Chapter LXVII: Sicilian Affairs (2)

Droysen treats his subject from a truly sympathetic point of
view. For him Alexander is a very great hero; he is thoroughly
in sympathy with the monarchical idea, and he regards Alexander
as a great benefactor of his kind, who, had he lived, would have
put the stamp of his genius still more firmly upon the most
important epoch in the history of human evolution. Even such
debatable points as Alexander’s demand that divine honours should
be paid him by the Greeks, after the oriental manner, are made
by Droysen, as we have seen, to appear altogether favourable to
his hero. It must not be supposed from this, however, that the
history of Droysen is a fulsome eulogy. It is, on the other hand,
the work of a candid critic of broad views and clear insight, who
is by no means blind to the defects of his hero, but who believes
that, in spite of these defects, the hero was not merely one of
the greatest military geniuses, but one of the greatest men of
any age.

Having treated the age of Alexander, it was not unnatural
that Droysen should go on to the study of later Greek life.
His treatment of the Hellenic age remains perhaps the most
comprehensive and scholarly contribution to this difficult
subject.

=Droysen=, H.,(in Hermann’s Lehrbuch d. griechischen Antiquitäten) Freiburg, 1889; Untersuchungen über Alexanders des Grossen Heerwesen und Kriegführung, Freiburg, 1885; Athen und der Westen vor der Sicilischen Expedition, Berlin, 1882.--=Drumann=, W., Verfall der Griechischen Staaten, Berlin, 1815.--=Dujon=, E., Problèmes de Mythologie, Auxerre, 1887.--=Du Mesnil=, A., Politik des Epaminondas, Munich, 1863--=Dunbar=, G., in Potter’s Antiquities of Greece, Edinburgh, 1820.--=Duncker=, M., Abhandlungen aus der griech. Geschichte, Leipsic, 1887; History of Greece to the End of the Persian War (trans.), London and Edinburgh, 1883.--=Duruy=, V., Histoire des Grecs, Paris, 1887-1889.--=Dyer=, L., Studies of the Gods in Greece at Certain Sanctuaries, London, 1891.

* * * * *

=Elser=, C., Die Lehre des Aristoteles über das Wirken Gottes, Münster, 1893.--=Ely=, T., Olympos, Tales of the Gods of Greece, London, 1891.--=Eugamon=, Τηλεγονία, (Telegonia).

* * * * *

=Falke=, J. von, Greece and Rome, their Life and Art (trans. by W. H. Browne), New York, 1882.--=Farfar=, J. A., Paganism and Christianity, London, 1891.--=Fellows=, C., An Account of Discoveries in Lycia, London, 1841.--=Finlay=, G., History of Byzantine and Greek Empires from 716 to 1453, Edinburgh, 1853; History of Greece from Conquest by Crusaders, 1204-1461, Edinburgh and London, 1851; History of Greek Revolution, Edinburgh and London, 1861; History of Greece under Ottoman and Venetian Domination, Edinburgh and London, 1856; Greece under the Romans, Edinburgh, 1844. Most of Finlay’s works, dealing with the later period of Grecian history, are properly without the scope of the present bibliography. They treat the Byzantine epoch from a Greek point of view and are thus complementary to Gibbon’s work. We shall have occasion to return to them when dealing with the later Roman Empire.--=Flathe=, J. L. F. F., Geschichte Macedoniens, Leipsic, 1832-1834.--=Floigl=, V., Cyrus und Herodot, Leipsic, 1881.--=Fraenkel=, A., Die Quellen der Alexander Historiker, 1884, 8 vols.--=Françillon=, R. E., Gods and Heroes, Edinburgh, 1892.--=Freeman=, E. A., History of Federal Government in Greece and Italy, London, 1893; History of Sicily, Oxford, 1891; article on “Sicily” in the Ninth Edition of the _Encyclopædia Britannica_. The first edition of Professor Freeman’s work on federal government, cited above, bore the following title: _The History of Federal Government from the Foundation of the Achæan League to the Dissolution of the United States_; a title which suggests the difficulties an historian may encounter when his enthusiasm leads him to enter the fields of prophecy. For obvious reasons the author was not able to complete his work in accordance with the original title. Unfortunately, he did not move as far towards its completion as he might have done, as a second volume was never published. The fragment that he has given us, however, retains great importance in its application to that late and futile effort of the Greeks to harmonise the relations of their antagonistic cities.--=Furtwängler= (in collaboration with =Löschke=), Mykenische Vasen, Berlin, 1886.

* * * * *

=Gardner=, Percy, New Chapters in Greek History, London, 1892; Manual of Greek Antiquities, London, 1895.--=Garnett=, R., A Chaplet from the Greek Anthology, London, 1892.--=Geddes=, William D., The Problem of the Homeric Poems, London, 1878, 8 vols.--=Geldart=, E. M., Modern Greek Language, Oxford, 1866.--=Gell=, W., Itinerary of Greece, with Commentary on Pausanias and Strabo, London, 1810.--=Gerard=, P., L’Éducation athénienne au cinquième et quatrième siècles B.C., Paris, 1889.--=Gerhard=, E., Griechische Mythologie, Berlin, 1854.--=Gervinus=, G. G., Gesch. des Neunzehnten Jahrhunderts, Leipsic, 1853.--=Gibbon=, E., Decline and Fall of Roman Empire, London, 1853.--=Gilbert=, G., Beiträge zur inneren Gesch. Athens, Leipsic, 1877; Handbuch der Griechischen Staatsalterthtümer, Leipsic, 1893.--=Gillies=, J., History of Ancient Greece, London, 1825.--=Gladstone=, W. E., Studies on Homer and the Homeric Age, Oxford, 1858.--=Glover=, R., Leonidas (poem), London, 1737.--=Godkin=, E. L., Historical Educator, London, 1854.--=Goldsmith=, O., History of Greece, London, 1825.

