Chapter IV: Part 4

The Bayan is the product of La Seyne. She is somewhat faster, better protected by 2 ins. on the water-line, but less protected on the guns, and with only half as many. She would take more punishment than the Nisshin and Kasuga; but, given equal crews and tactics, the heavy fire of the Nisshin type would seem to convey an immense advantage.

PROTECTED CRUISERS

The three ships Takasago, Kasagi, and Chitose, are slightly improved editions of the Yoshino already described. The first was built at Elswick, the other two in America.

There are slight differences in dimensions, otherwise the description of the Yoshino stands for them. The armament is not quite the same as in the Yoshino, as these three later vessels carry two 8-in. guns in heavy turrets, ten 4.7’s on the broadsides, and 12-pounders instead of 6-pounders.

They are very fast, but the heavy gun turret forward does not improve their behaviour at sea. _Per contra_, the 8-in. guns give them the power to deal a knock-out blow to other cruisers of their size; so their value depends on whether scouting or fighting is the more important _métier_ for a second-class cruiser. The Yoshino type is intended to be both, and the Yoshino herself in a great measure is; the others are too heavily armed to be ideal scouts.

The Niitaka and Tsushima were launched in 1902. A sister, the Otawa, was laid down in 1903. They are improved Sumas, and entirely of Japanese design and construction.

Particulars are:—

Displacement 3420 tons.
Length 334½ ft.
Beam 44 ft.
Draught 16½ ft.
Guns Six 6-in.
Ten 12-pdrs.
Four 2½-pdrs.
Machinery Two sets triple expansion.
Screws Two.
Designed I.H.P. 9500.
Speed 20 knots.
Coal (maximum capacity) 600 tons.

A 2½-in. steel deck protects the vitals.

The ships embody no novelty, except in the selection of armament. The Suma’s 4.7’s disappear, and 6-in. and 12-pounders take their place.

TORPEDO GUNBOATS

The Miyako was launched in 1897.

Details are:—

Displacement 1800 tons.
Length 304 ft.
Beam 35 ft.
Draught (mean) 13 ft.
Armament Two 4.7-in.
Eight 3-pdrs.
Indicated horse-power 6130.
Speed 20 knots.
Coal 400 tons.
Boilers Cylindrical.
Complement 220.

The Chihaya was launched in 1901.

Details are:—

Displacement 850 tons.
Length 314¾ ft.
Beam 36 ft.
Draught 13 ft.
Armament Two 4.7-in.
Four 12-pdrs.
Three torpedo tubes.
Indicated horse-power 6000.
Speed 21 knots.
Coal 250 tons.
Boilers Cylindrical.

There is no armour protection.

DESTROYERS

Japan has selected two types of destroyers, the Yarrow and the Thornycroft. The Thornycroft boats are practically replicas of similar boats in the British Navy, and the Yarrow boats do not greatly differ, except that they have the usual Yarrow stern.

Details will be found in the Appendix.

The feature of most interest concerns the disposition of the guns—the 12-pounder being carried aft instead of forward. This is a preferable system to the usual one of the 12-pounder forward, as the bow is thus less weighted down.

Mention may also be made of the fact that a railway is fitted on deck for the conveyance of torpedoes. This is convenient, but the raised rails are apt to get in the way of the crew a good deal.

In the war with Russia the Japanese destroyers appear to have stood the strains to which they have been subjected remarkably well, and no cases of “broken backs” and similar catastrophies which had been foretold seem to have occurred.

TORPEDO BOATS

Till recently, the fastest Japanese torpedo boat was one captured from the Chinese at Wei-hai-wei. Some very fast boats were built in the period 1898-1901, the types being Normand and Yarrow (Viper type), mostly the former. Details will be found in the Appendix. Some recent boats reached 29 knots on trial, and they are practically small destroyers.

The early Japanese torpedo boats were of the “second-class” variety, usually of the Normand or some similar French type, and the boats which sealed the fate of the Chinese Fleet at Wei-hai-wei were mostly of this pattern.

(Nos. 5-19 are of this type.)]

SUBMARINES

Japan had no submarines when the war with Russia broke out, but orders for an experimental Holland type boat are said to have been placed.

IX THE NEW PROGRAMME

The new programme began, in 1904, with the ordering of two 16,400-ton battleships at Elswick and Barrow respectively. They have been named Kashima and Katori.

The following description of the Elswick battleship appeared in the _Engineer_:—

Her length on the water-line is 455 ft.; her breadth, 78 ft. 2 ins.; her draught, 26 ft. 7½ ins.; and her displacement, in tons, 16,400; and she will carry for her armament four 12-in. guns, twin mounted in barbettes; four 10-in. guns, mounted singly in barbettes; twelve 6-in. guns in the citadel; twelve 12-pounder guns; six Maxim guns; three 3-pounder guns; and five torpedo tubes. The plan shows the disposition of the above-named armament, the arrangement of which has been most carefully considered, so that there is no interference with one another in the firing of the different guns, which, however, are all capable of being trained through large arcs. The 12-in. guns are 26 ft., and the 10-in. 22 ft., above the water-line. The 6-in. guns in the battery are from 13 ft. to 14 ft. above the water-line.

