAN EMPIRE

The Scythians or Manda, a people whom the Greeks confused
with the Mada or Medes, were a part of the nomadic
Indo-Europeans that migrated into Western Asia from southern
Russia. They descended upon and quite obliterated the
ancient kingdom of Ellipi, east of Assyria and stretching to
the Caspian Sea. In the Ellipian capital of Ecbatana they
seem to have effected quickly the organisation of a state
recognised as a danger to Assyria as far back as the reign
of Esarhaddon.

Of the early rulers at Ecbatana we have no accounts except
those of Herodotus and Ctesias. From these we must assume:

700 B.C. =Deioces=, the first leader or prince mentioned by the
Greeks. He lives at a time of great Assyrian power and seems
to have been a vassal of the kingdom, but he was probably
the founder of his empire. Apparently he did not rule at
Ecbatana, for the kingdom of Ellipi was still in existence.

647 =Phraortes= (=Frawarti=) succeeds. He extends the power
of the Manda, and in his reign the kings of Persia and Elam
are made his vassals.

625 =Cyaxares= succeeds. About this time the Scythians first
invade Assyria. They burn Calah, but are unable to take
Nineveh. They sweep over the land as far as the border of
Egypt, where Psamthek pays them to turn back.

610 Sin-shar-ishkun, king of Assyria, attacks Nabopolassar
of Babylon. The latter calls upon the Manda to help repel
the invaders. The Manda immediately respond and attack
Nineveh.

607 Fall of Nineveh before the Manda. They take possession
of the old kingdom of Assyria as far as the Babylonian
frontier, and begin conquest of the countries of the north.
Cyaxares makes war on the Lydians, the people of Urartu,
Media, Minni, and others.

585 =Ishtuvegu= (=Astyages=) succeeds. His empire extends in
the north and west as far as the river Halys.

553 For some reason, not yet clear, Ishtuvegu proceeds
against his vassal Cyrus, king of the Elamite province of
Anshan.

550 Ishtuvegu is betrayed by his soldiers to Cyrus and made
prisoner. The Elamite king takes Ecbatana, and becomes
king of the Manda.

End of the Median or Scythian empire.

THE PERSIAN EMPIRE

The country of Parsua or Persia was first settled by
Iranian tribes of Indo-European origin. The leading ones
were the Pasagadæ, Maraphians, and Maspians. These lived by
agriculture, cattle raising, and horse breeding, but in the
mountains and desert steppes there were many nomadic tribes
such as the Mardans, Kossæans, and Sagartians. Our earliest
knowledge of Persian history is obtained from the Assyrian
monuments, and the country seems to have been in vassalage
to the mightier conquerors and to have recovered, in a
measure at least, its independence whenever a weaker monarch
ascended the Ninevite throne. The first historical dynasty,
according to Greek historians, is the Achæmenian, and of its
origin we know nothing; the founder, Achæmenes, is probably
a mythical character.

FIRST PERIOD--THE EARLY ACHÆMENIANS AND THE ELAMITE DYNASTY (730-521 B.C.)

730 The first historic king, =Teispes=, rules about this
time. His attainment to power is probably connected with
some relaxation of the Assyrian grip. His successors,
according to Herodotus, are _Cambyses_, =Cyrus=, and
=Teispes II=. The last seems to have conquered the Elamite
province of Anshan, which on his death went to his son
Cyrus, and the throne of Persia to =Ariaramnes=. From the
latter half of the seventh century B.C. reign, independent
of each other, the two lines of the Achæmenians of which
Darius speaks--one in Anshan, where by conquest the
entire ancient kingdom of Elam was absorbed, the other
in Persia. Both houses become vassals of the emperor of
Ecbatana. Ariaramnes is succeeded by =Arsaces=, and then
by =Hystaspes=, and in Elam, =Cyrus I=, according to the
accounts of his grandson, by =Cambyses=, the father of Cyrus
the Great.

559 =Cyrus the Great= succeeds Cambyses on the throne of
Elam.

553 He is attacked by his suzerain, Ishtuvegu (Astyages).

550 Ishtuvegu is betrayed to Cyrus and made prisoner. The
Elamite takes Ecbatana and obtains possession of the Median
or Scythian empire.

His career of conquest begins.

549 Cyrus enters Assyria and takes a district belonging to
Babylonia.

547 King Crœsus of Lydia, fearful of Cyrus’ power,
determines to attack him, and forms a coalition with Aahmes
II of Egypt, Nabonidus of Babylon, and the Spartans.

546 Cyrus meets Crœsus in Cappadocia. The latter, defeated
in two battles, retreats to Sardis and sends for his allies,
who do not appear. Sardis falls in the autumn. Cyrus now
calls himself king of Persia. Hystaspes probably remains his
vassal, as he had been that of Ishtuvegu.

545 The whole of Asia Minor is in Cyrus’ hands. It
is divided into satrapies with strongly organised
governments. Greek cities in Asia Minor gradually subjected.

