Chapter XLIV: Book II: The Papacy

_INTRODUCTION_

HISTORY IN OUTLINE OF THE PAPACY

THE BISHOPS OF ROME [42-590 A.D.]

The early history of the Papacy is involved in much obscurity.
For the early centuries we shall attempt little more than
to repeat the names of the successive bishops, as accepted
by the traditions of the church of Rome. According to these
traditions, the Apostle =Peter= founded the Church in the
year 42 (modern criticism does not accept this date, which is
almost surely too early by about a score of years); he was
martyred in 67, and succeeded by =Linus=, who was followed in
79 by =Cletus= or =Anacletus=. 91, =Clement I= or =Clemens
Romanus=. Some writers make him the third bishop in 68 A.D.
100, =Evarestus=.

109 =Alexander I.= The political life of Rome extinguished
by the empire, begins to revive in the organisation of the
Christian church. 119, =Sixtus I=. 129, =Telesphorus=. 139,
=Hyginus=. 143, =Pius I=. 157, =Anicetus=. 168, =Soter=. 177,
=Eleutherius=. 193, =Victor I=. The bishop of Rome is beginning
to assume supremacy over other bishops. This is resented in
some quarters.

202 =Zephyrinus.= 219, =Calixtus I=. 223, =Urban I=.
230, =Pontianus=. 235, =Anterius=. 236, =Fabianus=. 251,
=Cornelius=. 252, =Lucius I=. 253, =Stephen I=. 257, =Sixtus
II=. 259, =Dionysius=. 269, =Felix I=. 275, =Eutychianus=. 283,
=Caius=. 296, =Marcellinus=.

308 =Marcellus I.= 310, =Eusebius=. 311, =Melchiades=. 314,
=Silvester I=. 325, The authority of the metropolitan is
distinctly recognised. The idea has been developing since the
primacy of Fabianus and Cornelius. 330, Removal of the capital
from Rome to Constantinople. This increases greatly the power
of the Roman bishop, who henceforth announces his supremacy in
more decided tones. 336, =Marcus I=. 337, =Julius I=. He is the
recognised protector of the orthodox faith against Arianism and
other heresies. The church begins to organise landed properties
by bequests from emperors and nobles.

352 =Liberius.= 356, First instance of schism in the church of
Rome. _Felix_ maintains a rival claim to the primacy.

366 =Damasus I= elected to the see, after a bitter and
violent contest, over his rival, Ursinus. Damasus represents
the cause of orthodoxy. 384, =Siricius=. In his primacy the
decretals--pastoral letters--are begun.

398 =Anastasius I.= The papacy has emerged from obscurity.
Paganism is in its death throes.

402 =Innocent I.= He does much to free the church from
political interference. 417, =Zosimus=. He attempts to
temporise with paganism.

418 =Boniface I.= His election is contested. _Eulalius_
maintains a rival claim. The emperor Honorius intervenes, and
the provisions for election are revised. This is the first
instance of imperial interference.

422 =Celestine I.= 432, =Sixtus III=. 440, =Leo (I) the
Great=, sometimes called the real founder of the papacy. The
precedence of the bishops of Rome is now fully recognised. 461,
=Hilarius=. 468, =Simplicius=. 476, The fall of the Western
Empire increases the bishops’ authority. 483, =Felix II= (or
=III=, if the rival bishop in 356 is reckoned as Felix II).
He feels himself powerful enough to summon the patriarch of
Constantinople to Rome, and excommunicates him on his refusal
to obey. 492, =Gelasius I=. He enunciates the principle
that his acts are not to be controlled by synods. 496,
=Anastasius II=. 498, =Symmachus=. The election is contested by
_Laurentius_, who maintains a rival claim. The Palmary synod
disavows its own right to sit in judgment on the acts of the
Roman bishop.

514 =Hormisdas.= 523, =John I=. Theodoric sends John to
Constantinople to obtain indulgence for the Arians. Not
entirely successful, Theodoric imprisons the bishop on his
return (525), and he dies the following year. 526, =Felix III=
or =IV=. Dionysius Exiguus collects and publishes the canons
of the councils and the papal decretals. 530, =Boniface II=.
His election contested by _Dioscorus_ until the latter’s death,
the same year. Boniface obtains the power of appointing his own
successor, but a second synod annuls it.

532 =John II.= 535, =Agapetus I=. Theodotus sends him to
Constantinople in his behalf. 536, Belisarius enters Rome;
the pope becomes the vassal of the emperor. =Silverius.= 537,
Through the intrigues of the empress Theodora and the deacon
Vigilius, Silverius is deposed and banished to the island of
Pandataria. =Vigilius= becomes bishop of Rome. The bishops now
become mere puppets of the Eastern court.

552 Vigilius, resisting the will of Justinian, is imprisoned.

553 Vigilius again seized, and sent to exile.

554 =Pelagius I.= 560, =John III=. 574, =Benedict I=. 578,
=Pelagius II=.

FROM GREGORY THE GREAT TO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PAPACY AS A LEGISLATIVE POWER [590-867 A.D.]

590 =Gregory (I) the Great= elected pope. He raises the papacy
to eminence and determines its future policy. Gregory’s work is
of threefold character. (1) He perfects the church ritual and
introduces a new mode of chanting, and organises the revenues
of the church. (2) He exercises supreme authority over the
churches of western Europe. The Lombards are converted from
Arianism, 599, and Britain is converted by St. Augustine.
(3) He makes the pope a temporal sovereign. By this time the
bishop of Rome has become the largest landholder in Italy. The
Lombard invasion has given the bishops opportunity for temporal
control, and in Rome and its vicinity the people recognise
Gregory at the head of affairs.

604 =Sabinianus.=

607 =Boniface III.= The emperor Phocas bestows title
of universal bishop on Boniface, but the patriarch of
Constantinople resumes it on Phocas’ death.

608 =Boniface IV.= He converts the Roman Pantheon into a
Christian church.

615 =Deusdedit.=

618 =Boniface V.=

625 =Honorius I.= The monothelitic controversy begins.

638 =Severinus.= He is not confirmed until 640.

640 =John IV.= The monothelite doctrine condemned.

642 =Theodore I.=

649 =Martin I.= The whole West repudiates monothelitism. Martin
condemns the Type of Constans II.

653 Martin seized by the exarch and carried to Constantinople,
by order of Constans.

654 =Eugenius I= elected in place of the absent Martin.

655 Martin banished to Cherson, where he soon dies.

657 =Vitalianus.=

672 =Adeodatus.=

676 =Domnus= or =Donus I=.

678 =Agatho.= Time of Wilfrid’s preaching in Britain and Gaul.

680 The Sixth Œcumenic Council at Constantinople settles the
monothelitic question.

682 =Leo II.= 683, =Benedict II=. 685, =John V=. 686, =Conon=.

687 =Sergius I.= _Paschal_ and _Theodore_ are supported as
anti-popes by different factions. The exarch finally recognises
Sergius.

701 =John VI.= He saves the life of the exarch in a rising of
the army. He drives the invading duke of Benevento back to his
own territory.

705 =John VII.= The emperor Justinian II tries to force certain
decrees objectionable in the West upon the church of Rome.

708 =Sisinnius= lives but twenty days after election.
=Constantine.= Justinian perseveres in his aim to reduce the
West to obedience.

710 Constantine goes to Constantinople at order of Justinian,
who remains content with this act of submission.

715 =Gregory II.= Time of Bede’s teaching.

725 Boniface establishes the German church.

726 The emperor Leo issues edict against image-worship. Italy
rebels.

728 Rebellion of Ravenna over the iconoclastic edict.
Liutprand, the Lombard king, captures the city. The papacy
begins to free itself from the Eastern Empire. The popes are
unwilling to submit themselves to the Lombards. Gregory appeals
to Charles Martel for aid against the Lombards.

731 =Gregory III.= He defies Leo in the matter of image-worship.

739 War with the Lombards. Appeal of Gregory to the Franks for
help against them.

741 =Zacharias.= He is the first pope to be elected without
obtaining the customary consent of the exarch. The papacy is
now free of the empire. It has become practically a political
dukedom.