_Oliver Goldsmith_ was born at Pallas, County Longford, Ireland,
November 10, 1728; died at London, April 4, 1774. The name of
Goldsmith has been everywhere a household word for more than
a century, but probably comparatively few of the multitude of
readers of _The Deserted Village_ and _The Vicar of Wakefield_
are aware that the famous poet and novelist was also a writer
of histories. And, in point of fact, it would be going much too
far to claim for Goldsmith any such rank in the field of history
as, by common consent, he is accorded in these other walks of
literature. Indeed it might almost be said that Goldsmith was
not a historian at all in the modern sense of the word; he did
not prepare himself by any extended series of intimate personal
researches; he did not attempt to ferret out any new facts,
or bring any novel lights to bear upon the subject. To put
the matter briefly, he took up the writing of history as pure
hack-work for whatever monetary recompense it would bring at the
moment, with probably little thought beyond that. Nevertheless
Goldsmith had some of the inherent instincts of the scholar, and,
moreover, he was too great an artist not to know that truth lies
at the foundation of all art; hence, even though he wrote in one
sense carelessly, he could not do less than ground himself in at
least the main outlines of the story that he had to tell, and it
would be quite a mistake to suppose that his history of Greece
is utterly despicable as a mere narrative of facts. Generally
speaking, on the contrary, it may be depended on as to mere
statement of fact, while its manner of presentation is, it goes
almost without the saying, such as to give it a place quite aside
from the ordinary.

There are indeed times when the spirit of the writer seems
somewhat to flag, and one misses here and there that felicity of
expression and charm of narrative which one is wont to associate
with the name of Goldsmith; but, in the main, the story, as a
story of Grecian life, is told in a manner not unworthy of the
author of _The Vicar_, which is equivalent to saying that the
mere story of Greek history has rarely elsewhere been told so
well. The skill of the trained writer is shown, however, perhaps
even more in the selection and massing of materials than in the
mere matter of verbal style in the narrower sense. In particular
Goldsmith has followed out the tangled web of post-Alexandrian
history and woven it into something like a continuous and uniform
texture with a facility of literary resource that is rare indeed
among writers of history. Of course matter, rather than manner,
is the _sine quâ non_ with the historian, and it was not to be
expected that the history of Goldsmith could retain the prestige
which it once enjoyed, after such writers as Mitford, Thirlwall,
Grote, and Curtius had devoted years of effort to a more extended
treatment of the same subject. Nevertheless the history of
Goldsmith still has its utility for a certain class of readers.
Judicious selections from it are fully entitled to stand beside
the best that has been written on the subject. If, on the whole,
one regrets that Goldsmith did not take the time to give his work
greater authority, one cannot but regret also that some of the
later writers, and notably Grote, were not able to add to their
more ponderous productions something of the charm of style which
is the chief merit of Goldsmith’s history.

=Goll=, H., Kulturbilder aus Hellas und Rom, Leipsic, 1878.--=Gossellin=, P. F., Géographie des Grecs analysée, Paris, 1790.--=Grant=, A., Greece in the Age of Pericles, London, 1893.--=Grote=, G., History of Greece, London, 1846-1856; Plato, London, 1865.

_George Grote_ was born near Beckenham in Kent, November 17,
1794; died at London, June 18, 1871. He was educated for a
commercial life, and as a banker became a partner in the firm of
Prescott, Grote & Co. He continued in active business until 1843,
and he three times represented the city of London in parliament,
retiring from public life in 1841. The first two volumes of his
_History of Greece_ were published in 1846, the remaining volumes
appearing successively between 1847 and 1856. His _Plato and
the other Companions of Socrates_, in three volumes, appeared
in 1865. In politics Grote was greatly influenced by his friend
James Mill, accepting his theories upon church establishment
and government. Years before the passage of the reform bill,
Grote was one of the earnest reformers who strove to further the
views of Mill and Bentham. His work as a politician, however,
was quite subordinate to his importance as a historian, for the
latter work was taken up at first as a mere labour of love, and
only carried to completion, it is said, at the instigation of his
wife. We have already commented at length upon Grote’s work in
the introduction to this bibliography.

=Grundy=, G. B., The Persian War. 1901.--=Guerber=, H. A., The Story of the Greeks, London, 1898.--=Guhl=, E., and =Koner=, W., The Life of the Greeks and Romans described from Antique Monuments (trans. by F. Hueffer), London. 1877.

* * * * *

=Hadley=, J., Philological Essays, New York, 1873.--=Hahn=, J. G. von, Folk Lore of Modern Greece, London, 1884.--=Hall=, H. R., The Oldest Civilisation of Greece.--=Hammond=, B. E., Political Institutions of the Ancient Greeks, London, 1895; Greek Constitutions, Cambridge, 1896.--=Harrison=, J. E., Mythology and Monuments of Ancient Athens, London, 1890.--=Harrison=, J. A., The Story of Greece, New York, 1885.--=Hase=, H., The Public and Private Life of the Ancient Greeks, London, 1836.--=Hegel=, G. W. F., Lectures on the Philosophy of History, London, 1857.--=Heine=, H., Gesammelte Werke (Zweiter Cyklus), Berlin, 1887.--=Helbig=, W., Die Italiker in der Po-Ebene, Leipsic, 1879.--=Hermann=, K. F., Lehrbuch Griechischer Antiquitäten, Freiburg, 1880; Kulturgeschichte der Griechen und Römer, Göttingen, 1857.--=Herodotus=, Heroditi Historiæ, ed. Schweighäuser, Strasburg, 1816, 5 vols.; History of Herodotus, translated by Wm. Beloe, London, 1806.--=Hertzberg=, G. F., Gesch. der Griechen im Alterthum, Berlin, 1885; Geschichte von Hellas und Rom, 1879; Geschichte Griechenlands unter der Herrschaft der Römer, Halle, 1866-1875; Gesch. Griechenlands seit dem Absterben des antiken Lebens bis zur Gegenwart, Hamburg, 1876-1879. Professor Hertzberg’s works have the merit of pleasant presentation, and may be depended upon as a representative presentation of the most authoritative views. They make no claim to any such amount of original investigation as characterises the standard works of Grote and Curtius.--=Hogarth=, D. G., article on “Mycenæan Civilisation” in the _New Volumes_ of the Ninth Edition of the _Encyclopædia Britannica_, London.--=Holm=, A., Gesch. Siciliens im Alterthum, Leipsic, 1870-1874; Griechische Gesch., Berlin, 1893; History of Greece, London, 1898.