The general disposition of the armour protection is that adopted in the latest and most powerful battleships, the armour amidships being carried from below the water-line right up to the upper deck. Above the level of the upper deck additional protection has been adopted, a 4-in. screen being worked to a height of 7 ft. 6 ins. above the upper deck, and extending between the 10-in. gun positions. The main armour belt, which extends the whole length of the vessel, has a thickness of 9 ins. for more than half its length, tapering to rather less at the extremities. The depth of this belt is from 5 ft. below water to 2 ft. 6 ins. above water. Immediately above this is a belt of 6-in. armour, extending in length from the after 12-in. barbette right forward to the stem. Above this again is the 6-in. citadel armour carried to the height of the upper deck, and enclosing the two 12-in. barbettes. In this citadel are placed ten of the 6-in. guns, divided from one another by screens of 80-lb. armour plating, and firing through ports similar to those adopted in casemates. This citadel arrangement, which is one of the most important features of this and other recent battleships, is really a revival or development of the old box battery arrangement adopted in some of our battleships built in the seventies, such as the Shannon and Alexandra. This arrangement fell into disuse when the great improvement made in ordnance—which for a time kept so far ahead of the improvements in armour—made it necessary to increase the thickness of the armour to make it efficient, and therefore it was only possible to cover a comparatively small area of the vessel’s side. However, the recent improvements in armour have been such that again comparatively thin armour is efficient in keeping out projectiles, which has once more made it possible to protect a greater area of side. In more recent years the same system with protective divisions between the guns in the battery was adopted in the Nile and Trafalgar, but as the 4-in. armour protecting the battery of each of these vessels was not of a quality to keep out even the smaller armour-piercing shell, the system was not repeated until the latest and most improved armour was adopted in such vessels as our King Edward VII. class, and in the much-talked-of Swiftsure and Triumph. The remaining two 6-in. guns fire through similar ports in the 4-in. screen armour on the upper deck amidships. The barbette armour of the 12-in. guns is 9 ins. thick on the upper portions where exposed, and 5 ins. thick where protection is afforded by the citadel armour. The barbette armour of the 10-in. guns has a thickness of 6 ins., the conning-tower armour is 9 ins. thick, and the observer tower 5 ins. thick. In addition to these two armoured positions for commanding officers, three officers’ shelters are to be built of 3-in. armour, one above the conning-tower and one on each side. Besides the armour described above, a steel protective deck runs throughout the entire length of the vessel, the whole of the machinery, magazines, etc., being kept below. This protective deck has a thickness of 2 ins. on the flat portions amidships, and 3 ins. on the sloping sides, which are carried down to meet the bottom of the main armour belt. At the ends where the armour protection is reduced, this deck has a thickness of 2½ ins. all over. Thick protective plating is also worked on the top of the screen armour at the boat deck level.

Special attention has been paid to the arrangement and disposition of the magazines, so that the ammunition can be got to all the guns with the greatest speed and minimum of trouble. There are independent magazines for each pair of 12-in. guns, and for each 10-in. gun, and an ammunition passage is provided running right round the machinery spaces below the protective deck for the supply of ammunition to the various 6-in. and smaller quickfiring guns. The torpedo tubes are situated in watertight chambers—two tubes forward and two aft firing on the broadsides, and one tube firing right astern, also under water. Special means are provided for rapidly clearing water from these submerged torpedo-rooms in case of emergency.

The general particulars of the main propelling machinery and boilers are as follows: There are twenty Niclausse boilers disposed in three separate boiler-rooms. These boilers will have a working pressure of 230 lbs., and a grate surface of 1300 sq. ft., and a heating surface of 43,000 sq. ft. The twin engines will have four cylinders each, of 36 ins., 56 ins., 63 ins., and 63 ins., with a stroke of 48 ins., and the horse-power will be sufficient to give a speed of at least 18½ knots. The coal bunkers are so arranged as to reinforce the protection given by the armour and protective deck to the engines and boilers, whilst their disposition is such as to require very little trimming to get the coal to the furnaces. The bulk of the coal can also be got to the stokeholds without opening any of the doors in the main watertight bulkheads—a point of very great importance when the vessel is in action. In addition to the coal bunkers below the protective deck, reserve bunkers are arranged on the slopes of the protective deck up to the height of the main deck over the length of the machinery spaces amidships, the total capacity being approximately 2000 tons, which is sufficient to give the vessel a very large radius of action.

A very complete outfit is being provided for the vessel, including the following boats: Two 56-ft. vedette torpedo boats of high speed, one 36-ft. steam pinnace, one 40-ft. launch, one 32-ft. pinnace, three 30-ft. cutters, two 30-ft. gigs. For lifting these boats two powerful electrically worked derricks are provided—one on each side of the vessel.

There is also a powerful electrical equipment, both for providing energy for the numerous machines on board, and also for lighting. The latter will include provision for six searchlights and some 1250 incandescent lamps.

The equipment of anchors and cables includes three stockless bower anchors of 120 cwt. each, and other smaller anchors. There are also three main cables of 150 fathoms each of 2⅝ ins. stud chain.

The vessel being of such an immense weight—over 17,000 tons with her full equipment of coal, stores, etc.—special arrangements have been provided for docking her with safety, and, in addition to shoring ribbands for giving special support to the armour in dock, two docking keels are provided on the flat portions of the bottom under the bilges amidships. These keels will rest on separate lines of blocks in the dock, as well as the usual blocks along the middle line of the vessel. Bilge keels are also provided to reduce rolling in a seaway.

The watertight subdivision of the vessel is of a most thorough description; the inner bottom extends over the whole length of the vessel, and is minutely subdivided, and above this the number of transverse and longitudinal watertight bulkheads is too numerous to mention.

An elaborate system of pumping and draining has been worked out, and in addition to the main pumps in the engine-rooms, which can be used in case of emergency for dealing with a large inrush of water, are two 9-in. pumps, two 5½-in., and one 4½-in., besides pumps for fresh and salt water services.

In a vessel of this description the ventilation arrangements are not the least important of the many items which have to be thought out, and every precaution has been taken for efficiently ventilating spaces both above and below the protective deck. In addition to the natural ventilation, artificial means have to be largely adopted, even in the upper portions of the vessel where she is entirely enclosed in with armour and protective plating, and here, as well as below the protective deck, numerous electrical fans, with air trunks, branches, pipes, etc., are being provided for.

Two complete sets of steering engines, independent of one another and in separate watertight compartments, are fitted, with steering positions both forward and aft. Hand gear is also provided, and appliances for changing as quickly as possible from hand to steam gear, and _vice versâ_. Tiller indicators are fitted in all the steering and conning-tower positions. Helm signals are provided for the purpose of communicating the position of the helm to other vessels in the neighbourhood. Voice-pipes, telegraphs, and telephones are fitted throughout the vessel to communicate between all the important positions. The vessel is also to be supplied with a wireless telegraphy installation. Torpedo net defence is to be fitted around the greater part of the vessel, which, in view of recent experience, appears to be not an unnecessary precaution.