742 Zacharias visits Liutprand and obtains treaty of peace.
Many possessions of the church restored by the Lombards.

749 The Lombards renew attacks on the pope.

751 Zacharias sanctions the transfer of the French crown to the
Carlovingian line.

752 =Stephen II= dies before his consecration. Usually not
reckoned in list of popes. =Stephen II= or =III=.

755 Pepin of France forces Aistulf, the Lombard king, to
relinquish all territory taken from the exarch and the pope.
Ravenna, Pentapolis, and other territory turned over to the
pope. “The Donation of Pepin.” The foundations of the papal
states are laid. Pepin bestows title of Patrician of Rome on
the king of the Franks.

757 =Paul I.= The Lombards do not encroach upon the papacy.

767 On death of Paul, Toto, duke of Nepi, compels a bishop
to ordain one of his brothers, _Constantine_, a layman. He
discharges all the offices of pontiff for a year, when

768 Desiderius, the Lombard king, sends a band to rescue Rome.
Constantine is seized. Election of =Stephen III= or =IV=.
All of Constantine’s acts are declared null and void. Cruel
treatment of Constantine.

772 =Adrian I.= Troubles with the Lombards are renewed. Adrian
appeals to Charlemagne.

774 Charlemagne captures Desiderius in Pavia, and assumes
title of king of the Lombards. End of the Lombard kingdom.
Charlemagne gives a large amount of territory to the pope.
“Donation of Charlemagne.” Adrian takes possession of the
exarchate, with all power and privileges of a temporal prince.

780 The pope summons Charlemagne to protect him against a
coalition of his Byzantine enemies. Peace is purchased.

786 Charlemagne reduces Arichis of Benevento to subjection. The
pope’s dominions extend to Calabria.

795 =Leo III.= He recognises the supremacy of Charlemagne.

799 Assault, attempted mutilation, and imprisonment of Leo
by an armed band headed by his nephews. Leo escapes to
Charlemagne, but returns to Rome.

800 Charlemagne goes to Rome to inquire into charges against
Leo. Leo crowns him emperor. Foundation of the empire of
Charlemagne. The pope and emperor begin the upbuilding of the
fabric of the Middle Ages. The pope is subordinate to the
emperor.

816 =Stephen IV.= He is unpopular, and makes the Romans swear
fealty to the emperor. Is compelled to take refuge with Louis
le Débonnaire. Returns to Rome, and dies.

817 =Paschal I.= Assumes pontificate without imperial sanction.
The Romans, admonished by the emperor, agree not to allow this
again.

824 =Eugenius II.=

827 =Valentinus= dies in five weeks. =Gregory IV.= He mediates
between Louis le Débonnaire and his sons. His pontificate
is uneventful, but materially advances pretensions of the
hierarchy.

844 =Sergius II= consecrated without consent of the emperor
Lothair. Lothair sends his son, Louis, with an army to Rome,
but his meeting with the pope is amicable. Louis II made king
of Lombardy.

847 =Leo IV.= The Saracens invade Italy as far as the gates of
Rome. Driven off by Louis. Leo fortifies a portion of Rome,
henceforth known as the Leonine city, including the Vatican and
church of St. Peter.

850 The “False Decretals” come to light.

855 =Benedict III.= His election contested by _Anastasius_,
who, at head of armed faction, seizes the Lateran. The imperial
legates decide in favour of Benedict, and Anastasius is
expelled. Beginning of the strife between Photius and Ignatius
for the see of Constantinople, which ends in the permanent
schism between the eastern and western churches.

858 =Nicholas I.= Under him the papacy makes a signal advance
in power. He interferes in the quarrel over the patriarchate
of Constantinople, espousing the cause of Ignatius, and
pronouncing sentence of deposition upon Photius. He adopts and
declares authentic the “False Decretals,” thus establishing the
principle of the sole legislative power of the pope.

861-864 Humiliation of the archbishops of Cologne, Trèves, and
Ravenna. The act of archbishop Hincmar of Rheims in deposing
Rothrad, bishop of Soissons, is reversed by Nicholas, on
authority of the “False Decretals.”

863 Nicholas forbids Lothair II to divorce his wife.

FROM THE DEATH OF NICHOLAS I TO THE BEGINNING OF THE ERA OF PRACTICAL REFORM [867-1046 A.D.]

867 =Adrian II.=

868 On death of Lothair II of Lorraine, Adrian attempts to
bestow that crown on the emperor Louis II. This extension of
the papal prerogatives is not welcome to the German bishops,
and they rebuke Adrian.

870 Hincmar renews his struggle with the pope, and the whole
Frankish church arrays itself against the power of the pope in
dealing directly with bishops.

872 =John VIII.= During his pontificate, Rome is constantly in
danger from the Saracens.

875 John bestows the imperial crown on Charles the Bald, not as
his right, but as a gift. Victory over Hincmar and the Frankish
church by the appointment of Ansegis as primate of France.

876 Beginning of quarrel with Formosus, bishop of Porto.

877 In league with Athanasius, duke-bishop of Naples, the
Saracens reach the walls of Rome. Charles the Bald ignores
John’s appeals for help. The pope compelled to pay the Saracens
tribute.

878 Lambert, duke of Spoleto, in the interest of the imperial
claimant, Carloman, enters Rome, seizes John, and imprisons
him. John escapes, and flees to Provence. He returns to Rome.

881 John crowns Charles the Fat emperor.

882 Death of John, possibly murdered. =Martin II.=

884 =Adrian III.=

885 =Stephen V.=

887 On deposition of Charles the Fat the Carlovingian empire
comes to an end.

891 =Formosus= elected by influence of Guido of Spoleto. The
papacy enters a period of anarchy. The popes are elevated
by whichever rival party is in the ascendant, “obtaining,”
says Reichel, “their pontificate by crime, and vacating it by
murder.”

896 =Boniface VII= dies in a few days. The Italian party elects
=Stephen VI=. He mutilates the dead body of Formosus.

897 Stephen imprisoned and strangled. =Romanus= occupies the
see a few months. =Theodore II=, who belongs to the faction of
Formosus.

898 =John IX=, though of Formosus’ party, submits to the
emperor Lambert. The right of plundering the pope’s palace, on
his decease, is prohibited.

900 =Benedict IV.=

901 He crowns Louis of Provence, the rival of Berengar.

903 =Leo V.= In a few months he is imprisoned by =Christopher=,
one of his chaplains, who secures his own election.

904 Christopher driven from Rome by the soldiers of Berengar.
Election of =Sergius III=. The infamous Theodora and her
daughters, Marozia and Theodora, have complete influence over
Sergius. They further the aims of Berengar’s party. Complete
degradation of the papacy.

911 =Anastasius III.=

913 =Lando.=

914 =John X=, archbishop of Ravenna, is elected through
influence of Theodora, whose paramour he is. He proves an able
pontiff, and forms a league among the Italian dukes to resist
the Saracens, and, in furtherance of this project,

916 crowns Berengar emperor; then, for the first time in the
history of the papacy, the pope goes forth to battle, defeats
the Saracens, and destroys the fortress of Garigliano.

925 John expels the marquis Alberic, lover or husband of
Marozia. Marozia’s power increases. She seizes the castle of
St. Angelo. On death of Alberic she marries Duke Guido of
Tuscany.

926 Treaty between Hugo of Provence and John.

928 John imprisoned by Marozia’s party, and dies, probably by
violence. =Leo VI.=

929 =Stephen VII.=

931 =John XI=, son of Marozia and Sergius III or Alberic,
elected through his mother’s influence. Guido is dead, and
Marozia marries Hugo of Provence.

932 Rome rebels at this. Alberic, brother of the pope, casts
him and Marozia into prison, and makes himself master of Rome.
Alberic marries the daughter of Hugo.

936 Death of John in prison. He has exercised his spiritual
functions, but the government of Rome has been conducted by
Alberic. =Leo VII.=

939 =Stephen VIII.=

941 =Martin III.=

946 =Agapetus II.= These four are appointed by the sole will of
Alberic--they have no power.

953 Death of Alberic, leaving his authority to his son,
Octavian.

955 On death of Agapetus, Octavian is elected pope. He takes
the name of =John XII=, the first to take an ecclesiastical
name.

961 John, threatened by Berengar II, appeals to King Otto I of
Germany, who comes at once to Germany and is crowned king at
Pavia.