_Adolf Holm_ was born in 1830 at Lübeck; he is at present
professor of history at Palermo, Sicily. Professor Holm’s
work, combining original investigation with a fair grade of
popularity of treatment, is one of the most important of recent
contributions to the subject.

=Hopf=, Carl, Gesch. Griechenlands vom Beginn des Mittelalters (in Ersch und Gruber’s Encyclopädie), Leipsic, 1818.--=Huellmann=, C. D., Würdigung des Delphischen Orakels, Bonn, 1837; Anfänge der griech. Geschichte, Königsberg, 1814.--=Hullmann=, L. D., Primi tempi della storia graeca, 1894.--=Hume=, D., On the Populousness of Ancient Nations, Edinburgh, 1753.--=Hutton=, C. A., Greek Terra-cotta Statuettes, London, 1899.

* * * * *

=Isocrates=, Archidamus, ed. by G. S. Dobson, London, 1828, 2 vols.

* * * * *

=Jäger=, O., Geschichte der Griechen, Gütersloh, 1896.--=Jahn=, O., Aus der Alterthumswissenschaft, Bonn, 1868.--=Jebb=, R. E., in an article on “Demosthenes” in the Ninth Edition of the _Encyclopædia Britannica_.--=Jevons=, F. B., Athenian Democracy, London, 1895.--=Josephus=, F., Ἰουδαϊκὴ ἀρχαιολογία, ed. by Dindorf, Paris, 1845 (trans. by W. Whiston, “The Jewish Antiquities,” London, 1737); περὶ τοῦ Ἰουδαϊκοῦ πολέμου ἢ Ιουδαϊκῆς ἱστορίας περὶ ἁλώσεως, ed. by Hudson, Oxford, 1720 (trans. by Whiston, London, 1737).--=Jurien de la Gravière=, J. P. E., Les campagnes d’Alexandre, Paris, 1884; La marine des anciens, Paris, 1880.--=Justinus=, Justini Historiarum Philippicarum Libri XLIV; History of the World, London, 1853.

* * * * *

=Kellner=, G. C., Edle Griechen, Leipsic, 1802.--=Kertenensis=, R., Voyage to Dalmatia, Greece, and Asia.--=Kingsley=, Charles, Hypatia, London, 1858.--=Kolster=, W. H., Alexander der Grosse, Berlin, 1866.--=Kortum=, J. C., Gesch. Griechenlands von der Urzeit bis zum Untergang des achäischen Bundes, Heidelberg, 1854.--=Kruse=, F. C. R., Hellas, Leipsic, 1826.

* * * * *

=Lake=, W. M., A Historical Outline of the Greek Revolution, London, 1825.--=Lang=, Andrew, Homer and the Epic, London, 1893.--=Larcher=, P. H., Traduction d’Hérodote, Paris, 1786.--=Lardy=, E., La Guerre Greco-Turque (see Modern Greece), Paris, 1899.--=Larocque=, J., La Grèce au siècle de Périclès, Paris, 1883.--=Laurent=, T., Études sur l’histoire de l’humanité, Brussels, 1861-1870.--=Leake=, W. M., Researches in Greece, London, 1814; Topography of Athens, London, 1821.--=Lebeau=, Charles, Hist. du Bas-Empire, Paris, 1757-1786.--=Lecky=, W. E. H., Rationalism in Europe, London, 1870.--=Lenormant=, F., La Grande Grèce, Paris, 1881.--=Lerminier=, E., Histoire des législatures et des constitutions de la Grèce, Paris, 1882.--=Letronne=, J. A., Fragments inédits d’anciens poètes grecs, Paris, 1838.--=Livius=, Titus, Annales, Rome, 1469; ed. by Drakenborch, Leyden, 1738-1746, 7 vols. (trans. by Philemon Holland, “History of Rome,” London, 1600; by D. Spillan, C. Edmunds, and W. A. McDevitte, London, 1849, 4 vols.).--=Lloyd=, W. W., Sophoclean Trilogy (in Journal Hellenic Studies), London, 1884.--=Lytton=, E. G. E. L. Bulwer, Athens: Its Rise and Fall, London, 1837.

_Edward George Earle Lytton Bulwer-Lytton_ was born at London,
May 25, 1803; died at Torquay, January 18, 1873. It has happened
more than once that the achievements of a man’s later life
have quite eclipsed the renown of his earlier years. It was so
in the case of Bulwer-Lytton. In mature life he came to be so
universally known as a politician and novelist that perhaps
comparatively few of his readers are aware that he ever wrote a
history. Part of this neglect is perhaps due to the fact that he
never finished the important work on Athens which at one time
was very widely and favourably known. Possibly his success as a
novelist led him to abandon his early project, or, more likely,
the distractions of other activities prevented him from returning
to a work which he must have abandoned with reluctance. In any
event the two volumes which he published on Athenian history
remain a valuable fragment. They are written from the standpoint
of an ardent admirer of all phases of Grecian life, and his
judgment must, therefore, sometimes be accepted with a certain
reserve. Yet, as a whole, his work so far as it was carried has
hardly been supplanted as an estimate of the Athenian people and
their life. It is the work of a man who, though pre-eminent as a
writer, had also large attainments as a scholar and investigator.
Whoever turns to the volumes before us must leave them with
regret that the fascinating story which they tell was never
completed. Such as they are, however, they constitute a most
valuable estimate of an artistic people by a man who was himself
an artist.

* * * * *

=Macaulay=, G. C., Translation of the History of Herodotus, London, 1890.--=MacDermott=, T. B., Outlines of Grecian History, Dublin, 1889.--=Mahaffy=, J. P., Problems in Greek History, London, 1892; Alexander’s Empire, London, 1877; The Greek World under Roman Sway, London, 1890; Greek Life and Thought from Alexander to Roman Conquest, London, 1887; Introduction to Duruy’s History of Greece, Boston, 1890; Rambles and Studies in Greece, London, 1876; A History of Classical Greek Literature, London, 1883; The Empire of the Ptolemies, London, 1895.