With the exception of the main propelling machinery and boilers, which are being supplied by Messrs. Humphrys, Tennant and Co., the whole of the ship, with armour, armament, fittings, etc., will be supplied by Sir W. G. Armstrong, Whitworth and Co., Limited.

The 12-in. guns will weigh approximately 59 tons each. The length is 46 ft. 9½ ins. (46.7 calibres). The weight of the projectile is 850 lbs. The charge will be cordite, probably of the modified type. The exact weight of the charge is not yet fixed, and neither can the velocity be given, but these guns will be the most powerful 12-in. guns which have yet been constructed. No armour which any ship can carry can hope to cope with their penetrating powers at 3000 yards. The breech-screw is arranged for a parallel motion, which obviates the necessity of having a steep cone at the seating of the obturating pad. It is yet early to speak of the rapidity of fire to be obtained with these guns, but it is anticipated that, in conjunction with the mounting described, the hitherto obtained rate of approximately two rounds per minute from each gun will be exceeded.

The 10-in. guns will weigh approximately 34 tons each. The length is 39 ft. (46.76 calibres). The weight of the projectile is 500 lbs. The charge will be cordite, probably of the modified type. As in the 12-in. guns, the exact weight of the charge has yet to be fixed, but here again this will be the most powerful gun of its calibre in existence. As a gauge of the power of these guns, it may be noticed that their penetrating power is equal to the penetrating power at 3000 yards of any of the 12-in. guns at present afloat in any navy. The breech mechanism will be somewhat similar in design to that of the 12-in., and will embody all the essential advantages of that design. The rapidity of fire of these guns on the Elswick mounting it is anticipated will at least be at the rate of three rounds per minute with a well-drilled gun’s crew.

The 6-in. guns will weigh approximately 8½ tons. The length is 23 ft. 6 ins. approximately (47 calibres). The weight of the projectile is 100 lbs. The charge will be probably M.D. cordite; but here again this is not definitely fixed, but these guns will be the most powerful guns of their description made, having a penetrating power at 3000 yards equal to, if not exceeding, any 6-in. guns hitherto built. The breech mechanism will be of the Elswick modified coned type, actuated by the single motion of the lever, and, as in the other gun, the necessity for the steep-coned obturator is obviated. The exact type of the smaller guns is not yet settled, but they will also follow the general advances in power and efficiency noted in the case of the heavier armaments.

12-IN. GUN MOUNTINGS.

The 12-in. guns are mounted forward and aft on the midship line, as shown in the sketch on the ship. Owing to the powerful nature of the guns, these mountings are necessarily stronger than any hitherto manufactured in this or any other country. The design is arranged with a view to occupying the least possible space in the ship, and, at the same time, to give ample room for working the machinery. The general features of the design are the turn-table proper containing the mountings for the gun, the working chamber underneath into which the ammunition is received from the magazine and shell-rooms in preparation for sending up into the secondary or loading hoist, the trunk connecting the working chamber with the magazines and shell-rooms, and the hoist connecting the working chamber and the gun. This latter hoist is so arranged that a gun can be loaded at any angle of elevation or training. The charge for each gun, consisting of the projectile and the cordite charge, the latter in two halves, is brought up at one time in a loading cage, which is automatically stopped in its proper position in line with the breech opening of the gun. It is then rammed home by means of a chain rammer actuated by a hydraulic motor. The breech-block of the gun is opened or closed by a hydraulic motor, thus enabling this operation to be performed with great rapidity. In the working chamber, by an ingenious arrangement, the projectile and the two halves of the cordite charge are simultaneously transferred from the cage which works in the trunk connecting the shell-rooms and magazines with the working chamber, to the cage working in the hoist connecting the working chamber with the gun position. The ammunition trunk is of a new design, which enables the ammunition cage always to come to the same position in the magazines and shell-rooms; but when it is brought up to the top of the trunk the cage is in its proper position with respect to the ammunition loading hoist, although the turret may be revolving at a quick rate; or, in other words, the ammunition trunk does not revolve at the bottom, but revolves with the turn-table at the top. The guns are protected by 10-in. hard armour in the front, and 8-in. at the sides and back. The feature of the turret is that it is quite balanced, thus enabling it to be readily trained by hand, although the ship may have a heel at the time.

There are three systems for performing the operation of training, primarily by hydraulic power, and should this fail through any of the piping being shot away, electric training gear can be quickly put into operation; and finally, should this be disabled, the turret can be trained by hand. Similarly the operation of elevating and depressing the gun can be performed by working primarily by hydraulic power, and then either by electric or hand. The operations of loading can also be performed by hand should the hydraulic system be disabled. To safeguard against accident by freezing in the intense cold which is found in the China seas during the winter months, heating apparatus is fitted throughout the turret installation. The gun mountings are so arranged as to give the gun 18 deg. elevation and 3 deg. depression, a greater range of elevation than has hitherto been provided for mountings of this description. The training angle is arranged for 270 deg., that is to say, from right ahead or right astern to 45 deg. before or abaft the beam. The turret can be trained at the rate of one complete revolution (viz. 360 deg.) per minute. In the shell-room, suitable overhead hydraulic lifting and traversing arrangements are made for lifting the shell out of the bays and placing them in the cage, but this operation can also be done by hand should necessity require it.

The sighting of the guns is provided for by a central sighting station and two side sighting stations, one on the left and the other on the right. By an ingenious arrangement the captain of the turret is enabled by working one lever to train or elevate the gun or to perform both these motions at the same time. Voice-pipes and other apparatus are fitted to enable the officer in charge of the turret to communicate his orders to the magazines and shell-rooms. A complete system of electric circuits enables the guns to be fired from any one of the eight positions either simultaneously or independently. Percussion firing arrangements are also provided.

10-IN. GUN MOUNTINGS.