549-539 Cyrus annexes Bactriana, and makes numerous
successful expeditions in the East.

539 Cyrus starts for Babylon. He is opposed at Upi, but is
victorious and moves southward.

538 Babylon opens her gates to Cyrus. Nabonidus flees. The
Syrio-Phœnician provinces submit. Cyrus gives permission
to the Hebrew exiles to return. The new territory is
reorganised.

529 Death of Cyrus in battle. =Cambyses=, the heir apparent,
has his brother Smerdis put to death.

526 Warlike preparations for conquest of Egypt begin.
Phœnicia furnishes a fleet.

525 Battle of Pelusium. Defeat of Psamthek III. Egypt
becomes a Persian province. Polycrates, of Samos, also
submits. Cambyses plans attack on Carthage, but his army is
lost in the Libyan desert.

524-523 Expedition against Ethiopia, which seems to have
overthrown the kingdom of Napata. The army suffers great
loss in the return march. Cambyses, enraged by this,
outrages the Egyptian gods and the Apis bull.

522 He starts for home, but in Syria is informed that
=Gaumata=, a Magian, has impersonated the murdered Smerdis
and seized the throne. Cambyses commits suicide.

521 The Achæmenian, Darius Hystaspes, of Persia, and six
other princes form a conspiracy against Gaumata, who is
murdered.

SECOND PERIOD--THE PERSIAN DYNASTY (521-331 B.C.)

521 =Darius= made king. The throne now passes to the
“second line” of Teispes II’s descendants. Darius marries
Atossa, wife of Cambyses, and daughter of Cyrus. The end
of the Elamite Dynasty is the signal for revolt in all
the provinces. Babylon rebels, and a son of Nabonidus is
proclaimed king as Nebuchadrezzar III. Susiana rises. Darius
has to begin the reconquest of Cyrus’ empire.

519-518 Babylon besieged, captured, and the usurper put to
death. Another usurper is also put to death. The Scythian
provinces, Parthia, Hyrcania, Urartu, and Margiana are
quieted. Another false Smerdis in Persia is overthrown.
Orœtes, in Sardis, becomes too independent, and is put to
death. In Egypt, the governor, Aryandes, proves disloyal,
and is executed. Darius shows favour to the Egyptian priests.

515 By this date the empire is thoroughly reorganised,
divided into satrapies, and taxes regulated. The Asiatic
Greeks intrigue with those of Europe. Expedition of Darius
into Scythia. He crosses the Bosporus with 800,000 troops,
and his generals reduce towns in Thrace and make the king of
Macedonia pay tribute.

512 Darius marches to the Indus, subjugating the tribes on
the right bank north of the Kabul. The region is formed into
a satrapy.

506 The overthrown Athenian tyrant, Hippias, appeals
to Artaphernes, satrap of Sardis, for restoration. The
Athenians refuse to comply with a request for restoration.

499 Aristagoras, satrap of Miletus, revolts, and is
supported by the Greeks on the Ægean Sea. The Persians
attack Naxos. The Ionians revolt.

498 Sardis burned by Aristagoras. The Ionian war begins.

494 Ionians defeated off Lade. Fall of Miletus and end of
the war.

492 Mardonius sets out to reconquer Greece. He captures some
towns in the archipelago, but his fleet is wrecked off Athos.

491 Persian forces concentrated in Cilicia for the second
attack on Greece.

490 Invasion of Greece under Datis and Artaphernes. Naxos
and Eretria taken. Defeat at Marathon. Darius begins
collection of another army, but his plans are suddenly
486 stopped for Egypt revolts, the Persians are expelled,
and Khabbash placed on the throne.

485 Death of Darius and is succeeded by his son =Xerxes I=.

484 Defeat of Khabbash in a naval battle. Achæmenes, brother
of Xerxes, made satrap of Egypt.

481 Revolt in Babylon crushed; her temples pillaged.

480 Invasion of Greece. The Persians victorious at
Thermopylæ and Artemisia.

Athens occupied. Battle of Salamis. Defeat of Persians.
Athens evacuated.

479 Invasion of Attica under Mardonius. Defeat of Platæa.
Persian fleet also defeated at Mycale.

479-478 Ionia and the islands lost to Persia.

476 Persians expelled from Thrace.

470 Fall of Eion.

465 Cimon’s victory over the Persians at the mouth of the
Eurymedon. Xerxes is assassinated by Artabanus in league
with Artaxerxes, who also puts his elder brother Darius to
death.

464 =Artaxerxes I= takes the throne.

462 A rising in Bactria is quelled after two battles.

460 Rebellion in Egypt under Inarus, king of Libya, assisted
by the Athenians.

459 Victory of Inarus at Papremis. He besieges the Persians
in Memphis.

455-454 Megabyzus with a large army finally subdues Egypt at
Prosphitis. Thannyras is made king of Libya in his father’s
place. Some Egyptians proclaim Amyrtæus king in the Saïd.