962 John crowns Otto emperor at Rome. Pope and Roman people
take oath of allegiance to Otto. Otto returns to Pavia, and
learns that John, fearing his mastery, has entered into
correspondence with the deposed Italian king, Adalbert. He
sends officers to investigate this, and they return with a long
list of crimes charged against John by the Roman people.

963 Adalbert returns to Rome. Otto marches thither. The pope
and Adalbert flee. Trial and deposition of the pope by Otto.
=Leo VIII=, the chief secretary of the Roman see, is elected.

964 Otto leaves Rome. A rebellion forces Leo to flee, and
the gates are opened to John, who reassumes his office. The
people embrace his cause. Death of John, probably at the hands
of an injured husband. Disregarding the emperor and Leo, the
people elect a new pope, _Benedict V_. Otto proceeds against
the anti-pope, who submits and is degraded. Leo, in council,
recognises right of Otto and his successors in the kingdom of
Italy to elect his own successors to the empire.

965 =John XIII= (bishop of Narni). On account of his
haughtiness the Romans expel him. The prefect Rotfred assumes
government of Rome.

966 Otto comes to Rome on appeal of John. Rotfred killed; John
restored. Otto treats the Romans barbarously. Overawed by Otto,
the Romans let John reign in peace.

972 The see vacant for three months, on death of John, while
Otto is consulted. =Benedict VI= elected.

974 Bonifazio Francone, at the instigation of the Tuscan party,
imprisons Benedict, strangles him, and assumes the papacy as
_Boniface VII_. This anti-pope compelled to flee in a month
to Constantinople. He carries off all the treasure from St.
Peter’s. Election of =Benedict VII=, who excommunicates
Boniface and, under protection of Otto II, rules in peace.

983 =John XIV.= Death of Otto in Rome.

984 Boniface suddenly reappears, imprisons John (who dies
by starvation or poison), and seats himself in the papal
chair. Re-establishment of the Roman Republic with the consul
Crescentius at its head.

985 Sudden death of Boniface. =John XV.= Crescentius compels
him to leave Rome, and he appeals to Otto III.

987 John is permitted to return. He now rules, but in
subjection to the consul and senate.

996 On death of John, Otto brings about election of his
kinsman, =Gregory V= (Bruno, duke of Carinthia). He crowns
Otto emperor. Crescentius condemned to exile, but pardoned at
intercession of Gregory, to whom he takes oath of fidelity.
Crescentius compels Gregory to flee, and puts _John XVI_
(Philagathus) in the papal chair.

998 Otto, as soon as possible, comes to Italy. John escapes,
but is brought back and horribly punished. Crescentius
surrenders, and is put to death. Gregory restored.

999 Death of Gregory, perhaps by poison. =Silvester II=
(Gerbert). Otto and Gregory plan together to restore the empire
to its grandeur in the Augustan Age--the emperor to have
boundless temporal, and the pope boundless spiritual, power.

1001 The Roman nobles revolt at this idea, but are quickly
brought to terms.

1002 Death of Otto, probably by poison administered by
Stephania, widow of Crescentius.

1003 Death of Gregory, perhaps due also to poisoning by
Stephania. The plans to rescue the papacy from the patricians
and populace of Rome have thus failed. =John XVII= (Sicco)
occupies the see six months. =John XVIII= (Fanasus).

1009 =Sergius IV.= Rome is again a republic, with the patrician
John, son of Crescentius, at its head. The Tuscan party is in
the ascendency.

1012 =Benedict VIII= elected by the Tusculan party, to which
the house of Crescentius has yielded the power. An anti-pope,
_Gregory_, is set up by the party of Crescentius. Benedict has
to flee, but soon returns to Rome, protected by the emperor
Henry II.

1014 Benedict administers a defeat to the Saracens near Pisa.

1021 Benedict assists Henry II in his war against the
Byzantines in southern Italy.

1024 On Benedict’s death the Tusculan party elevates his
brother, =John XIX=, a layman, to the papal chair.

1033 On John’s death the power of the Tusculan house secures
the pontificate for his young nephew, =Benedict IX=.

1042 The “Truce of God” sanctioned.

1044 Benedict, after leading a vicious and depraved life, is
driven from Rome by the people. They then elect _Silvester
III_, but Benedict returns in triumph, and the anti-pope flees.

1045 Benedict sells the pontificate to _Gregory VI_ (Johannes
Gratianus) of the house of Tusculum, a man of learning and
unimpeachable chastity, who endeavours to institute reforms.

1046 The scandal of Benedict’s act leads to Henry III
assembling the Council of Sutri, which deposes the three
popes and elects Suidgar bishop of Bamberg, =Clement II=, to
the papal chair. The council gives the emperor the right of
nominating future popes, which displeases the Roman clergy and
people.

THE AGE OF GREATNESS [1046-1305 A.D.]

A new era is inaugurated for the papacy. The power of the popes
begins to overshadow that of the emperors.

1047 Clement summons a council to condemn the all-pervading
vice of simony. Death of Clement. Benedict IX seizes the throne
and holds it for nine months.

1048 Poppo, bishop of Brixen, =Damasus II=, appointed pope by
the emperor. Benedict flees on his appearance. Damasus dies
in less than a month. Hildebrand voices the objections of the
Roman clergy as to the power of the emperor to appoint the
popes. Bruno, bishop of Toul, =Leo IX=, is the imperial choice
for the next pope.

1049 With the assistance of Hildebrand, Leo plans many reforms,
including prohibition of marriage to the clergy, simony, etc.
The synods of Rome, Rheims, and Mainz enact reformatory canons.
Leo forms the college of cardinals.

1049-1051 Leo visits France and Germany.

1052 Third visit of Leo to Germany to mediate between Henry III
and Andrew of Hungary.

1053 Campaign of Leo against the Normans. Capture of Leo at
Civitella. Treaty of Hildebrand with Berengar of Tours.

1054 Leo returns to Rome and dies. Hildebrand goes to the
emperor as plenipotentiary of the Roman clergy and people.

1055 Gebhard of Eichstadt, =Victor II=, Hildebrand’s candidate,
made pope. He carries on Leo’s work of reform.

1056 Death of Henry III, leaving infant son, furthers plan of
Hildebrand.

1057 The Romans reassert their right to create popes on death
of Victor. Cardinal Frederick of Lorraine, =Stephen IX=, made
pope.

1058 Stephen dies. Ignoring the empress Agnes, the Roman party
makes Giovanni di Velletri, =Benedict X=, pope, getting the
most lavish grants from him. The empress empowers Hildebrand to
proceed with new election.

1059 Gerard, archbishop of Florence, =Nicholas II=, is elected
and Benedict declared deposed. Hildebrand determines to deal a
blow at the imperial prerogative. Second Lateran Council. The
election of pope is vested solely with the cardinal-bishops.
Simony and clerical marriage forbidden.

1061 Election of Anselmo Baggio, =Alexander II=, without
consent of emperor, inaugurates the great struggle between pope
and emperor. The imperial party calls a council at Bâle and
elects Pietro Cadolaus _Honorius II_. He advances to Rome.

1063 The anti-pope driven by the Normans into the castle of St.
Angelo, where he holds his position until

1064 when the fall of Adalbert crushes his last hopes.
The schism is healed by Hanno, and Alexander universally
acknowledged pope. Resistance to the decrees of celibacy is
strong.

1073 Hildebrand, =Gregory VII=. His election is confirmed by
the emperor. His main objects are the enforcement of celibacy
among the clergy and the prohibition of investiture by the
laity which is the great cause of simony. He demands that Henry
IV shall acquiesce in all the newly assumed prerogatives of the
papacy.

1075 Lay investiture prohibited. Breach between pope and Henry
IV.

1076 Henry calls diet at Worms and declares pope deposed.
Gregory excommunicates Henry, who is suspended from his royal
office by Diet of Tribur.

1077 Henry humbles himself before the pope at Canossa. Gregory
establishes the principle of the papal power to judge kings.

1080 Second excommunication of Henry. His adherents call a
council and declare Gregory deposed. Election of Guibert,
archbishop of Ravenna, _Clement III_, as anti-pope.