_John Pentland Mahaffy_ was born at Chaponnaire, near Vevey,
Switzerland, February 26, 1839.

The student of history has occasion to deplore, over and over,
the fact that the greatest scholars so generally fail utterly to
master a lucid style of writing. It is a real pleasure therefore,
as well as a surprise, when, now and again, one comes across
a man of recognised scholarship who has also real distinction
as a writer. Such a man is Professor Mahaffy. As a scholar,
and particularly as an investigator of Grecian life in all its
phases, including prominently the age of the Ptolemies, Professor
Mahaffy has long had an established reputation. And it requires
but the most casual inspection of any of his books to show that
his capacity as a writer is of a high order.

The explanation of what might almost be said to be an anomaly
such as this is found, seemingly, in the wide sweep of Professor
Mahaffy’s interests and in the sound fund of common sense which
he brings to bear on any problem of scholarship. Too many
students of antiquity have been carried away with the beauties of
the Greek language, and brought utterly under the spell of the
classical literature, until all critical acumen that they might
once have possessed focalises and wastes itself solely on verbal
questions, leaving none for application to practicalities. Thus
it has happened that all manner of myths have grown up in the
minds of men about the word “Greek.”

Some of these myths Professor Mahaffy has made it his business to
attempt to dispel. We have already had occasion to refer to his
criticism on the eulogists of Thucydides. Again, in a matter of
much broader scope, Professor Mahaffy long ago pointed out that
the popular notion which regarded the Greek as the type of brave
man was a most palpable illusion. He called attention to the fact
that in some of the most important of Grecian battles--as, for
example, that in which the Spartans won against the Corinthians,
in the time of Agesilaus--the total death roll was sometimes
only half a dozen men. He noted the childish way in which the
Greek leaders were wont to keep up the courage of their men by
harangues and bombast, and the way in which each side strove to
frighten the other by loud shoutings and clashing of arms as it
advanced. “These,” he said, “are not the characteristics of men
who are brave in the modern sense of the word.” Again, he asked
if it is conceivable that a modern body of warriors would have
been repelled year after year by the walls of Athens, when only a
handful of men, so to say, were within to defend them.

Advancing still further in the same iconoclastic spirit,
Professor Mahaffy pointed out that some of the dearest traditions
of Grecian history had been interpreted and foisted on the
world through the minds of prejudiced participants, rather
than in a spirit of fairness and equity. Thus the battle of
Marathon, which we are accustomed even now to hear spoken of as
the great decisive contest between the East and the West, will
with difficulty bear this interpretation if one will consider
it without prejudice. At the best, it was certainly a far less
important and decisive battle than that of Platæa, but it chanced
that the Athenians were the victorious combatants at Marathon,
whereas at Platæa the Spartans bore the honours of the day; and
since the Athenians, through their literature, served as the
mouthpiece of Greece, it is not strange that the event in which
they chiefly figured should have been unduly magnified, and the
memory of it transmitted in distorted proportions to posterity.
It is vastly to the credit of modern scholarship that it should
be able to revise certain judgments on such matters as these,
that have come down to us with all the accumulated inertia of
generations of repetition.

It must not be supposed, however, from what has just been said,
that Professor Mahaffy’s task in dealing with the history of
Greece is altogether, or even chiefly, iconoclastic. The fact is
quite otherwise. Critical as he can be on occasion, Professor
Mahaffy nevertheless is, on the whole, an ardent and sympathetic
admirer of the people who have furnished the theme of his life
studies; but his laudatory judgments may be accepted with the
more confidence because of the evidence he has given us that in
considering the Greeks he does not allow himself to be carried
utterly away by his enthusiasm, nor to forget that the Greeks,
despite their national genius, were after all very human, and
only properly to be understood when judged by some such practical
standard as we apply to peoples of our own generation.

Professor Mahaffy knows his Greece of to-day at first hand
quite as well as he knows ancient Greece through studies of the
classics. He has described most charmingly his rambles in Greece
proper; and latterly he has made the Ptolemaic epoch peculiarly
his own, and his writings on this period take rank as among the
most important contributions to a subject which most students of
Grecian history have distinctly neglected.

=Mannert=, C., Geographie der Griechen und Römer, Nürnberg, 1788-1792.--=Manso=, J. C. F., Sparta, Leipsic, 1800-1805.--=Martin=, H., Les Cavaliers Athéniens, Paris, 1886.--=Masom=, W. F., Synopsis of Grecian History, London, 1888.--=Maspero=, G., Hist. ancienne des peuples de l’orient, Paris, 1886.--=Mela=, Pomponius, De Situ Orbis Libri III, ed. by Vinetus, Paris, 1572; (trans. by Arthur Golding, Rare and Singular Works of Pomponius Mela, London, 1590).--=Melingo=, P. v., Griechenland in unseren Tagen, Vienna, 1892.--=Ménard=, L., Histoire des Grecs, Paris, 1893, 2 vols.--=Merivale=, Charles, History of the Romans under the Empire, London, 1850-1851.--=Meyer=, E., Geschichte des Alterthums, Stuttgart, 1884-1893.--=Milchoefer=, A., Anfänge der Kunst in Griechenland, Leipsic, 1883.--=Milligan=, W., Religion of Ancient Greece, Edinburgh, 1882.--=Mitford=, W., History of Greece, London, 1841.--=Monceaux=, P., La Grèce avant Alexandre, Paris, 1892.--=Müller=, I., Handbuch der klassischen Alterthumswissenschaft, Nördlingen, 1885, etc., 9 vols., in progress.--=Müller=, A. (in Hermann’s Lehrbuch der Griechischen Antiquitäten), Freiburg, 1880.--=Müller=, H. D., Historisch-mythologische Untersuchungen, Göttingen, 1892.--=Müller=, Karl, Fragmenta Historicorum Græcorum, Paris, 1841-1870, 5 vols.; new edition, 1883.--=Müller=, K. O., History of the Literature of Ancient Greece, London, 1858; History and Antiquities of the Doric Race, London, 1830; Handbuch der Archäologie der Kunst, Stuttgart, 1878.