Each 10-in. gun is placed in an armoured revolving gun-house, or turret. The ammunition is sent up in a lifting cage from the magazine and shell-room direct to the gun platform, each cage containing a projectile and cordite charge in two parts. On reaching the gun platform the projectile is quickly transferred to a hinged loading tray fixed on the gun-cradle by means of an intermediate resting tray, the cordite being transferred by hand to the loading tray. By this arrangement three projectiles are always in waiting for loading, ensuring rapidity of fire. The projectile and charges can then be rammed into the gun by a telescopic hydraulic rammer. This rammer is arranged to follow the gun in elevation or depression, so that it always remains in line with the gun axis, enabling the operation of loading to take place at any angle within the usual fighting limits. The training of the gun-house is performed as in the case of the 12-in., primarily by hydraulic power; then by electric, and finally, if necessity occasions it, by hand, and, like the larger mounting, it is balanced so that the operation of training by hand can be readily performed although the ship may have a heel. The breech-block of the gun is arranged to be operated either by hydraulic power or by hand. The gun can be elevated by hydraulic power as in the 12-in. The operations of training and elevating are performed by the single motion of a lever. These guns also have the large range in elevation of 18 deg., with 3 deg. depression. The sighting of the gun is provided for by two positions, placed on the right and the left of the gun respectively. A complete set of electric firing circuits is fitted to enable the gun to be fired from either of these positions. Percussion firing gear is also provided. The guns are protected in front by 9 ins. of hard armour, and on the sides and back 6 ins. The training angle is from right ahead to 30 deg. before or abaft the beam, or a total angle of 120 deg.

6-IN. GUN MOUNTINGS.

The 6-in. guns are mounted on the well-known central pivot principle. This principle was first introduced by Sir W. G. Armstrong, Whitworth and Co., and has since been adopted for mounting guns of medium calibre by all the Governments and armament constructors in the world. Briefly, to describe this system, it may be said that the gun is mounted in a cradle in which it recoils, the recoil being absorbed by an oil buffer attached to it forming a part of the cradle, the piston of which is attached to the gun. The cradle is mounted by means of trunnions on a Y piece, which revolves on hard steel balls placed on a fixed pedestal. This pedestal is bolted to the ship’s structure, the elevating arrangements are attached to the cradle, thus enabling the elevating gun number to work the gear even during the firing of the gun without injury to himself. Telescopic sights are fitted in a convenient position. Electric circuits are fitted to enable the guns to be fired by the simple operation of pressing the trigger of a pistol. Arrangements for percussion firing are also provided. A circular shield is attached to the revolving Y piece, so as to keep the port opening in the ship’s side blocked up at any angle of training. This port opening allows for the guns to be trained through a range of 120 deg., viz. 60 deg. before the beam and 60 deg. abaft.

12-POUNDER GUN MOUNTINGS.

The 12-pounder mountings are similar in principle to the 6-in. above described, but, of course, arranged to suit the smaller size of the gun. They are protected by revolving shields attached to the Y pieces by elastic stays.

TORPEDO TUBES.

The vessel carries four 18-in. torpedo tubes on the Armstrong-Whitworth principle, which has been fitted to all the Japanese warships built either in this country or abroad since the date of the Fuji and the Yashima, which were the two first ships to have this apparatus. The vessel will also be fitted with a torpedo tube for firing 18-in. torpedoes in the line of keel astern. This also will be a special design by the builders.

The ammunition supply to the 12-in. and 10-in. guns has been described under the heading of mountings for these guns. The ammunition supply for the 6-in. and 12-pounder guns is arranged for by supplying to each 6-in. gun an electrically driven ammunition hoist of the improved Elswick design. These hoists will bring up the projectile and the cordite charge, and maintain a continuous supply. The operation of the hoist is extremely simple, and necessitates the minimum personal attendance. The seaman working the hoist has only to start it in motion and then keep it supplied with the necessary ammunition, which is automatically discharged in a position best situated for the working of the gun. The hoists for supplying the 12-pounder guns are of similar design; eight of them will be placed in suitable positions for supplying the 12-pounder guns.

X THE JAPANESE DOCKYARDS

YOKOSUKA.

Yokosuka is the oldest Imperial dockyard in Japan, and was a going concern in the sixties. It is at present expanding considerably as a building yard. There are large engine shops for machinery construction. There are three dry docks opening into the outer basin, their dimensions being—

No. 1 (stone).

Feet.
Length 392
Width 82
Depth 22½

No. 2 (stone).

Length 502⅓
Width 94½
Depth 28⅓

No. 3 (stone).

Length 308
Width 45¼
Depth 17¼

No. 2 is able to take any ship in the Japanese Navy; but the others are not available for any of the large battleships or armoured cruisers.

There are two slips. On these, amongst others, the following ships have been built: Hashidate, Akitsushima, Suma, Akashi, Takao, and Yaeyama.

The dockyard lies at the foot of a picturesquely wooded hill, in the Bay of Tokio, and is well defended by sea forts. To the landward the defence is, however, poor, and Yokosuka could be taken by an army that could secure a foothold on the southern coast, supposing it able to defeat the defenders.

TOKIO.

At Tokio, roughly twenty-five miles from Yokosuka, there is a small dry dock belonging to the Japanese Government. It is, however, only suitable for gunboats and destroyers.

Dimensions—

Feet.
Length 300
Width 52
High-water depth at springs 14⅔

There is also a private dock here, belonging to the Tokio Shipbuilding Company.

Dimensions—

Feet.
Length 220
Width 42
High-water depth 14

The water front of Tokio is very shallow.

KURÉ.

Kuré, in the province of Aki, is the coming dockyard of Japan. Situated on the Inland Sea, it is almost impossible of access by an enemy, while it is far nearer any possible base of operations than Yokosuka. Two large dry docks have been built here, but the larger is not yet complete.

Dimensions—

No. 1.
Feet.
Length 464
Width 69
High-water depth 29

This dock is able to take the Asama class, but not the battleships.

No. 2 (building).
Feet.
Length 525
Width 125
High-water depth on sill 33½

This dock is building for the new 16,400-ton battleships, and its dimensions indicate that still larger vessels are expected in the future. It will be the largest dry dock in the world.