1084 Henry finally takes Rome. Gregory shuts himself in the
castle of St. Angelo. Clement crowns Henry emperor. The Normans
take Rome. Robert Guiscard releases Gregory, who goes to
Salerno and dies the following year. Clement III rules at Rome.

1086 The cardinals elect Desiderius, abbot of Monte Cassino,
=Victor III=, pope. He lives mostly at Monte Cassino.

1087 Death of Victor.

1088 Five months after Victor’s death Eudes, bishop of Ostia,
=Urban II=, is elected pope. He resides at Monte Cassino.

1094 Urban in Rome. Clement holds only the Vatican, St. Angelo,
and the Lateran.

1095 Urban preaches the First Crusade in France. Council of
Clermont.

1099 =Paschal II.= He expels Clement III from Rome, who dies
the following year.

1100 On Clement’s death, _Theodore_, anti-pope, is elected by
the imperial party. He falls into Paschal’s hands and condemned
to be a hermit.

1102 _Albert_ anti-pope--he is thrust into a monastery.

1105 _Silvester IV_, anti-pope. He is eventually deposed by the
emperor himself.

1106 On death of Henry IV, the question of investiture is
renewed with Henry V.

1110 Henry V makes a warlike descent on Italy. Treaty of Sutri,
compromising rights of the church.

1111 Paschal refuses to crown Henry, who imprisons both pope
and cardinals. Paschal compelled to bestow the crown on Henry.

1115 Death of the countess Matilda, leaving her possessions to
the pope. Henry threatens another visit to Rome.

1116 Excommunication of Henry in the Lateran Council. Henry
advances on Rome. The pope retreats to Benevento.

1118 Paschal returns to Rome. He dies. The cardinals elect
Giovanni da Gaeta, =Gelasius II=. He is at once seized by
Cencius Frangipani. The Transteverines compel his surrender.
Henry V arrives in Rome. The pope flees to Gaeta, where he
is consecrated. Henry, with the assent of the people, makes
Maurice Bourdin, _Gregory VIII_, anti-pope. On Henry’s
departure, Gelasius returns to Rome, but, again attacked,
leaves Rome for France.

1119 Death of Gelasius at Lyons. Election of Guido, archbishop
of Vienne, =Calixtus II=. He excommunicates Henry and the
anti-pope, and sets out for Rome.

1120 Calixtus captures Gregory and submits him to great
degradation.

1121 Death of Gregory in prison. _Celestine II_ anti-pope.

1122 The Concordat of Worms settles the question of
investiture. The emperor cedes the right of investiture by
ring and staff. The pope allows the election of bishops and
abbots according to canonical procedure in the presence of the
emperor, but without bribery or compulsion.

1124 Lambert di Fagnano, =Honorius II=, elected through the
Frangipani influence. He rules in peace with Germany, but heads
the papal forces in the south of Italy.

1130 At death of Honorius, a portion of the cardinals elect
Gregorio de’ Papi, =Innocent II=. The remainder choose Peter
Leonis, _Anacletus II_, who gains the support of Roger of
Sicily. Innocent wins over Bernard of Clairvaux, and, through
him, Lothair II.

1132 Lothair goes to Italy against Anacletus and Roger.

1133 Coronation of Lothair by Innocent, who gives him the
allodial possessions of the countess Matilda as a fief.

1138 Death of Anacletus settles the disputed election. Gregorio
Conti, _Victor IV_, the new anti-pope, holds out for two
months. All Rome acknowledges Innocent.

1139 Great Lateran Council. It condemns Arnold of Brescia.
The pope asserts his unlimited power over the episcopal
order. Innocent goes to war with Roger of Sicily and is taken
prisoner. He is released on recognising Roger’s title and
kingdom.

1143 Guido di Castello, =Celestine II=.

1144 =Lucius II.= The Roman people carry out the plans of
Arnold of Brescia, institute a republic, and accept only the
spiritual authority of the pope. Lucius appeals to the emperor,
Conrad, in vain.

1145 Death of Lucius while storming the Capitol. The abbot,
Bernard, of Pisa, =Eugenius III=, succeeds. He recovers Rome
from Arnold of Brescia. The republic capitulates.

1146 Arnold regains Rome. Eugenius flees to France. He becomes
the satellite of Bernard of Clairvaux. Council of Vézelay
promotes Second Crusade.

1153 Conrad, bishop of Sabina, =Anastasius IV=.

1154 Nicholas Breakspear, =Adrian IV=.

1155 Rome put under religious interdiction. The clergy and
people compel the senate to yield. Banishment and execution of
Arnold of Brescia. Coronation of Frederick Barbarossa.

1156 Frederick retires to Germany. Alliance of Adrian with
Sicily.

1157 Quarrel of Frederick and Adrian.

1158 Frederick goes to Italy to settle quarrel.

1159 Frederick threatened with excommunication. Adrian dies.
The election divided: Rolando Ranuci, =Alexander III=, and
Octavian, cardinal of St. Cecilia, _Victor IV_.

1160 Frederick summons Council of Pavia to decide claim of the
two popes. On account of Alexander’s haughty attitude Frederick
recognises Victor.

1162 After many struggles with Victor, Alexander takes refuge
in France.

1164 Death of Victor. Guido of Crema, _Paschal III_, chosen by
a small faction to succeed as anti-pope. He does not dare enter
Rome.

1165 Alexander returns to Rome where the senate receives him.

1167 Frederick takes Rome and installs Paschal. His second
coronation by Paschal.

1168 The cause of Paschal much weakened by departure of
Frederick. Death of Paschal. John, bishop of Tusculum,
_Calixtus III_ succeeds as anti-pope. His power grows weaker.

1176 Frederick makes armistice with pope and Lombards after
defeat at Legnano.

1177 Reconciliation of Frederick and Alexander at Venice.

1178 Calixtus abdicates his title. End of the schism.

1181 Ubaldo Allucingoli, =Lucius III=.

1182 Rebellion in Rome drives Lucius out.

1185 Humbert Crivelli, =Urban III=. He lives chiefly at Verona.
He quarrels with Frederick over several matters.

1187 Death of Urban as he is about to excommunicate Frederick.
Albert, cardinal of San Lorenzo, =Gregory VIII=. He preaches a
crusade. He goes to Pisa to settle quarrel between Genoa and
Pisa and dies. Paolo Scolari, =Clement III=.

1188 Clement makes peace with the Roman people.

1191 Giacinto Orsini, =Celestine III=. Surrender of Tusculum to
the Romans.

1194 The pope excommunicates Henry VI for his cruelty to the
Sicilians.

1198 Lothario Conti, =Innocent III=. His pontificate marks
the culmination of the papal power. Innocent preaches the
Fifth Crusade. He compels the prefect of Rome to swear
allegiance to him, thus practically establishing the temporal
sovereignty of the pope over Rome. He orders the seneschal
Markwald of Anweiler to surrender the march of Ancona. Death of
Constanza. Markwald lays claim to the administration of Sicily.
Association of Guelfs with papal party.

1199 Conrad of Lutzenberg, count of Spoleto, is forced to
return to Germany. The Italian cities welcome Innocent as a
deliverer.

1201 Decision in favour of Otto IV, of Germany. Defeat of
Markwald by Walter de Brienne and the papal army. Innocent
compels Philip Augustus to take back his divorced wife.

1202 Alfonso IX refuses to annul his marriage to his cousin.
Papal interdict in the kingdom of Leon. Innocent protests
against the crusaders’ expedition against Zara.

1204 Innocent sends legate to crown Joannice king of Bulgaria.
Dominic begins to preach in Languedoc.

1208 Resistance of King John of England to the consecration
of Stephen Langton as archbishop of Canterbury. Interdiction
placed on England.

1209 Otto abandons the lands of the countess Matilda and
other territories in Italy to the pope. Innocent crowns him.
Excommunication of King John. Crusade against the Albigenses is
begun.

1210 Excommunication of Otto who has not given up all the
territories he promised. Foundation of the Franciscan order.

1212 Innocent makes Frederick II king of Germany. He deposes
King John and offers crown of England to Philip Augustus.

1213 John submits to the pope.

1215 Innocent attempts to annul Magna Charta. Fourth Lateran
Council. Transubstantiation a doctrine. Auricular confession
enforced. Coronation of Frederick II as king of Germany, who
promises to undertake a crusade.

