Chapter II: General Moral Principles (2)

The parents’ duty towards the child is to do everything that true love demands, for his physical, moral, and intellectual well-being.

With regard to the child’s duty towards his parents the following verses from Proverbs may be noticed:—

“The eye that mocketh at his father, and despiseth to obey his
mother, the ravens of the valley shall pick it out, and the young
eagles shall eat it” (xxx. 17).

“Whoso robbeth his father or his mother, and saith, It is no
transgression, the same is the companion of a destroyer” (xxviii.
24).

“Whoso curseth his father or his mother, his lamp shall be put out
in obscure darkness” (xx. 20).

“He that wasteth his father and chaseth away his mother is a son
that causeth shame, and bringeth reproach” (xix. 26).

“The glory of children are their fathers” (xvii. 6).

2. All other special duties towards our fellow-men may be divided into (i.) Duties towards our equals; (ii.) Duties towards our superiors and towards our inferiors.

(I.) DUTIES TOWARDS OUR EQUALS.

(1.) A bond of friendship frequently exists between equals.

Friends have certain duties to fulfil towards each other. It is expected that friends should have faith in their mutual friendship. “As in water face answereth to face, so in the heart man answereth to man” (Prov. xxvii. 19). As the water reflects the face of him who looks into it, so the heart of man reflects the friendship and faithfulness of him who has penetrated into it. Our estimation of our friend’s feeling toward us is the measure of the genuineness and value of our own friendship towards him.

Disinterestedness is an essential condition of genuine friendship. Every service we render to our friend must be prompted by the desire to be of use to him. and not to advance our own interest. If any other motive enters our mind, if we speculate on his gratitude, and think that our kindness must eventually be returned with interest, we have no knowledge or feeling of friendship. Thus our Sages declare, “Friendship dictated by a selfish motive comes to an end together with the speculation; but friendship which is not based on any selfish motive comes never to an end. An instance of the first kind is the friendship between Amnon and Tamar (2 Sam. xiii.); of the second kind, the friendship between David and Jonathan (1 Sam. xviii.)” (Aboth v. 16).

Friends bound to each other by genuine and sincere love find great pleasure in the fulfilment of the duties involved in friendship. They do not hesitate to bring sacrifices for each other’s well-being; they evince heartfelt sympathy for each other in good and evil fortune.

All the duties of charity—gemilluth chesed—which we owe to our fellow-men in general, apply with increased force when our fellow-man is also our friend. One of these duties demands our special attention, because it is frequently neglected through human weakness: truthfulness and openness. Flattery, objectionable as it is in every case, is most detestable between friends. We must encourage our friends by kind words, and acknowledge their merits, but we must not spoil them by undue flattery. If, on the other hand, we discover errors or vices in our friend, it is our duty to communicate to him openly our opinion, and to do all that is in our power to bring him back to the path of righteousness and truth. “Thou shalt surely rebuke thy friend, and not suffer sin upon him” (Lev. xix. 17).

Friendship is mostly formed without premeditation, and without any aim; we are friends, we do not know how and why; some similarity in our character, in our talents, in our views, in our successes and failures, or in our fortunes and misfortunes, draws us together, and we become friends before we are aware of the fact. But as far as we have control over our feelings we ought to be careful not to plunge into friendship without knowing something of the character and the tendencies of those with whom we are to associate ourselves in such close relationship. In Proverbs we are told, “Make no friendships with an angry man, and with a furious man thou shalt not go” (xxii. 24). Ben-sira (vi. 6) exhorts us, “If thou wouldst get a friend, prove him first, and be not hasty to credit him.” Our Sages say, “It is easy to make an enemy; it is difficult to make a friend” (Yalkut on Deut. vi. 16).

The acquisition of a true friend is by no means an easy task. But it is a task that cannot be dispensed with. Persons who enjoy a life spent in loneliness uncheered by friendship are exceptions to the rule; such a life is miserable, and the climax of all the evils complained of by Heman the Ezrahite (Ps. lxxxviii. 19) is: “Lover and friend hast thou put far from me, and darkness is mine acquaintance.” Job in his great sufferings longs for “the love which is shown to the unhappy by his friend” (Job vi. 14).

Friendship being one of our most valuable possessions, it must be well guarded and cultivated, lest it be lost or weakened. “Thine own friend and thy father’s friend, forsake not” (Prov. xxvii. 10). “Let thy foot be seldom in thy friend’s house, lest he be weary of thee, and so hate thee” (ibid. xxv. 17).