SASSEBO.

Sassebo, in Hizen, near Nagasaki, is not of much account as a dockyard. It has neither dry docks nor slips, and is essentially a place for minor repairs. For these it is very fully equipped.

It was found most useful in the Chino-Japanese War, and its utility continued in the war with Russia.

The dockyard lies well inside a deep, sheltered bay. The navigation around it would be very difficult to a hostile fleet, as many shoals exist.

MAITZURU.

Maitzuru, in the province of Tango, lies at the end of an inlet which has a uniform depth of seven fathoms at low water. The position is not very unlike that of Kiel, in Germany.

A dockyard is building here, but its resources are _nil_ as yet.

XI NAVAL HARBOURS

NAGASAKI

Nagasaki is not a dockyard town, though it is generally supposed to be outside Japan, on account of its being a naval harbour.

It is the oldest port in Japan, its history dating from the Dutch trading days. It contains two docks, as follows:—

1. TATEGAMI.
Feet.
Length on blocks 510
Extreme length 530
Breadth 99
Depth (maximum) 27½

2. MUKAIJIMA.
Length on blocks 360
Extreme length 371
Breadth 53
Depth (maximum) 24½

There is also a patent slip, of which the rails are 750 ft. long, the breadth 30 ft., and the lifting power in tons 1200.

It has already been mentioned that Nagasaki was an old Dutch station; but the present Tategami yard was established about the time of the Crimean War, by the Tokugawa Government, with the assistance of Dutch engineers. After the civil war it was taken over by the Imperial Government, who in 1884 sold it to the Mitsu Bishi Company, to which it now belongs.

This company built the present granite dry docks. In 1889 they had begun to build ships—a tug of 206 tons gross being their first effort. Since then quite large vessels have been constructed, not always with success; but, as an invariable rule, the failures on one have led to successes on another, and the yard is now a very going concern, employing about 4000 men.

The harbour and docks are extensively used by men-of-war.

As yet, judged by European standards, no really excellent work has been turned out at Nagasaki. The main trouble has been with riveting; but this is being steadily overcome, and it is purely a question of time before ocean greyhounds will be turned out at this yard.

The work is not entirely Japanese; “stand-by” Westerners still exist. These are kept in the background, in case their services are needed. So far as I can gather, they are not requisitioned unless a difficulty occurs, which is another way of saying that they are less and less in demand. The majority of these stand-by men have Japanese wives, and have adopted Japan as their country; as often as not they are naturalised Japanese subjects.

TAKESHIKI.

Takeshiki, on the island of Tsushima, is the advanced coaling station of Japan. There are two approaches, on the west and on the south-east, but only the first is possible to big ships. In the centre of the western entrance is a large shoal, three and a half fathoms below low-water mark, leaving very deep channels close inshore on either side. As the whole entrance is only some two thousand yards wide, flanked by high hills, it will be seen that it is impregnable. Inside is a large and very deep harbour, where the whole Japanese Fleet could lie.

The coaling station of Takeshiki lies six miles from the entrance by water, and five as the crow flies. It is, however, only some three thousand five hundred yards from a fourteen-fathom bay on the south-east, and so susceptible to a long-range bombardment from this quarter. It is to be bombarded also from several other east-coast inlets.

The port is very strongly fortified with Canet 9.4’s on disappearing mountings.

OMINATO.

Ominato, on the north coast of the principal island, is a torpedo-boat base. The town lies in a huge bay (Rikuoko Bay) that runs out of the Tsuguru Straits, on the opposite shores of which Hakodate stands.

The country is very mountainous, the highest peak being 3264 feet high, and the lower ones seldom less than a thousand feet.

In the war the Russians once passed through the Tsuguru Straits, but it was a risky proceeding.

KOBÉ.

Kobé, on the Gulf of Osaka, on the Inland Sea, is a fine roadstead, with western and southern entrances twenty miles apart, the island between them being nearly two thousand feet high in places.

There is a yard here, where all the Japanese-built torpedo craft are constructed.

KURÉ.

At Kuré, no great distance away, the Japanese armour-plate plant is being laid down; but at the time of writing things are still in an elementary stage, and it will be some years yet before Japan is able to armour plate her own battleships. Probably, as Russia did, Japan will begin by building her own battleships and importing the armour plates.

XII THE MERCANTILE MARINE

The Japanese mercantile marine is of a steadily increasing character. Quite a few years ago it had no existence, and though in past centuries Japan had a very considerable merchant fleet, few people are aware of it, and fewer still realise that the present fleet of merchant ships, instead of being a wonderful new development, is merely a return to what previously existed. In this matter Japan is rather reasserting herself than striking out a new line.

The principal trade ports are—

Yokohama. Nagasaki.
Kobé. Hakodate.
Osaka. Ni-igata.

There are twenty other ports which have some export trade.

The principal imports are: cotton and seed, sugar, rice, wines, food, etc., wool, manufactured cotton, drugs, dyes and paints, petroleum, manure, iron and steel manufactures, arms and machinery.

The principal exports are: manufactured silk, copper, food, rice, drugs, and colours, matches, mats for floors, coal.

The principal import trade is from: Great Britain, the United States, British India, Hong Kong, Korea, China, Germany, Russian Asia, France, and Belgium.

The principal export trade is with: United States (72,000,000 yen), China and Hong Kong (about 40,000,000 yen each), France (about 27,000,000 yen), Korea (11,000,000 yen odd), Great Britain (11,000,000 yen), and British India (9,000,000 yen).