1216 Confirmation of the Dominican order. Death of Innocent.
Cencio Savelli, =Honorius III=, elected.

1217 Honorius obliges Andrew of Hungary to undertake a crusade.

1220 Coronation of Frederick as emperor. He renews promises to
go to the Holy Land.

1223 Congress at Ferentino. Frederick pledges himself to start
within two years.

1225 Frederick obtains another delay. On account of trouble
with the senate Honorius goes to Tivoli.

1227 Ugolino Conti, =Gregory IX=. He excommunicates Frederick,
who makes an unsuccessful attempt to start for the Holy Land.
Ezzelino da Romano drives the Guelfs out of Verona and Vicenza.

1228 Second excommunication of Frederick for starting without
absolution. The pope sends his army into Apulia.

1229 The papal army ravages Apulia but Frederick hastens back
from Syria to recover his territory. He is excommunicated
a third time. Close of the Albigensian Crusade. Council of
Toulouse forbids reading of Scripture by laymen and adopts
severe measures for the suppression of heresy.

1230 The pope and Frederick are reconciled. Great flood in Rome.

1231 Negotiations are opened for the union of the Greek and
Latin churches.

1232 Tribunals of the Inquisition established in southern
France.

1233 The Germans put to death the first inquisitor.

1234 Rising in Rome drives Gregory from the city.

1238 League of Venice, Genoa, and the pope against Frederick,
on account of his growing power and successes in Lombardy.

1239 Excommunication of Frederick and charges preferred against
him.

1240 Gregory proclaims a crusade against Frederick, who invades
the papal territory.

1241 Frederick’s fleets capture twenty-two Genoese galleys,
containing many ecclesiastics on their way to a council
at Rome. They are imprisoned. Death of Gregory. Goffredo
Castiglione, =Celestine IV=, elected. He dies in eighteen days.
The see is vacant.

1243 Frederick releases some of the imprisoned ecclesiastics
that an election may take place. Senibaldi di Fieschi,
=Innocent IV=, is chosen. Peace negotiations fail.

1244 Innocent escapes to Lyons.

1245 Innocent calls the Thirteenth General Council at Lyons.
Frederick is excommunicated and deposed.

1246 Louis IX fails in an attempt to reconcile Innocent and
Frederick. Innocent demands large sums from England, France,
and Italy, to prosecute his struggle with Frederick, and this
causes great discontent in those countries.

1247 Frederick besieges the papal forces in Parma.

1248 Frederick raises the siege.

1250 Death of Frederick.

1251 Return of Innocent to Italy. He goes to Perugia to reside.
Excommunication of Conrad. The pope incites Sicily and Apulia
to rebellion. Manfred puts the rebels down.

1252 Conrad IV and Manfred attack Naples, and capture Capua.

1253 Surrender of Naples to Conrad.

1254 The pope bestows the crown of Sicily on Prince Edmund
of England. Death of Innocent, at Naples, on an expedition
against Manfred. Rinaldo di Segni, =Alexander IV=. Rise of the
Flagellants.

1255 The people of Messina expel the papal governor. The papal
legate makes treaty with Manfred, but Alexander will not
ratify it, claiming that Edmund is king of Sicily. The English
parliament will not grant Edmund the money to take the throne.

1256 Manfred makes himself supreme in Sicily in the name of
Conradin. Imprisonment of the senator Brancaleone, who is
released by the people (1258). Establishment of the Augustine
order of mendicant friars.

1257 Interdiction of Portugal on account of divorce of Alfonso
III.

1258 Battle of Corticella. Ezzelino da Romano defeats the
pope’s army, and captures Brescia.

1259 Excommunication of Manfred, who has been crowned the
previous year. The pope decides the question of emperorship in
favour of Richard of Cornwall. Fall of the Ghibelline champion,
Ezzelino da Romano.

1260 The Ghibellines regain Florence. Execution of Alberic da
Romano.

1261 Death of Alexander in exile. Jacques Pantaléon, patriarch
of Jerusalem, =Urban IV=.

1262 Urban, to resist Conradin, offers crown of Sicily to
Charles of Anjou. The Ghibellines in Tuscany acknowledge
Manfred.

1263 Milan refuses to accept Otto Visconti as archbishop of the
city.

1264 Charles of Anjou appointed senator of Rome. Death of Urban.

1265 Guy Foulques, =Clement IV=. Coronation of Charles of Anjou
as king of Sicily.

1269 Death of Clement. The see is vacant for over two years,
owing to discord among the cardinals.

1271 Teobaldo di Visconti, =Gregory X=. Rudolf of Habsburg
acknowledges papal supremacy.

1273 Gregory excommunicates the inhabitants of many north
Italian cities for banding against Charles of Anjou.

1274 Fourteenth General Council at Lyons. A new crusade is
preached, and a union of the Greek and Latin churches is
effected. The union is never fully accepted in the Eastern
Empire, and soon falls to pieces.

1276 Death of Gregory. Pietro di Tarantasia, =Innocent V=, dies
in five months. Ottoboni Fiesco, =Adrian V=, dies in six weeks.
Pedro Juliani, =John XX= or =XXI=.

1277 Giovani Gaetano, =Nicholas III=, “=Il Comperto=.” He
belongs to the Orsini family.

1278 Cession of Romagna, the exarchate of Ravenna, and other
territory, by Rudolf of Habsburg, to the pope, who acts as
ruling sovereign over all his dominions. Nicholas is hostile to
Charles. Nepotism practised by Nicholas.

1280 Death of Nicholas in the midst of plans to establish his
family in kingdoms in Italy. Discord caused by Charles in the
College of Cardinals.

1281 Simon de Brion, =Martin IV=, elected after six months,
through influence of Charles. The pope retires to Orvieto.

1282 Martin excommunicates Pedro of Aragon, who has been
declared king of Sicily after the “Sicilian Vespers.”

1283 The pope offers crown of Aragon to Charles of Valois.

1285 Death of Charles quiets the affairs of Sicily. Giacomo
Savelli, =Honorius IV=.

1287 Honorius prevents ratification of treaty between Aragon
and France. Death of Honorius, and owing to disputes, the
cardinals fail for ten months to elect a new pope.

1288 Girolamo d’Ascoli, =Nicholas IV=.

1289 After liberation of Charles the Lame of Naples, the pope
absolves him from all conditions, by which he obtains his
freedom. The Guelf and Ghibelline contest continues fiercely in
the north. Nicholas becomes enslaved to the Colonnas.

1292 Death of Nicholas. The see vacant for over two years.

1294 Election of Pietro di Murrhone, =Celestine V=, a lowly
hermit. The cardinals repent, and compel him to abdicate.
Benedict Cajetan, =Boniface VIII=, elected. He carries the
papal pretensions further than any other pope, and prepares the
way for the Reformation.

1296 Boniface begins his great struggle with Philip the Fair by
issuing a bull excommunicating all princes who tax the clergy.
Edward I of England outlaws all the clergy who obey this bull,
and Philip retaliates by prohibiting the exportation of gold
and silver out of France. Interdiction of Sicily. The Sicilians
invade Calabria.

1297 Excommunication of the entire Colonna family because a
member of it plundered a papal convoy.

1298 The pope proclaims a crusade against the Colonnas.

1299 Surrender of Palestrina to the papal army. It is razed to
the ground.

1300 Plenary indulgence of Boniface.

1301 Boniface is prevented by the English parliament from
interfering in the affairs of Scotland. Renewed quarrel with
Philip over his imprisonment of the bishop of Pamiers. Charles
of Valois is invited into Italy.

1302 Publication of the bull declaring that the church can have
only one head.

1303 Philip burns a bull of excommunication issued by Boniface
and refuses to acknowledge him as pope. Capture of Boniface by
Guillaume de Nogaret. Death of Boniface. Niccolo Boccasini,
=Benedict XI=. He attempts to conciliate France and the Colonna
family.

1304 Benedict excommunicates those who take part in the capture
of Boniface. Death of Benedict, probably by poison, at the
hands of the French party.

THE “BABYLONISH CAPTIVITY” [1305-1378 A.D.]