_Karl Otfried Müller_ was born at Brieg, Prussia, August 28,
1797; died at Athens, August 1, 1840. If to be sympathetic
with the genius of a people is a prerequisite for the great
historian, Müller was eminently qualified to write a history
of the Greek people. He was a man of essentially poetical and
artistical temperament, and combined with these qualities a
profound scholarship. An incident of his early manhood will
illustrate perfectly his temperament. The incident occurred
during his visit to the famous art gallery in Dresden. In itself
it was nothing more than the fact of his becoming entranced by
the celebrated Raphael there. Before this picture, as he himself
writes, he stood quite enchanted, and he could scarcely bring
himself to leave it long enough to visit other portions of the
gallery. Now, of course, to any person of less impressionable
temperament who has seen the picture, it will be quite clear that
Müller, standing thus entranced before the Madonna, saw with
the inner eye of his own enthusiasm, rather than with the more
tangible organ of sense. Doubtless, in his half-hypnotic trance,
he would have been equally delighted had the veriest chromo
been substituted in the canvas for the original picture. He had
gone to see the Raphael full of enthusiastic expectancy, and he
was sure not to be disappointed. He did not see the awkward,
mechanical, old-fashioned grouping; he was quite unmindful of the
defect of drawing which had given unequal legs to the kneeling
figure at the right. He did not know that, if he had come across
this same painting unlabelled and before unheard of, he would
scarcely have given it a second thought; he only knew that it
represented an ideal--an ideal that had lingered fondly in his
mind since his earliest youth. To stand before that picture and
see it with his own eyes was to realise that ideal. Many another
person has had that same sensation before that same canvas, and
for the same reason; and with them, as with him, it was a test
of personal temperament, and not a test of the excellence of the
picture itself.

Gifted with this impressionable artistic temperament, it was not
strange that Müller’s ambitions early looked in the direction
of Greece. From his earliest youth the study of classical times
became his one absorbing passion, and long before he had reached
middle age he had come to be known to scholars everywhere as a
member of that inner circle who have made classical lore their
own. Naturally he wrote as well as studied, and his works on
Greece became classical from the moment of their issue. His
especial interest during those early years, which were to
represent the largest portion of his working life, was directed
towards the early history of the Greeks as a nation and towards
the effort to solve the riddles of that period. In particular,
his studies of the Doric race became famous, and remain to
this day practically the last word that has been said on the
subject. One must, perhaps, sometimes make allowance for Müller’s
enthusiasm and favourable prejudice, just as for Mitford’s
opposite point of view; but generally speaking, Müller’s work
is distinguished above all things, next to its scholarship, for
its fairness and the breadth of view from which the subject is
contemplated.

Oddly enough, all Müller’s important works were written before he
himself had ever visited the land of which he treated. Needless
to say, a desire to visit Greece was ever with him, but it was
long before the desire was realised. At last, however, the
opportunity came to visit Greece in a semi-official capacity;
the government granted him leave of absence from his university
work, and provided him with a draftsman to make sketches in
Greece under his direction. In the autumn of 1839 he started on
this memorable and, as it proved, fatal tour. A story is told of
his entry into Greece which will illustrate the power and charm
of his personality. A friend of Finlay, the English historian of
the later period of Greece, chanced to be on the same boat with
Müller, and, after landing, he at once reported to Finlay that a
most extraordinary man had come to Greece--a man whose name and
nationality were unknown to him, but who had surprised everyone
on the boat by seeming to speak all languages with equal facility
and to discuss all topics with a like affluence of erudition. “I
don’t know who he is,” said the narrator, “but he is somebody
quite out of the common.” Needless to say, Finlay was not left
long in doubt as to who this “somebody quite out of the common”
really was.

With what enthusiasm and energy Müller began his investigations
in the land, every part of which was so dear to him and at once
so familiar and so novel, may be easily imagined, but his labours
were not destined to reach the results that had been hoped;
for, partly perhaps through over-exertion and fatigue, he was
stricken with a fever, was brought back to Athens unconscious
and delirious, and died there on the 1st of August, 1840. His
work was thus cut short while he was yet in his prime, but even
so he will always be remembered as one of the most prominent
contributors to Grecian history of any age.

=Munro=, Observations on Persian Wars, London, 1898; article in the Journal of Hellenic Studies.--=Mure=, William, Grecian Literature, London, 1854.--=Murray=, A. S., Greek Bronzes, London, 1898.

* * * * *

=Nagiotte=, E., Histoire de la littérature grecque, Paris, 1883.--=Nepos=, C., De Viris Illustribus, Venice, 1471 (ed. by Dionysius Lambinus, Paris, 1569); Lives of Illustrious Men, London, 1723.--=Nicolai=, R., Griechische Litteraturgeschichte, Leipsic, 1876.--=Niebuhr=, B. G., Lectures on Ancient History, London, 1852; Stories of Greek Heroes, London, 1887.--=Niese=, B., Gesch. der Griechischen und Macedonischen Staaten, Gotha, 1893.--=Nitzsch=, C. W., Die Römische Annalistik von ihren ersten Anfängen bis auf Valerius Antias, Berlin, 1873.

* * * * *

=Oman=, C. W. C., History of Greece to Macedonian Conquest, London, 1890; History of Greece to Death of Alexander, London, 1891.--=Oncken=, W., Athen und Hellas, Leipsic, 1866.--=Osborn=, H. F., From the Greeks to Darwin, New York, 1894.--=Overbeck=, J., Gesch. der Griechischen Plastik, Leipsic, 1857.