The following (from the _Statesman’s Year Book_) are the shipping statistics of the Japanese ports (without Formosa), exclusive of coasting trade, each vessel being counted at every Japanese port it entered:—

+--------------------------+----------------+----------------+
| | Entered. | Cleared. |
| +-----+----------+-----+----------+
| | No. | Tonnage. | No. | Tonnage. |
+--------------------------+-----+----------+-----+----------+
|Japanese steamships |3,042| 3,861,659|3,064| 3,883,782|
| ” sailing ships and| | | | |
| junks |1,344| 67,139|1,408| 68,902|
|Foreign steamships |2,998| 7,018,077|2,990| 7,016,357|
| ” sailing ships | 105| 104,505| 102| 95,910|
| +-----+----------+-----+----------+
| Total |7,489|11,051,380|7,564|11,064,951|
+--------------------------+-----+----------+-----+----------+

Of the total foreign ships entered, 1644 of 4,080,583 tons were British; 385 of 1,192,153 tons German; 284 of 455,243 tons Russian; 188 of 240,906 tons Norwegian; 175 of 404,724 tons American; 154 of 303,690 tons French. Of the total shipping in 1901, 1094 vessels of 2,050,201 tons entered Nagasaki; 770 of 2,001,233 tons Yokohama; 1446 of 2,998,955 tons Kobé; 207 of 85,952 tons Shimonoseki; 1683 of 2,870,640 tons Moji.

In 1901 the merchant navy of Japan (without Formosa) consisted of 1321 steamers of European type, of 543,258 tons; 3850 sailing vessels of European type, of 320,572 tons; and 911 native craft above 200 “koku,” of 415,260 “koku.”

In 1901 the total ships for foreign trade entered to the ports of Formosa were 2017 of 184,192 tons, of which 140 of 125,222 tons were steamers, 1877 of 58,970 tons were sailing vessels.

The total ships cleared the ports of Formosa were 1946 of 174,814 tons, of which 139 of 118,912 tons were steamers, 1807 of 55,902 were sailing vessels.

The principal steamship line is the Nippon Yusen Kaisha, the ships of which are usually white with black funnels, and a white house-flag carrying two red horizontal lines in the centre. It has a dozen good steamers and many smaller ones. None are very swift, and so there are none of any account as “armed liners,” supposing such craft even to be of value. On the other hand, all are very useful as transports. Both in the Chino-Japanese war and in the war with Russia they proved very valuable.

XIII THE JAPANESE ADMIRALTY

The Japanese Admiralty is modelled closely on the British one.

The supreme command is vested in the Emperor.

The Minister of Marine—the present holder of this office (1904) is Admiral Yamamoto Gombey—is a member of the Cabinet, and superintends administration. He is selected from the admirals on the active list, and responsible under the Emperor for everything.

The coast is divided into four naval districts:—

Yokosuka. Sassebo.
Kuré. Maitzuru.

A fifth district, that of Muroran, is in process of formation.

Each district has its headquarters at the arsenal from which it takes its name, and barracks, etc., are at each of these places.

The men belonging to any district wear the name of that on their cap ribbons, not the name of the ship in which they serve.

INTELLIGENCE DEPARTMENT

The Japanese Naval Intelligence Department is, in my opinion, the best in the world. In the popular view this is the characteristic of the Russian one; but the Russian Intelligence Department hardly lives up to its reputation. For the collection of immaterial facts it is unrivalled, but the little it really gleaned of Japanese war preparation was amply evidenced in February, 1904.

The Japanese, on the other hand, manage to find out nearly everything. They have to a marked degree men eminently qualified for the task. Where other nations employ agents, Japanese naval officers have always been found ready to serve in the most menial capacities. Both at Port Arthur and Vladivostok officers served as coolies, or as “native servants,” being Japanese, Chinese, or Koreans, as it suited their book. Whether any one man secured really valuable information is doubtful; the benefits were secured rather by the patient sifting of everything at Tokio.

It is said that the Japanese torpedo craft reached the Russian battleships on February 8th by using Russian signals that they had stolen the secret of. Far more probable is it that they had learned them by long and patient observation.

FINANCE

The expenditure upon the Japanese Navy for the years preceding the war with Russia was—

Yen.
1900-1 17,513,354
1901-2 20,161,010
1902-3 28,425,630

In 1903 the new programme was authorised, to spread over a series of years.

The Chinese war indemnity paid for most of the ships of the after-the-war programme. The war with China cost £3,595,400 for the Navy, while the Army part totalled to £16,455,200.

Japan is not a wealthy country, and, but for the probability of war with Russia, it is quite possible that the new naval programme would never have been authorised—at any rate, on so extended a scale as now.

XIV ENTRY AND TRAINING OF OFFICERS

EXECUTIVE.

Theoretically, the Imperial Japanese Navy is a democratic institution; actually, it is no more so than the British Army. All classes are eligible for commissions, but, owing to the low rate of pay, only those with some private means care much to become officers. Eighty-five per cent. or so belong to the old fighting class, the Samaurai.

The regulations as to the entry of cadets are as follows:—

They must be between the ages of 16 and 19. On the day appointed they must present themselves for a physical examination, and about 33 per cent. fail to satisfy the medical board in this respect. The remainder are then entered for a competitive examination in the following subjects:—

Japanese literature.
Chinese literature.
English grammar.
” dictation.
English conversation.
” translation (English to Japanese and
Japanese to English).
Arithmetic.
Algebra.
Plain trigonometry.
Elementary geometry.
History (of the world).
Geography.
Elementary physics.
Very elementary chemistry.
Freehand drawing.

Competition is severe; for each vacancy there are about five competitors; consequently, of those that originally enter only about 15 per cent. become _ko-hoshi_ (naval cadets).

The successful competitors are sent to the Naval College at Yetajima, near Kuré (pronounced Kōūrā), where they remain three years, at the entire expense of the Government nominally, but generally costing something to their relatives.

Here they go through a very extensive course, which, in addition to a number of subjects not specified here, includes:—

Seamanship,
Gunnery,
Torpedo,
Navigation,
Field drill,
Physics,
Chemistry,
Mechanical engineering (elementary),
English,
and all the other subjects of the original competitive examination in
advanced stages.

There is a feeling in Japan that this curriculum is rather too liberal for the time allowed.

Some gunboats are attached to the college, and in these classes of the cadets go out for a day or two’s practical instruction now and again; speaking generally, however, the three years are shore-service.