1305 The influence of Philip the Fair in the College of
Cardinals brings about the election of Bertrand d’Agoust,
=Clement V=. The pope does not interfere in Philip’s
persecution of the Templars.

1309 The pope removes his residence to Avignon, principally
because of the strife between the Orsini and Colonnas, in Rome.
He pronounces a fearful ban of excommunication against the
Venetians, in a quarrel over the possession of Ferrara. The
Venetians driven from Ferrara, which is annexed to the papal
states.

1310 Revolt of Ferrara and its severe punishment by the papal
government.

1311 Suppression of the Templars at the Council of Vienne.

1314 The pope makes the king of Naples viceroy of Italy. The
Guelf party is now in the ascendant. Death of Clement. The see
is vacant for over two years.

1316 Jacques d’Euse, =John XXI= or =XXII=, of the French party,
elected.

1317 The people of Ferrara restore the city to the Este family.

1322 The Visconti capture Cremona, and the whole family is
excommunicated. John offers to recognise Frederick of Austria
king of Germany, in return for his help. Frederick sends an
army to Italy, but withdraws it.

1323 Excommunication of Ludwig IV of Bavaria. The papal
forces take Alessandria and Tortona, and lay siege to Milan.
Excommunication of Ludwig IV of Bavaria for helping the
Visconti.

1324 The papal and Sicilian forces defeated by Galeazzo
Visconti at Vaprio.

1326 John incites the duke of Lithuania to attack the Teutonic
knights. The papal forces capture Parma and Reggio.

1328 Ludwig IV, crowned in Rome by Sciarra Colonna, obtains a
decree from the Roman people that the pope must reside in Rome.
John is declared deposed, and Pietro di Corvara, _Nicholas V_,
made pope.

1329 The Ghibellines turn against Ludwig; the Visconti and
Este families treat with the pope. Nicholas abdicates, and is
imprisoned at Avignon.

1332 John of Bohemia, who has settled the troubles of the
Ghibellines, plots with the pope to obtain Italy.

1333 The papal forces defeated at Ferrara. John abandons his
designs on Italy, and returns to Bohemia.

1334 The papal party loses most of its captured cities. Death
of John, as he is about to be tried for heresy. Jacques
Fournier, =Benedict XII=. He begins to build the palace of
the popes at Avignon, and attempts to curb the luxury of the
monastic orders.

1338 The German electors declare that the pope has no
jurisdiction over Germany.

1342 Pierre Roger, =Clement VI=. The Romans send an embassy to
urge him to return to Rome. He appoints the Fifty Year Jubilee.

1343 Clement renews excommunication of Ludwig.

1347 Revolution of Rienzi in Rome. He is elected tribune, and
carries out many reforms. After a defeat of the nobles he
commits many extravagant acts, and is compelled to abdicate.

1348 Joanna of Naples sells Avignon to the pope.

1349 The Flagellants declared to be heretics.

1351 Rienzi delivered to the custody of the pope by Charles IV
of Germany.

1352 Etienne d’Albert, =Innocent VI=.

1354 Cardinal Albornoz restores papal power in Rome. Rienzi
made senator. He rules badly, and is killed.

1356 The Golden Bull terminates the long strife between papacy
and empire.

1362 Guillaume de Grimoard, =Urban V=. Most of the pope’s
enemies have been quieted, but the Visconti still remain in
open hostility. The pope desires to return to Rome, since the
papal states are reduced to obedience.

1367 Urban removes to Rome. Death of Albornoz.

1370 Urban returns to Avignon and dies. Pierre Roger de
Beaufort, =Gregory XI=. England and France reject his offers of
mediation with contempt. Italy, after the death of Albornoz,
attempts to free herself from the pope. The Visconti are
all-powerful in the north. The whole south revolts. The Free
Companies ravage the country. Sir John Hawkwood serves now the
Guelfs and now the Ghibellines.

1376 Mission of St. Catherine of Siena to urge the pope to
return to Rome.

1377 Arrival of Gregory at Rome.

1378 Death of Gregory.

THE GREAT SCHISM OF THE WEST [1378-1417 A.D.]

1378 The Romans urge the election of a Roman pope; under this
pressure the cardinals choose Bartolommeo Prignani, =Urban
VI=. The French cardinals immediately band against him, and,
withdrawing to Fondi, pronounce the election invalid and elect
Robert of Geneva, _Clement VII_. Germany, England, Denmark,
Sweden, Poland, Hungary, and Italy (except Naples) support
Urban. France, Naples, Scotland, Savoy, Lorraine, and the
Spanish kingdoms support Clement. Urban resides at Rome;
Clement, at Avignon. Urban excommunicates Clement. Wycliffe
attacks the papal primacy.

1379 War between the two popes. Bloodshed and strife in Italy.
Defeat of Clement’s forces in Urban’s crusade against Naples.
St. Angelo surrenders. Clement retreats to Avignon.

1380 Joanna I of Naples attempts to poison Urban, who allies
himself with Hungary. Charles of Durazzo reaches Rome on his
way to Naples.

1381 Conquest of Naples by Charles of Durazzo and the
Hungarians. He takes the throne.

1383 Urban VI goes to Naples, which Louis of Anjou, adopted by
Joanna, has invaded. Urban obtains many advantages there for
himself and family.

1384 Hostilities arise between Urban and Charles, owing to the
former’s arrogance. Louis dies, and his forces are dispersed.

1385 Charles induces several cardinals to plot against Urban.
They are seized and tortured. Urban excommunicates Charles, who
ignores the bull. Siege and capture of Nocera by Charles’ army.
Urban flees to Genoa. Charles goes to Hungary, leaving Naples
to his son, Ladislaus.

1386 Urban orders the imprisoned cardinals (except one) put to
death. The doge of Venice compels Urban to leave Genoa; he goes
to Lucca.

1387 Urban moves to Perugia.

1388 Urban leaves Perugia for Naples, to which he has laid
claim. His army breaks up, and he retires to Rome.

1389 Death of Urban. Pietro Tomacelli, =Boniface IX=. Clement
crowns Louis II of Anjou king of Naples. Boniface adopts a
conciliatory spirit and recognises Ladislaus.

1390 The Jubilee brings a great revenue into Boniface’s
treasury. He recognises the many dynasties within the papal
states.

1392 Through influence of Boniface, who goes to Perugia, the
warfare among the states of northern Italy is terminated.

1394 Death of Clement VII. Pedro de Luna, _Benedict XIII_,
anti-pope.

1395 The University of Paris tries without success to heal the
schism.

1398 France withdraws its allegiance from Benedict, who resists
all efforts to make him abdicate. Scotland and Aragon alone
remain faithful to him. Boniface makes himself master of Rome.

1399 Surrender of Benedict, who has been besieged by the French
in Avignon. He promises to abdicate if Boniface will do the
same.

1400 A reaction in favour of Benedict sets in. Rising of the
Colonnas in Rome interferes with the Jubilee. The plague
destroys many pilgrims. Edicts against the Bianchi.

1402 Boniface declares Ladislaus king of Hungary.

1403 The Visconti begin to lose their power. Boniface recovers
Perugia, Bologna, and other towns by treaty. Benedict escapes
from Avignon and recovers the allegiance of France.

1404 Death of Boniface, followed by a rising in Rome. The
Orsini defeat the Colonnas. Cosimo de’ Migliorati, =Innocent
VII=. He possesses nothing in Rome but the Vatican and St.
Angelo. Ladislaus of Naples comes to Rome to settle differences
between pope and Romans.

1405 Innocent takes refuge at Viterbo. Sack of the Vatican by
the Roman populace. Ladislaus attempts to seize Rome, and the
people return to the pope. Futile negotiations between Innocent
and Benedict, who leave France for Genoa.

1406 Benedict at Savona. The University of Paris proceeds
against him. Innocent returns to Rome and dies. Angelo di
Corraro, =Gregory XII=.

1408 France, having tried in vain to end the schism, renounces
obedience to either pope. Benedict at Perpignan. Ladislaus
seizes Rome. Gregory finally settles in Rimini. The cardinals
of both parties arrange for a council at Pisa.