* * * * *

=Paley=, F. A., An Inquiry into the Origin of Bookwriting among the Greeks, London, 1881.--=Papatthegopoulos=, K., Histoire de la civilisation héllenique, Paris, 1875.--=Pausanias=, Ἑλλάδος Περιήγησις, ed. by Kühn, Leipsic, 1696; (translation by Thomas Taylor), A Description of Greece, London, 1794.--=Perry=, W. C., Greek and Roman Sculpture, London, 1882.--=Peter=, C., Zeittafeln der Griechischen Geschichte, Halle, 1886.--=Perrot=, G., in collaboration with C. =Chipiez=, Histoire de l’art dans l’antiquité, Paris, 1881.--=Philippson=, A., Thessalien und Epirus, Berlin, 1897.--=Philostephanus Timæus=, =Sosibius= and =Demetrius Phalereus= as quoted by Plutarch.--=Philostratus=, Τὰ ἐς τὸν Τυανέα Ἀπολλώνιον, Venice, 1502; Life of Apollonius, London, 1809.--=Photius=, Excerpts from Arrian’s Bithynica (in Müller’s Fragmenta).--=Pigorini=, in Atti dell’ Accademmia de Lincei.--Plato, Republic (trans. by Henry Cary), London, 1861.--=Pliny=, Historia Naturalis (trans. by J. Bostock and H. T. Riley), London, 1848.--=Ploix=, C., La nature des dieux, Paris, 1888.--=Plutarch=, Βίοι Παράλληλοι, Rome, 1470, 2 vols. (ed. by C. Sintenis, Leipsic, 1839-1846, 4 vols.); Lives, London, 1579; Lives of Illustrious Men, London, 1829, etc.--=Pocock=, E., =Talfourd=, T., =Rutt=, J., and =Ottley=, A History of Greece, London, 1851.--=Poestion=, J. C., Hellas, Rom, und Thule, Leipsic, 1882.--=Pöhlmann=, R. (in Müller’s Handbuch der klassischen Alterthumswissenschaft, Nördlingen, 1885, etc., 9 vols. in progress).--=Pollard=, A., True Stories from Greek History, London, 1892.--=Polyænus=, Στρατηγήματα, Lyons, 1589; Stratagems of War (trans. by R. Shepherd), London, 1793.--=Polybius=, Καθολικὴ, κοινὴ ἱστορία, Paris, 1609; The History of (trans. by E. Grimston), London, 1693; The History of (trans. by Sir H. Spears), Oxford, 1823 (Fragmentary but very valuable for later period).--=Pomeranz=, B., La Grèce et la Judée dans l’antiquité, London, 1891.--=Potter=, J. J., Antiquities of Greece, Edinburgh, 1820.--=Poynter=, E. J., On a Bronze Leg from Italy (in Journal of Hellenic Studies), London, 1886.--=Preller=, L., Griechische Mythologie, Berlin, 1899.--=Prévost-Paradol=, L. A., Essai sur l’histoire universelle, Paris, 1890.--=Purper=, L., La résurrection de la mythologie, Paris, 1894.

* * * * *

=Quinet=, E., De la Grèce dans ses rapports avec l’antiquité, Paris, 1830.

* * * * *

=Radet=, S. T. G., La déification d’Alexandre.--=Rangabe=, A. R., Greece: Her Former and Present Position, New York, 1867; Hist. lit. de la Grèce moderne, Paris, 1877.--=Ranke=, L. v., Weltgeschichte, Leipsic, 1883-1886, 8 vols.--=Redesdale=, Lord (in Mitford’s Greece), Biography of William Mitford, London, 1822.--=Renan=, E., Études d’histoire religieuse, Paris, 1857.--=Rennell=, J., Geographical System of Herodotus, London, 1800.--=Ridgeway=, W., The Early Age of Greece, Cambridge, 1901, 2 vols.; What People produced Objects called Mycenean (in Journal of Hellenic Studies), London, 1886.--=Ritter=, Karl, Die Erdkunde im Verhältniss zur Natur und zur Geschichte des Menschen, Berlin, 1817-1818, 2 vols.--=Roberts=, W. R., The Ancient Bœotians; their Character, etc., Cambridge, 1895.--=Robinson=, W. S., Short History of Greece, London, 1895.--=Robion=, F., Les Institutions de la Grèce antique, Paris, 1882.--=Rodd=, J. R., Customs and Lore of Modern Greece (see Modern Greece), London, 1892.--=Rollin=, C., Ancient History of the Greeks and Macedonians, London, 1881; Ancient History of the Egyptians, Carthaginians, etc., London, 1841.--=Rose=, D., Popular History of Greece, London, 1888.--=Ruskin=, J., Præterita, London, 1886-1900, 2 vols.; Modern Painters, London, 1843.

* * * * *

=Sardagua=, V., Storia della Grecia Antica, Verona, 1881.--=Sathas=, C. N., Documents inédits relatifs à l’histoire de la Grèce en Moyen Age, Paris, 1880.--=Sayce=, A. H. (in his preface to Schliemann’s Troja, London, 1884); (in J. P. Mahaffy’s A History of Classical Greek Literature, London, 1883); On the Language of the Homeric Poems, London, 1881.--=Schäfer=, A., Demosthenes und seine Zeit, Leipsic, 1885-1886; Abriss der Quellenkunde der griech. und röm. Gesch., Leipsic, 1889.--=Schliemann=, H., Troja, London, 1884; Ilios, Leipsic, 1881; Mycenæ, London, 1878; Tiryns: The Prehistoric Palace of the Kings of Tiryns, London, 1886.

_Heinrich Schliemann_ was born at Neu-Buckow,
Mecklenburg-Schwerin, January 6, 1822; died at Naples, December
27, 1890. He was in many ways a most extraordinary man. He was
largely denied the advantages of an early liberal education, as
it became necessary for him to earn his way in the world while
yet a boy, but he made amends for this by putting into practice a
most amazing system of self-education, through which he had been
able to acquire an entire mastery of a list of languages only
limited by his own desires. French, Italian, Spanish, English,
Russian,--he learned one after another in periods of only a
few months for each; but not till relatively late in life, at
thirty-five namely, did he take up the study of Greek. The reason
for this delay, as he himself explained it, was that his interest
in Grecian history had always been so intense that he dared
not take up the study of the language lest it should prove a
distraction detrimental to his business. But now he had followed
out that business so persistently that he had become a wealthy
man and could afford to do as he wished. He acquired Greek as
quickly and as completely as he had acquired other languages,
beginning with the modern Greek and passing back in inverse
chronological order to the various classical authors. He learned
not merely to read the language, but to write it with facility
and speak it fluently, so that he could express himself in either
modern or ancient Greek almost as readily as in his native tongue.