449 Persians attempt to recover Cyprus. Cimon of Athens
opposes them. Death of Cimon. Persian fleet and army
defeated at Salamis in Cyprus. Callias concludes a treaty of
peace between Persia and Athens.

448 Megabyzus, governor of Syria, rebels. He is subdued and
pardoned.

424 Death of Artaxerxes. His eldest son =Xerxes II= reigns
forty-five days, and is murdered by Artaxerxes’ illegitimate
son =Sogdianus=, who after six months’ rule is in turn
423 killed by another bastard son Ochus, who assumes the name
of =Darius II= (=Nothus=) and marries his aunt Parysatis.

The king’s brother Arsites, and Artyphius, son of Megabyzus,
rebel. They are overcome, and Arsites put to death.

418 Revolt of Pissuthenes, satrap of Lydia. It is put down
by Tissaphernes.

412 Amorges, son of Pissuthenes, who has continued the
revolt in Caria, is finally overcome. Treaty with Sparta
recognising Darius’ suzerainty over Greek cities in Asia
Minor. Cities in Ionia and Caria recovered. The Spartans
intrigue with Tissaphernes.

408 Cyrus, the king’s son, made satrap of Lydia, Phrygia,
and Cappadocia. Tissaphernes retains the coast cities only.
Cyrus burns for revenge on the Athenians.

405 Cyrus allies himself with the Spartans and is accused of
treason. He aims to procure the throne for himself.

Amyrtæus (Amen-Rut) proclaims the independence of Egypt.

404 Death of Darius. Cyrus attempts to kill Arsaces, the
eldest son and heir, but fails. Arsaces ascends the throne
as =Artaxerxes II=.

401 Cyrus sets out for Persia with an army, but is met and
defeated at Cunaxa by the imperial forces. Cyrus dies in the
battle. Retreat of the ten thousand Greeks, his mercenaries.

Alliance of Persia and Athens against Sparta.

399 Amyrtæus (Amen-Rut) in Egypt succeeded by Niafaarut I.
Egypt recovers her old-time activity; she intrigues with
Syria and Cyprus against Persia.

Artaxerxes is compelled to send an army raised for the
suppression of Egypt into Asia Minor.

394 Conon at the head of the Persian fleet defeats the
Spartans at Cnidus.

391 Artaxerxes and Evagoras of Cyprus at open war.

387 Peace of Antalcidas. The Asiatic Greeks are given back
to the Persian power.

386-385 War between Cyprus and Persia. Defeat of Evagoras.
Haker of Egypt allies himself with the Pisidians.
Artaxerxes’ campaign against the Cadusians.

383 Surrender of Evagoras to Persia.

378 Nectanebo I ascends throne of Egypt. Chabrias, the
Athenian, reorganises the Egyptian army.

374 Failure through mutiny of the mercenaries of the Persian
expedition against Nectanebo.

370-365 The satraps of Asia Minor break out in revolt. This
weakens the empire greatly.

364 Tachus succeeds Nectanebo I in Egypt.

361 Tachus invades Syria.

359 His nephew Nectanebo II seizes the Egyptian throne and
Tachus is obliged to take refuge with the Persians.

358 Death of Artaxerxes II. His son Ochus murders all
possible claimants, and takes the throne with the name of
=Artaxerxes III=. Defeat of the Persians in Egypt.

352 Revolt of Tennes of Sidon against Persia. Cyprus joins
him.

347 Isocrates exhorts Philip of Macedon to attack Persia.

345 Tennes betrays Sidon to Artaxerxes III. The city is
cruelly punished. Cyprus subdued.

340 Conquest of Egypt by Artaxerxes.

338 Murder of Artaxerxes by the prime minister, the eunuch
Bagoas. =Arses=, the king’s youngest son, placed on the
throne.

336 The Macedonian army crosses into Asia. Death of Philip.

335 Bagoas puts Arses and his children to death. Codomannus,
great-grandson of Darius II, placed on the throne as =Darius
III=. He has Bagoas put to death.

334 Alexander crosses the Hellespont. Battle of the
Granicus. Mysia, Lydia, Caria, and Lycia submit to the
Greeks.

333 Battles of Issus and Amanus. Phrygia, Cappadocia, and
Cilicia submit to the Greeks; also the whole of northern
Syria.

332 Alexander captures Tyre,--Phœnicia, Judea, and Samaria
submit. Egypt goes over to the Greeks. Darius’ attempt to
recover Asia Minor is frustrated.

331 Alexander invades Assyria. Battle of Arbela which
overthrows the Achæmenian Dynasty. Darius flees into Media.
Fall of Babylon and Susa. Pasagarda and Persepolis captured.

330 Bessus, satrap of Bactria, seizes Darius and murders
him. He calls himself =Artaxerxes IV=, but finally falls
into Alexander’s hands and is put to death.

(Now in the Louvre)]