After the three years at college a cadet becomes a _sho-i ko-hoshé_ (midshipman), and is sent to sea for one year in a training ship (masted), drawing a trifling pay.

At the expiration of this period, when between the ages of twenty to twenty-three, the midshipmen enter for a technical pass-examination for _sho-i_ (second-class sub-lieutenant). If he fails (as a proportion do) he is put back six months. He then has a second try. If he fails in this attempt his services are dispensed with for good and all.

Passed midshipmen become sub-lieutenants, not by virtue of the examination only, but in order of seniority obtained in the examination, and as vacancies occur.

As sub-lieutenants they leave examinations behind them, but they have to write essays on naval subjects. According to how the _sho-i_ does in these, he passes up through into the higher class of sub-lieutenants. The best take about one year to become a _tchu-i_ (first-class sub-lieutenant), the worst take much longer.

After two years’ service as first-class sub-lieutenant a _tchu-i_ is eligible for promotion to _taï-i_ (lieutenant).

Promotion is entirely by selection in this and all senior ranks. The very youngest age at which an officer can become a _taï-i_ is twenty-three. Twenty-four to twenty-five is nearer the average. A non-promoted _tchu-i_ is compulsorily retired at the age of forty-two; but there are none so old as that.

After eight years’ service a _taï-i_ is eligible for promotion (by selection entirely) to lieutenant-commander. Thirty-one is the youngest age for this. Lieutenant-commander is a distinct rank, intermediate between lieutenant and commander. Its holder is entitled to the courtesy rank of “captain,” and officially so addressed. In command of a small ship he is a _scho-sa_; serving in a big ship he is a _hojutsho_ (gunnery lieutenant), _suirisho_ (torpedo lieutenant) or a _kokisho_ (navigator).

A lieutenant-commander is selected for _tchu-sa_ (commander) without any definite service time.

Thence, still entirely by selection he can pass on upwards through the usual higher grades of captain, rear-admiral, and vice-admiral (_kan-cho_, _scho-sho_, and _tucho_). The average age at which an officer becomes a _scho-cho_ (rear-admiral) is forty-five. The retiring age is sixty-five, but comparatively few live so long.

To be selected for _taï-sho_ (admiral), a _tucho_ must have been in command of a fleet two years, and, further, have been so in actual war.

A higher nominal rank still exists of admiral of the fleet—destined for a full admiral who has had meritorious war service in that rank; but there are none at present.

ENGINEERS.

An officer enters for a _kika-no_ (engineer) by competitive examination identical with that for those of military rank already described.

Those who pass are sent to Yokosuka, where they spend four years training in the technique of their profession. After that they join ships, having equivalent rank with, but after, the military branch, according to the table on a later page.

Engineers in the Japanese Navy have power to punish their own men, being executive in their own department. They are not, however, granted military titles.

DOCTORS.

A doctor (_quini_) is now a civilian who has a fancy for the sea-service. Like engineers, doctors have equivalent rank with, but after, the corresponding military branch, and are eligible for pensions after twenty years’ service.

PAYMASTERS.

A paymaster (_shukei_) is also a civilian, entered as doctors are, and serving under the same conditions.

CONSTRUCTORS.

The constructor (_losin-sokun_) enters by competitive examination much as executive and engineers do. After passing he is attached to a dockyard, and then sent abroad, usually to England, to learn more than he can acquire in Japanese dockyards, where only small ships are built as yet. A constructor has equivalent rank with the executive, just like the other non-military branches. All these branches at times use for themselves a military title; thus, _taï-i-kikano_ (lieutenant-engineer) or _taï-i-losin-sokun_ (lieutenant-constructor); but the military branch being, naturally enough, jealous of their titles, the prefix is non-official, and never applied to civil branches by the executive. Of the civil branches, constructors most often get the military title, and in the dockyards are always addressed by the employés as _taï-i_, _houk-cho_, or _kan-cho_, without the word constructor at all. In the British Navy, of course, constructors are almost as entirely civil a profession as Admiralty clerks, and are absolutely unknown to naval officers afloat; but in the Japanese Navy the tie is closer, and every officer knows them.

JAPANESE NAVAL TITLES WITH ENGLISH EQUIVALENTS

=Note.=— _a_ is pronounced as _a_ in f_a_ther.
_ai_ “ _i_ in _i_dle.
_i_ “ _e_ in f_ee_t,
_u_ “ _ou_, or as _ue_ in cl_ue_.
_ei_ or _e_ “ _a_ in f_a_te.
Example: _taï-i_ is pronounced “_ti-ēē_.”

To follow French pronunciation is a tolerably safe guide.

The system under which the Japanese name their deck officers is extremely simple. They are divided into three groups—big, medium, and little. For each of the three grades in these groups there are three similar prefixes—_taï_-, _tchū_-,[29] and _shŏ_-. The affix is the same for all grades in each group, -_shō_ for the big, -_sá_ for the medium, and -_i_ for the lowest.

[29] Might also be transliterated “su,” “s” having the pronunciation of “tch” here.

Thus they get:—

PREFIX. AFFIX.
1. _taï_- } Big. Medium. Little.
2. _tchū_- } -_shŏ_ -_sá_ -_i_
3. _shŏ_- }

The various ranks, with the corresponding English equivalents, are as follows, working upwards:—

Sho-i (Ko-hoshei) = midshipman.
Sho-i = 2nd class sub-lieutenant.
Tchu-i = 1st class sub-lieutenant.
Taï-i = lieutenant.
Sho-sá = lieutenant-commander.
Tchu-sá = commander.
Taï-sá = captain.
Sho-sho = rear-admiral.
Tchu-sho = vice-admiral.
Taï-sho = admiral.

In addition, there are the following branches of lieutenant-commanders:—

Ho-jūt-sho = gunnery lieutenant,
Sui-ri-sho = torpedo lieutenant,
Ko-ki-sho = navigating lieutenant,

which means principal officer connected with guns, torpedo, or navigation, as the case may be.

As for the other branches:—

Kika-no = engineer.
Gui-ni = doctor.
Shukei = paymaster.
Zosin = constructor.