True friendship can be extended only to a few; but those who are not our friends need not be our enemies. They are all our fellow-men, and our conduct towards them is to be guided by the principle, “Love thy fellow-man as thyself.” We are distinctly commanded, “Thou shalt not hate thy brother in thine heart” (Lev. xix. 18), “brother” having here the same meaning as fellow-man. Enmity, like friendship, comes frequently unawares; we dislike or even hate a person without knowing why. But it is our duty, as soon as such an ill-feeling has stolen into our heart, to search for its origin; and this being done, we shall generally feel ashamed of having allowed our heart to be invaded by such an unworthy intruder. We must keep away from evil-doers, and not associate with wicked people; but this is a very different thing from hating our neighbour. The pious wish, “May sinners cease to exist, and the wicked be no more” (Ps. civ. 35), is explained in the Talmud in the words of Beruria, daughter of Rabbi Meir, as follows: “May sins cease to exist, and the wicked will be no more.” We often conceive just indignation at the misdeeds of our neighbours, and cannot well separate the doer from the deed. But we ought in such cases of indignation to examine ourselves, whether the source of our indignation is pure, or has its root in selfishness. Such an analysis of our motives would soon purify our heart of all ill-feeling.

In our conduct towards those whom we consider our enemies, or who consider us their enemies, we must show forbearance and a desire to offer or to seek forgiveness, according as we are the doers or the sufferers of wrong. Self-love and self-esteem, if not kept within due limits, easily produce feelings of revenge. Without entirely suppressing human nature, we are bound to control our feelings, and to let love of our fellow-men in all conditions occupy the first place in our heart. We are taught by our Sages, “He who is forbearing, receives also pardon for his sins” (Babyl. Talm. Yoma 23a); “Be of the persecuted, and not of the persecutors” (ibid. Baba Kama 93a); “To those who being offended do not offend, being insulted do not insult, the verse applies: ‘And they who love him shall be as the sun when he goeth forth in his might’” (Judges v. 31; Babyl. Talm. Shabbath 88b).

(2.) Man and wife are united by the holy bond of marriage. They owe to each other love, faithfulness, confidence, and untiring endeavour to make each other happy. The neglect of these duties turns a happy home into an abode of misery and wretchedness. [43] The last of the prophets, Malachi, rebuking such neglect, says: “The Lord hath been witness between thee and the wife of thy youth, against whom thou hast dealt treacherously, yet is she thy companion and the wife of thy covenant.”

(3.) As citizens of a State we must take our proper share in all work for the welfare of the State. When the State is in danger we must evince patriotism, and must not withdraw ourselves from those duties which, under such circumstances, devolve upon every citizen. All our means, our physical and intellectual faculties, must be at the disposal of the country in which we live as citizens. Thus Jeremiah exhorts his brethren in Babylonia: “Build ye houses and dwell in them; and plant gardens, and eat the fruit of them; ... and seek the peace of the city whither I have caused you to be carried away captives, and pray unto the Lord for it: for in the peace thereof shall you have peace” (Jer. xxix. 5, 7). Similarly we are taught, “Pray for the welfare of the government” (Aboth iii. 2). [44]

An important dictum of Samuel, a Rabbi famous for his decisions in questions of civil law, is accepted in the Talmud as law: “The law of the State is binding upon us,” דינא דמלכותא דינא (Babyl. Talm. Baba Kamma 113a). It is, according to the teaching of the Talmud, incumbent upon us, as citizens of the State, to obey the laws of the country. There is no difference between Jews and their fellow-citizens with regard to the duty of loyalty. It is only in case of an attempt to force us aside from our religion that we are not only justified in resisting and disobeying laws framed with this intention, but we are commanded to do so. But in the absence of such intention, we must fulfil all those duties which devolve upon all citizens alike—such as military service in countries that have general conscription—although such obedience may carry with it a breach of some of the laws of our religion. On the contrary, evasion and desertion of all national obligations is a serious offence against our holy Law.

(4.) As members of the same religious community, we must unite in working for the well-being of the whole body. “Do not separate thyself from the congregation” (Aboth ii. 4) is a principle taught by the great Hillel. A Jew who violates this principle, and keeps aloof from his brethren, unwilling to take his share of the communal burdens, is guilty of a serious dereliction of duty, and is set forth in the Talmud as an example of most disgraceful conduct. “When your brethren are in trouble, do not say, ‘I have my home, my food and drink; I am safe.’ If you ever were to think so, the words of the prophet would apply to you: ‘Surely this iniquity shall not be purged from you till you die’.” “He who does not join the community in times of danger and trouble will never enjoy the Divine blessing” (Babyl. Talm. Taanith, p. 11a); “He who separates from the ways of the community has no portion of the world to come,” הפורש מדרכי צבור אין לו חלק לעולם הבא (Maim., Mishneh-torah, Hilchoth Teshubah iii. 6).

(5.) As to members of another community, we have to show due regard for their religious convictions, and not to wound their feelings in respect of anything they hold sacred. Respect for the religious feelings of our fellow-men will increase their regard for our own religion, and evoke in them the same consideration for our religious feelings. All our duties towards our fellow-men are equally binding upon us whether in relation to members of ether faiths or of our own.