This accomplished, he had prepared the way for an attempt which,
as he believed in later years, had been an ambition with him
all his life,--the search, namely, for the site of Ancient
Troy. Having amassed a fortune, the income from which was more
than sufficient for all his needs, he retired from active
participation in business and devoted the remainder of his life
to a self-imposed task. How well he succeeded, all the world
knows. In opposition to the opinions of many scholars he picked
on the hill of Hissarlik as the site of ancient Ilium, and his
excavations there soon demonstrated that at least it had been the
site, not of one alone, but of at least seven different cities
in antiquity--one being built above the ruins of another at
long intervals of time. One of these cities, the sixth from the
top,--or, to put it otherwise, the most ancient but one,--was, he
became firmly convinced, Ilium itself.

The story of his achievements has already been told. But it
is necessary here to point the warning that Dr. Schliemann’s
excavations--wonderful as are their results--do not, perhaps,
when critically viewed, demonstrate quite so much as might
at first sight appear. There is, indeed, a high degree of
probability that the city which he excavated was really the one
intended in the Homeric descriptions, but it must be clear, to
anyone who scrutinises the matter somewhat closely, that this
fact goes but a little way towards substantiating the Homeric
narrative as a whole. The city of Ilium may have existed without
giving rise to any such series of events as that narrated in the
_Iliad_. Dr. Schliemann himself was led to realise this fact, and
to modify somewhat, in later years, the exact tenor of some of
his more enthusiastic earlier views, yet the fact remains that
the excavations at Hissarlik must be reckoned with by whoever in
future discusses the status of the Homeric story.

If they did not prove as much as some could wish, they at least
were enormously suggestive. Had they done nothing else, they at
least furnished a mass of authentic documents bearing upon the
life of the prehistoric period of Grecian antiquity. Even more
important in this regard were the excavations of Dr. Schliemann
subsequently made at the sites of the old Greek cities of Mycenæ
and Tiryns. Ilium was not located on Grecian soil, and its
relation with Grecian history was only conjectural, but these
other cities were in Greece itself, and inspection of their ruins
has brought within the historic period some centuries of Grecian
life that hitherto were utterly obscure, or only known through
incidental references of the Homeric poems.

=Schlosser=, F. C., Weltgeschichte, Frankfort, 1844.

_Friedlich Christoph Schlosser_, born at Jever, Germany, November
17, 1776; died at Heidelberg, September 23, 1861, the Nestor
of German historians has been spoken of--not unjustly--as the
German Tacitus. More than almost any other man, perhaps, at
the beginning of the nineteenth century, he was influential
in establishing the school of what may be called scientific
history, not merely through his Writings but through his personal
influence on a coterie of pupils who included many of the
distinguished historians of the middle of the nineteenth century.

Professor Schlosser was a beautiful character as well as a
scholarly mind. The historical sweep of his mind was of the
widest, as evidenced in the subjects which he selected, while the
force of his personality is equally demonstrated by the results
that he achieved. His _Universal History_ and his _History of
the Eighteenth Century_ immediately took place as the greatest
authorities in the field at the time of their publication, and
the latter work was early translated into English.

The work on _Universal History_ was the first attempt of its
kind, of anything like a corresponding comprehensiveness, in
modern times. As originally written by Schlosser himself it had
a largely technical character, yet it so clearly contained the
elements of a great popular work that it was soon elaborated
under Schlosser’s own direction by his pupil, Dr. G. L. Kriegk,
and in this popularised form, though a bulky work of nineteen
volumes, it soon achieved a wide circulation throughout Germany.
This was about the middle of the century. Since then there have
been numerous new editions of Schlosser’s popular history, and,
even to-day, its sale probably exceeds in Germany that of any
other similar work. It occupies, indeed, a place of its own
which no other universal history exactly rivals. It has fullest
authority, yet it is essentially popular in character. It is
the narrative of the sweep of world-historic events. Its style,
though less eloquent than that of Weber, is reasonably lucid, and
the sentiments which actuate it throughout are those of which
every reader in the main approves. We shall have occasion to
recur again and again to its pages, and each such recurrence will
tend to increase one’s surprise that a work of such comprehensive
merit should never, hitherto, have been made accessible to the
reader of English.

=Schneider=, E., Les Pélasges et leurs descendants, Paris, 1884.--=Schorn=, W., Geschichte Griechenlands von der Entstehung des ätol. und achäischen Bundes bis auf die Zerstörung von Korinth.--=Schrader=, O., Die älteste Zeitteilung des indogerman. Volks, Berlin, 1878.--=Schrammen=, T., Tales of the Gods of Ancient Greece, London, 1894.--=Schuchardt=, C., Schliemann’s Excavations (trans. by E. Sellers), London, 1891 (an admirable summary of archæological results).--=Seignobos=, C., Hist. narrative et descriptive de la Grèce ancienne, Paris, 1891.--=Sergeant=, L., Greece, London, 1880.--=Serre=, P., Études sur l’histoire militaire et maritime des Grecs, Paris, 1885.--=Simpson=, W., Mycenæ, Troy and Ephesus, London, 1878.--=Sittl=, C., Gesch. der griechischen Litteratur, Munich, 1884.--=Smith=, A., The Wealth of Nations, London, 1891.--=Smith=, George, The Gentile Nations.--=Smith=, J., Voyage and Shipwreck of St. Paul, London, 1848.--=Smyth=, W., History of Greece, London, 1854.--=Stengel=, P. (in Müller’s Handbuch der Classischen Alterthumswissenschaft, Nördlingen, 1876-1888).--=Strabo=, Γεωγραφικά, Venice, 1516, The Geography of Strabo (trans. from the Greek by H. C. Hamilton and W. Falconer), London, 1854, 3 vols.--=Stern=, E. von, Gesch. d. Spart. Hegemonie, Dorpat, 1884.--=Symonds=, J. A., The Greek Poets, London, 1893.