1409 Council of Pisa. The two popes refuse to appear, and are
deposed. Pietro Philarghi, =Alexander V=, elected. The greater
part of Christendom gives him allegiance, but Gregory is obeyed
in Bavaria, Naples, and Friuli, and Benedict in Aragon. The
three popes issue bulls of excommunication against each other.
Alexander issues bull against heresy in Bohemia.

1410 Rome is captured from Ladislaus by Alexander’s party.
Death of Alexander. Baltasare Cossa, =John XXII= or =XXIII=. He
allies himself with the cause of Louis of Anjou.

1411 On the election of the emperor Sigismund, Germany gives
allegiance to John. The pope, Louis, and the Orsini defeat
Ladislaus at Roccasecca.

1412 Peace between the pope and Ladislaus, who abandons
Gregory. The latter flees from Gaeta to Rimini. John Huss
protests against the sale of indulgences, and is excommunicated.

1413 Ladislaus makes treaty, and seizes Rome and other papal
possessions. John retreats to Florence, and turns to Sigismund
for help. The Council of Constance is agreed on.

1414 Ladislaus enters Rome, but dies shortly after. The people
restore Rome to John. John goes to Constance, and opens
council. Gregory and Benedict send representatives.

1415 Deposition of John by the council. He is imprisoned.
Voluntary abdication of Gregory. Benedict refuses to give up.
Perfidious treatment and execution of John Huss.

1416 Execution of Jerome of Prague at Constance.

1417 The council considers measures of reform. Election of Otto
di Colonna, =Martin V=, as pope. Benedict still opposes him.
Death of Gregory. Andrea Braccio takes Rome. Sforza and the
Neapolitans drive him out, and restore the papal governor.

FROM THE RESTORATION TO THE ERA OF THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION [1417-1513 A.D.]

1418 Close of the Council of Constance. Martin goes to Italy,
accompanied by Sigismund.

1419 Martin fixes his residence at Florence. John is pardoned,
and dies.

1420 Martin Sforza assists Louis III of Anjou in his attempts
on Naples. Reconciliation of Martin and Braccio. The latter
recovers Bologna for the pope. Martin goes to Rome.

1424 Death of Benedict XIII. Some of the cardinals elect Gil de
Munion (Ægidius Nuños), _Clement VIII_, and a single French one
elects _Benedict XIV_. Reform constitution of Martin. Death of
Braccio. Martin soon recovers all the papal possessions.

1429 Clement VIII submits to Martin. Cardinal Beaufort’s
crusade against the Hussites.

1431 Gabriel Condolmieri, =Eugenius IV=. He quarrels with
the Colonnas, and deprives them of their offices. They take
up arms against him, but peace is made. Eugenius favours the
Orsini. Opening of the Council of Bâle. It declares itself, in
spiritual matters, superior to the pope. Eugenius orders the
council dissolved.

1432 The council refuses to dissolve, and accuses the pope of
contumacy.

1433 Eugenius revokes his dissolution. Negotiations for a union
with the Greek church are begun.

1434 The limits of papal authority fixed by the council.
Eugenius gives Francesco Sforza the march of Ancona. Rising in
Rome against Eugenius, Niccolo Fortebraccio captures the city.
Eugenius escapes to Florence.

1435 Defeat and death of Fortebraccio. Eugenius quarrels with
the council.

1436 Eugenius removes to Bologna.

1437 The Council of Bâle summons Eugenius to answer charges; he
replies with a bull dissolving council and summoning another
at Ferrara, to which the emperor of Constantinople, Joannes
VIII, is invited, that a union between the two churches may
be effected. The council ignores the bull, and continues its
sittings.

1438 The Council of Bâle passes a decree suspending the pope.
Opening of the Council of Ferrara attended by the emperor and
patriarch of Constantinople. The pope’s fiscal rights annulled
in France. The Council of Bâle is henceforth recognised only in
Germany.

1439 The council removed to Florence. Union of the Greek and
Latin churches effected. It comes to nothing, through hostile
influences at Constantinople and the failure of Eugenius to
keep his promises. Deposition of Eugenius at Bâle. Amadeus VIII
of Savoy, _Felix V_, elected anti-pope. Eugenius excommunicates
the Council of Bâle.

1440 Coronation of Felix.

1441 Felix quarrels with the council over questions of money.
General peace in northern Italy concluded at Cremona.

1443 Felix deserts the council, but retains allegiance of
Germany. Henceforth it exists only in name. Eugenius leaves
Florence for Rome.

1445 Eugenius’ deposition of the archbishop of Cologne and
Trèves brings his dispute with the electors of Germany to a
climax. The emperor Frederick III comes to his aid.

1446 Treaty between Frederick and Eugenius. Two electors are
deposed, and the electors league against the pope.

1447 Through efforts of Æneas Sylvius Piccolomini the
obedience of Germany is restored. Death of Eugenius. Tommaso
Parentucelli, =Nicholas V=. Under him the revival of learning
properly begins. The Vatican library is founded. Frederick III
forbids any allegiance to Felix in Germany.

1448 Nicholas recognised by the German electors. Dissolution of
the Council of Bâle.

1449 Abdication of Felix.

1450 Francesco Sforza becomes lord of Milan. Peace restored in
Italy.

1451 Nicholas begins great building operations.

1452 Nicholas crowns Frederick III emperor. Cardinal Isidore
and a small force are sent to the relief of Constantinople.

1453 Plot of Stefano Porcaro to re-establish the Roman
Republic. It fails, and Porcaro is exiled. The Ottoman conquest
of Constantinople brings many learned men to Rome, who assist
in the Renaissance. Nicholas proclaims a crusade against the
Turks.

1454 League of Lodi.

1455 Alfonso Borgia, =Calixtus III=. His election is unpopular.

1456 Calixtus proclaims war against the Turks. The papal fleet
is sent, but only wins a few unimportant victories.

1458 At death of Alfonso of Naples, Calixtus claims Naples,
which he wants for a fief for his nephew, Pedro. These plans
are terminated by Calixtus’ death. Æneas Sylvius Piccolomini,
=Pius II=. He recognises Ferdinand as king of Naples.

1459 Congress of Mantua. Pius dreams of converting Muhammed to
Christianity.

1460 Publication of the bull “Execrabilis” in which appeals to
future councils are condemned. Revolt of Tiburzio in Rome. Pius
returns from Mantua and subdues it.

1463 Excommunication of George of Bohemia. Pius issues bull
retracting opinions he held at the Council of Bâle.

1464 In league with Venice and Hungary, Pius starts a crusade
against the Turks. He dies at Ancona and the crusade is
abandoned. Pietro Barbo, =Paul II=. He is apathetic about the
crusade. The moral corruption of the court begins to alienate
the respect of Germany.

1465 Paul recovers the patrimony from the sons of Everso di
Anguillara.

1469 Departure of Frederick III from Rome--the last appearance
of an emperor in Rome.

1470 Paul resigns his claim to Rimini. Publication of statutes
for the government of Rome.

1471 Francesco della Rovere, =Sixtus IV=. He pursues a policy
of family aggrandisement. He attempts a new crusade.

1472 The papal fleet plunders the Turkish coast, but makes
little effect.

1478 Sixtus tacitly abets the conspiracy against the Medici.
Interdiction of Florence for the execution of Archbishop
Salviati. War declared on the Florentines who are in alliance
with the king of Naples. Louis XI of France fails in offers of
mediation.

1480 Peace arranged. The conquest of Otranto by the Turks
unites all Italy (except Venice) against the invaders.
Absolution of Florence.

1481 The Turks surrender Otranto after death of Muhammed II.
Girolamo Riario seizes Forlì.

1482 Sixtus goes to war with Ferrara. Feuds in Rome. Victory at
Campo Morto of Roberto Malatesta, the papal general. Peace with
Ferrara.

1483 Excommunication of Venice for not making peace with
Ferrara. Savonarola begins to preach.

1484 Sixtus attacks the Colonnas in his designs to increase
power of Girolamo Riario. Death of Sixtus. The Romans attack
Riario and other members of the pope’s family. Giovanni
Battista Cibo, =Innocent VIII=.

1485 Siege of Rome by Virginio Orsini in a quarrel at the
instigation of Naples. Innocent intimidated. Relief of Rome by
Roberto Sanseverino.

1486 Rumours of French intervention lead the cardinals to urge
the pope to make peace with Ferdinand, which he does in a
manner favourable to Naples.