The affix _kwan_ (pronounced “kuàrn”) denotes junior rank, and is equivalent to our “assistant.” _Tdi-kikansh_ is also “assistant-engineer,” while the chief of any ship is _kikan-sho_.

The ordinary warrant officer is known as a _juin’shi-kwan_ (“jivēntsh kuàrn”).

XV ENTRY OF MEN

BLUEJACKETS

By the law of Japan, every male of the age of twenty has to draw lots for the conscription, unless he is already serving. As a matter of fact, however, there are comparatively few conscript sailors in the Imperial Navy, as young Japanese volunteer for service in large numbers.

All candidates undergo a physical examination; and also a literary examination in elementary writing, reading, and arithmetic.

Volunteers are accepted between the ages of seventeen and twenty-one years, and sign on for six years’ service.

Conscripts are compelled to serve four years.

Both classes may volunteer to continue serving up to the following ages, when they are pensioned off:—

Seamen 40 years.
Petty officers 45 ”
Warrant officers 50 ”
Chief warrant officers 55 ”

Warrant and chief warrant officers in the Japanese Navy never undertake watch-keeping as in the British Navy. In no cases do they mess with the commissioned officers, as in our destroyers, torpedo boats, and torpedo gunboats, but, even in destroyers, have always their own mess.

They are not eligible for promotion to commissioned rank.

XVI PAY

Pay in the Japanese Navy is, save in one important particular (mess allowance), very much on all-fours as to system with pay in the Russian Navy. There is, in all ranks, the same distinction between shore pay and sea pay, only, unlike the Russian, the Jap is not confined inside his harbours by Nature for two-thirds of the year.

Like Russian pay, too, it varies according to the station and varying living expenses. The distinctly Japanese element—and a very democratic one to boot—is that mess allowance is the same for all ranks: an ordinary seaman, a lieutenant, and a vice-admiral all draw exactly the same sum for messing, and that the modest one of 4_s_. 7_d_. and a fraction per week—a pound a month. The idea of the Japanese Government appears to be admirable enough in theory; it has certainly the merit of simplicity.

It must be borne in mind that the cost of living in Japan is about one-third the cost of living in the same style in England, about half the cost of living in Russia, and one-fifth the cost in the United States.

Details of pay for the various ranks are as follows:—

OFFICERS.

Naval cadets and engineer students, while at college, are allowed £5 (50 yen) a month to cover all expenses.

Midshipmen, during their year at sea, receive £3 a month.

Sub-lieutenants get from £3 5_s_. to £4 a month, plus a sea allowance of £1 a month and the £1 mess allowance. Altogether they draw about £70 a year, the equivalent of £200 a year in England; while, if serving abroad, their sea allowance is nearly trebled. It is said to be practically impossible for sub-lieutenants to live on their pay. A first-class sub-lieutenant draws £5 a month as ordinary pay.

_Lieutenants and Equivalent Ranks._

Lieutenants draw £8 a month, plus a sea allowance of from £1 to £8 per month, according to the station. Exclusive of mess allowance, a Japanese lieutenant in England gets a little under £200 a year—more or less the same as a British naval lieutenant.

Flag, gunnery, and torpedo lieutenants draw some additional pay for these duties. Unlike British specialists, all specialist lieutenants are watch-keepers in the Japanese service.

_Lieutenant-Commanders._

A lieutenant-commander is paid £10 a month, while his sea allowance varies from £2 to £12, according to the service on which he is engaged. Destroyers are lieutenant-commanders commands, and those who are captains of destroyers draw more accordingly than those serving in big ships as senior lieutenants.

_Commanders._

Commanders are paid £15 a month. Sea pay ranges from £2 10_s_. to £10—the maximum in a big ship; but if captain of a gunboat, a commander’s sea pay may rise to £15.

_Captains._

The pay of a captain is £22 a month. Sea pay runs from £3 to £16. He may also draw additions for entertaining expenses.

_Rear-Admirals._

Rear-Admirals draw £29 a month, and the extra sea pay may run to £23, plus entertaining allowances.

_Vice-Admirals._

Vice-admirals draw £35 per month ordinary and £30 extra sea pay. In Japan this is equivalent to over £2000 a year in comparison with life on the English scale.

_Admirals._

The pay of admirals is fixed at £52 per month and £30 sea allowance.

In addition to these sources of pay, all officers on the active list in the senior ranks are eligible for extra pay—a species of good-service pensions. Meritorious conduct and medals are qualifications.

Engineers, doctors, and paymasters draw identical pay with the corresponding naval ranks, and extra pay for special duties.

Constructors are on the same footing.

The equivalents in the different branches are:—

-----------------+------------------+---------------------+
Military. | Engineer. | Doctor. |
-----------------+------------------+---------------------+
Cadet. | Cadet | |
Midshipman | Assist.-Engineer | Assist.-Surgeon |
| (junior) | (junior) |
Sub-lieutenant | Assist.-Engineer | Assist.-Surgeon |
| (senior) | (senior) |
Lieutenant | Engineer | Surgeon |
Lieut.-Commander | | |
Commander | Staff-Engineer | Staff-Surgeon Staff |
Captain | Fleet-Engineer | Fleet-Surgeon Fleet |
{| Inspector of | Deputy Inspector |
{| Machinery | of Hospitals |
Rear-Admiral {| Chief Inspector | Inspector of |
Vice-Admiral {| of Machinery | Hospitals and |
{| | Fleets |
{| Inspector of | Inspector-General |
{| Machinery | |
{| General | |
Admiral | | |
| | |
-----------------+------------------+---------------------+
--------------------+---------------------+
Paymaster. | Constructor. |
--------------------+---------------------+
Clerk | |
Assist.-Paymaster | |
(junior) | |
Assist.-Paymaster | Assist.-Constructor |
(senior) | |
Paymaster | Constructor |
| |
Staff-Paymaster | |
Fleet-Paymaster | Chief-Constructor |
Paymaster-in-Chief | Inspector |
| |
Paymaster-General | |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
--------------------+---------------------+

MEN.