* * * * *

=Taine=, H., The Philosophy of Art in Greece, New York, 1889; Lectures on Art, New York, 1889.--=Tarbell=, F. B., A History of Greek Art, London, 1896.--=Taylor=, T., The Eleusinian and Bacchic Mysteries, New York, 1891.--=Terxetti=, A., La Grèce ancienne et moderne considerée sous l’aspect religieux, Paris, 1884.--=Theognis=, Ἐλέγεια (Poems), Venice, 1495; edited by Bekker, Leipsic, 1815.--=Theopompus=, Φιλιππικά (Philippica), Theopompi Chii fragmenta, collegit, disposicit et explicavit, R. H. E. Wichers, Leyden, 1829.--=Thiers=, L. A., Histoire du Consulat et de l’Empire, Paris, 1845-1862, 20 vols.--=Thirlwall=, C., A History of Greece, London, 1845.

_Connop Thirlwall_ was born at Stepney, London, January 11, 1797;
died at Bath, July 27, 1875. Bishop Thirlwall was one of those
extraordinary men who are, perhaps, much more numerous than the
world generally imagines, of whom it may be justly said that he
never accomplished half that he might have done had he focalised
his energies, and more persistently applied his capabilities. He
was almost a prodigy of learning as a child, and in adult life he
showed how the capacity to acquire knowledge was still retained
by making himself master of the Welsh tongue, and preaching in
that language when called to a Welsh pulpit. But his efforts were
never focalised for a long period on any particular field, and it
was almost by accident, and certainly by outside influence, that
he was led to produce the one work which will transmit his name
to posterity. This work of course is his history of Greece.

Such criticism as this is not intended in any sense to be
a disparagement of that history, nor indeed of Thirlwall’s
accomplishments as a whole. Applied in that sense criticism would
be absurd, for it may be doubted, even to this day, whether
Thirlwall’s is not the best general history of Greece that
has ever been written. Certainly, for the general reader, it
combines in a larger measure authority with a popular interest
of presentation than any other in the English language. But the
work was written to meet a popular demand, and while it was in no
sense a hurried or careless production, the friends of Thirlwall
always thought that it might have been given a somewhat more
authoritative cast, had it been undertaken through different
motives.

After all, however, perhaps the world is better for the work as
it stands. Ponderous histories of Greece are no novelty, whereas
readable histories of any country are never a drug on the market.
The frequency with which we have had occasion to recur to the
pages of Thirlwall in treating the history of Greece has been an
earnest of our estimate of the position which his history holds
after two or three generations of workers have searched for fresh
material in the same field.

=Thouvenal=, E. A., La Grèce du Roi Othou, Paris, 1890.--=Thucydides=, Συγγραφή, Venice, 1502; The History of the Grecian War (trans. by Henry Dale), London, 1852; Of the Peloponnesian Wars, London, 1856, 2 vols.--=Timayenis=, T. T., Greece in the Times of Homer, New York, 1885; A History of Greece from Earliest Times to Present, New York, 1881.--=Tozer=, H. F., The Islands of the Ægean, Oxford, 1890; Researches in the Highlands of Turkey, 1869.--=Tsountas=, C., and J. I. =Manatt=, The Mycenæan Age, Boston and New York, 1897.--=Tyrtaeus=, Εὐνομία, edited by Klotz. Bremæ, 1764, Fragments 5, 6.

* * * * *

=Virchow=, R. (in Schliemann’s Ilios, Leipsic, 1881).

* * * * *

=Wachsmuth=, C., Die Stadt Athen im Alterthum, Leipsic, 1874.--=Waddington=, W. H. (in collab. with Le Bas), Voyage Archéologique en Grèce et en Asie Mineure, Paris, 1847-1877, 6 vols.--=Walton=, A., The Cult of Asklepios, Ithaca, N.Y., 1894.--=Watkins=, L., The Age of Pericles.--=Weber=, G., Weltgeschichte, Leipsic, 1857-1880; A History of Philosophy, London, 1896.--=Wheeler=, Benjamin Ide, Alexander the Great: The Merging of East and West in Universal History, New York and London, 1902.

_Benjamin Ide Wheeler_ was born at Randolph, Mass., July 15,
1854. President of the University of California since 1899.
President Wheeler’s earlier publications were chiefly concerned
with Greek philology, but his interest in other phases of Greek
life is evidenced by the work above cited. As a matter of course
this work is scholarly; but it is also popular in the best sense
of the word: indeed, no more readable and satisfactory account of
the life of Alexander exists in any language.

=Wilamowitz-Möllendorff=, W., von, Homerische Untersuchungen, Berlin, 1884.--=Winterton=, R., Poetæ Minores Græci, Cambridge, 1684.--=Witt=, C., The Retreat of the Ten Thousand, London, 1891; The Trojan War, London, 1884.--=Wolf=, F. A., Prolegomena ad Homerum, Halle, 1795.--=Wordsworth=, C., Athens and Attica, London, 1836.--=Wyse=, T., Impressions of Greece, London, 1871.

* * * * *

=Xanthus=, Λυδιακὰ Βιβλία δ’, Lydiaca (in C. Müller’s Fragmenta Historicorum Græcorum, pp. xx-xxiii, 36-44).--=Xenophon=, Κύρου Ἀναβάσις, ed. by Krüger, Leipsic, 1888, 7th ed.; Anabasis of Cyrus, London, 1881; Ἀπομνημονεύματα Σωκράτους, ed. by Kühner, Leipsic, 1882, 4th ed.; Memorabilia, edited by J. R. King, Oxford, 1874; Ἑλληνικά, The Hellenics, London, 1855.

* * * * *

=Zeller=, E., History of Greek Philosophy, London, 1881.

BORMAY & CO.]