1487 Alliance of Innocent with Lorenzo de’ Medici.

1489 Djem, brother of Bajazet II, arrives a prisoner in Rome.
Innocent claims the kingdom of Naples because Ferdinand will
not pay tribute.

1492 Peace made between the pope and Naples after three years
of bickering. Death of Innocent. Rodrigo Borgia, =Alexander
VI=. He suppresses the disorder in Rome occasioned by
Innocent’s death. Naples offers obedience.

1493 Lodovico Il Moro arrays the pope, Milan, and Venice
against Florence and Naples and invites Charles VIII of France
to revive the Anjou claim to Naples. Alexander divides the
lands of the new world between the Spanish and Portuguese.
Peace made with Naples.

1494 Close alliance of the pope and Naples. Charles VIII
arrives in Italy.

1495 Charles in Rome. The pope comes to terms with him and
receives the obedience of France. Djem is delivered to Charles.
Death of Djem, probably due to natural causes and not to
poison administered by the pope, as usually believed. The pope
joins a league to expel Charles from Naples. Charles’ retreat.
Inundation of Rome.

1496 Alexander makes war upon the Orsini.

1497 Excommunication of Savonarola. Peace with the Orsini.
Divorce of Lucrezia Borgia from Giovanni Sforza. Murder of
Alexander’s son, the duke of Gandia, who has been made duke of
Benevento. Alexander’s mock plans for reform.

1498 The Orsini and Colonnas make peace in order to unite
against the pope. Alexander allies himself with France. His
object is the consolidation of Italy. Execution of Savonarola.

1499 Venice joins the pope and France against Milan. Louis XII
captures Milan.

1500 Cesare Borgia captures Imola and Forlì. Murder of
Lucrezia’s third husband, Alfonso of Este, at instigation of
Cesare. Year of Jubilee. Indulgences sold in foreign countries.

1501 Conquest of the Romagna by Cesare Borgia completed.
Conquest of Naples by the French. The Colonnas submit to the
pope.

1502 Cesare seizes Urbino and Sinigaglia.

1503 The pope takes violent measures against the Orsini family.
Death of Alexander. Francesco Piccolomini, =Pius III=. His
great desire is for peace. Cesare’s dominions begin to fall to
pieces. Death of Pius after a rule of less than four weeks.
Giuliano della Rovere, =Julius II=. He imprisons Cesare.

1504 Liberation of Cesare, who is again imprisoned and sent
to Spain. His domains are restored to the papacy. Inquisition
introduced into Naples. Julius begins to practise nepotism.

1505 Treaty between the pope and Venice.

1506 Foundation of the present St. Peter’s cathedral laid.
Capture of Perugia and Bologna by Julius.

1507 The emperor Maximilian plans to unite the empire and
papacy.

1508 League of Cambray against Venice.

1509 Julius joins the league and excommunicates the Venetians.
Defeat of Venice at Agnadello.

1510 Venice makes humiliating terms with Julius and is
absolved. France placed under the ban. At synod of Tours the
French bishops withdraw obedience and seek to depose Julius.
Julius makes an alliance with the Swiss. The Swiss guard of the
pope still exists. Julius makes war on the duchy of Ferrara.

1511 Julius besieges and captures Mirandola. Failure of the
expedition against Ferrara. The “Holy League” of the papacy.
Ferdinand and Venice to recover Bologna, captured by the
French. Gaston de Foix continues hostilities against Ferrara
and Venice.

1512 Successes of Gaston de Foix. His death at the battle of
Ravenna. Many cities surrender to the Holy League. Opening of
the Lateran Council to consider the schismatic French bishops.
Julius recovers Bologna.

1513 Death of Julius.

THE POPES FROM THE DEATH OF JULIUS II. [1513-1903 A.D.]

(The main political events of the papacy during this period are treated in the History of Italy; the list of popes is continued here for the sake of completeness.)

1513 =Leo X=, Giovanni de’ Medici. Concordat with Francis I
concerning appointment of French bishops (1515). Authorisation
of sale of indulgences (1517) brings about the Reformation.
Annexes Urbino and Perugia to the papal states. Alliance with
Charles V against Francis I. A great patron of literature and
art.

1522 =Adrian VI=, tutor of Charles V. Attempts reforms, but is
unable to stay the progress of the Reformation.

1523 =Clement VII=, Giulio de’ Medici. Enters the league
against Charles V. Imprisoned at the sack of Rome (1527).
Forbids the divorce of Henry VIII (1534).

1534 =Paul III=, Alessandro Farnese. Approves the establishment
of the Jesuits (1540) and calls Council of Trent (1545). Makes
his son duke of Parma and Piacenza.

1550 =Julius III= (Gianmaria de’ Medici).

1555 =Marcellus II=, Marcellus Cervius, dies in three weeks.
=Paul IV=, Giovanni Pietro Caraffa, intolerant and tyrannical.
Quarrels with Philip II of Spain who besieges Rome and makes
Paul sue for peace.

1559 =Pius IV=, Giovanni Angelo de’ Medici.

1566 =Pius V=, Michele Ghislieri. A violent persecutor of
dissenters.

1572 =Gregory XIII=, Ugo Buoncompagni. Introduces the Gregorian
calendar.

1585 =Sixtus V=, Felice Peretti. Builds Vatican library and
other great works.

1590 =Urban VII=, Giovanni Battista Castagna, lives thirteen
days. =Gregory XIV=, Niccolo Sfondrati.

1591 =Innocent IX=, Giovanni Antonio Facchinetti. Lives two
months.

1592 =Clement VIII=, Ippolito Aldobrandini. The Molinist and
Jansenist controversy begins. Ferrara annexed to the papal
states.

1604 =Leo XI=, Alessandro de’ Medici. Dies in four weeks.
=Paul V=, Camillo Borghese. Contest with Venice in regard to
ecclesiastical authority.

1621 =Gregory XV=, Alessandro Ludovisi. Founds the congregation
of the Propaganda.

1623 =Urban VIII=, Maffeo Barberini. Supports France in Thirty
Years’ War; annexes Urbino to his states.

1644 =Innocent X=, Giovanni Battista Pamfili. Condemns Treaty
of Westphalia and the Jansenists.

1655 =Alexander VII=, Fabio Chigi. Louis XIV takes Avignon from
him (1662).

1667 =Clement IX=, Giulio Rospigliosi. Temporary peace between
the French Jansenists and Jesuits.

1670 =Clement X=, Emilio Altieri.

1676 =Innocent XI=, Benedetto Odescalchi. Controversy with
Louis XIV over the ambassador’s privileges at Rome.

1689 =Alexander VIII=, Pietro Ottoboni. Aids Venice against the
Turks.

1691 =Innocent XII=, Antonio Pignatelli.

1700 =Clement XI=, Giovanni Francesco Albani. Jansenist
controversy renewed in France. Clement aids pretender to the
English throne.

1721 =Innocent XIII=, Michelangelo Conti.

1724 =Benedict XIII=, Vincenzo Marco Orsini. Makes an
ineffectual attempt to reconcile all divisions of Christianity.

1730 =Clement XII=, Lorenzo Corsini.

1740 =Benedict XIV=, Prospero Lambertini.

1758 =Clement XIII=, Carlo della Torre di Rezzonico. The papacy
loses Avignon for the second time (1768). The Neapolitans seize
Benevento.

1769 =Clement XIV=, Giovanni Vincenzo Antonio Ganganelli. He
suppresses the Jesuits.

1775 =Pius VI=, Giovanni Angelo Braschi. The French seize his
states and carry him to France a prisoner.

1800 =Pius VII=, Gregorio Luigi Barnaba Chiaramonti. Ratifies
concordat with France; crowns Napoleon emperor (1804). The
French take his states and imprison him (1809). Is restored
1814.

1823 =Leo XII=, Annibale della Genga.

1829 =Pius VIII=, Francesco Castiglione.

1831 =Gregory XVI=, Bartolommeo Alberto Cappellari.

1846 =Pius IX=, Mastai Ferretti. Begins as a reformer but
afterwards changes his policy. In 1870 the last of his
dominions are added to the kingdom of Italy.

1878 =Leo XIII=, Giacchino Pecci.