(6.) Employers and employed, sellers and buyers, must act towards each other with the strictest honesty. In cases of dispute a friendly explanation or discussion is more likely to promote the interest of both parties than mutual animosity. Each party must bear in mind that prosperity depends on the co-operation of the other party, and not on its ruin.

Note.—We meet in the Talmud and works based on the Talmud with dicta which seem at first sight to exclude Gentiles (עכו״ם, נכרי or גוי) from our duty of love towards our fellow-men. This, however, was never intended. Sayings of this kind originated in days of warfare between the oppressor and the oppressed, and were an outburst of feelings of pain and anger, caused by an enemy who was not restrained from tyranny and cruelty by any sense of justice and humanity. But this state of affairs has ceased, and such sayings have since entirely lost their force and meaning, and are practically forgotten. Some of these passages have been removed from the Talmudical works by hostile censors; but having led, and being still likely to lead, to errors or misunderstanding, less on the part of Jews than of non-Jewish readers, they ought to be eliminated in future editions of any of these works by Jewish censors, especially as the notices on the first page of the books, that the terms גוי, עכו״ם or נכרי do not apply to our non-Jewish neighbours at the present day, appear to have proved ineffectual against calumny and persecution.

(II.) DUTIES TO OUR SUPERIORS AND INFERIORS.

Although we are all equally children of one God, and before the Most High all our petty differences disappear, His infinite wisdom willed it that there should be a certain degree of inequality among His creatures; that some men should be wise, others simple; some talented, others less skilful; some strong, others weak; some high, others low; some imperious, others submissive; some rulers, others subjects; some fit to guide, and others only fit to be guided. This inequality is the source of certain special duties between man and man. “Be submissive to your superior, agreeable to your inferior, and cheerful to every one” (Aboth iii. 12).

(1.) The teacher who patiently strives to benefit his pupils by his instruction and counsel has a just claim on their respect. It is in the interest of the pupils themselves to regard their teacher as a friend, to have confidence in him, and faith in his superiority. It is themselves they benefit most if they lighten the labours of their teacher by due attention and obedience, and themselves they injure most, if by want of proper respect they render his task difficult and disagreeable.

On the other hand, it is the duty of the teacher to try to win the respect and the affection of the pupils by conscientiousness in his work, by patience and forbearance, by kindness and justice, by genuine interest in the progress and welfare of those entrusted to his care, and, above all, by a pure, good, and noble life.—The pupils owe much to their teachers, but the latter also owe something to their disciples. “Much have I learnt from my teachers, more from my fellow-students, most from my pupils,” is a well-known Talmudical saying (Babyl. Talm. Taanith 7a). Of the priest, who in ancient time used to be the principal teacher, the prophet Malachi says: “The priest’s lips shall keep knowledge, and they shall seek the law at his mouth; for he is the messenger of the Lord of hosts” (Mal. ii. 7). Rabbi Jochanan, in commenting on these words, said, “If the teacher is like the messenger of the Lord, i.e., leads a pure life in the service of the Lord, then people shall seek instruction at his mouth; if not, they cannot be instructed by him in the Law” (Yalkut ad locum).—“Let the honour of thy disciple be as dear to thee as thy own, and the honour of thy colleague as dear as the fear of thy teacher, and the fear of thy teacher as dear as the fear of Heaven” (Aboth iv. 15).—“He who has been taught something by his neighbour, whether it be a chapter, a law, a verse, a phrase, or a letter, owes him respect. Thus David, who only learnt two things from Ahitophel, called him ‘teacher, chief, and friend’” (ibid. vi. 3).

Reverence is shown by a pupil to his teacher, not only by outward signs of respect, but also by refraining from opposing him, his teaching, or his decisions (Maimonides I. Hilchoth Talmud torah v. 1). A pupil who altogether relinquishes the teaching of his master is to the latter a source of intense grief.—Among the outward signs of regard for the teacher we find the ancient custom or rule to pay a visit to the teacher on the three festivals: Passover, Feast of Weeks, and Tabernacles (ibid. v. 7).

(2.) Master and Servant.—The relation between master and servant is legally regulated by the same rules as that between employer and employed. Strict honesty in the fulfilment of the duties undertaken by either party is the basis of a good understanding between master and servant. The former must not exact from the latter more than was agreed upon, and the latter must not fail to perform all that he has undertaken to do. The relation between master and servant can be made more pleasant on both sides, if they are sensible enough to recognise their mutual obligations. On the part of the master, it is necessary that he should consider his servant as a human being like himself, who has a right to expect due reward for faithful service. A treatment of the servant from this point of view inspires him with a feeling of regard and attachment for his master, which finds expression in good and honest service. The servant will feel comfortable in his work, and be convinced that to be a servant is no degradation.—“Thou shalt not defraud an hired servant that is poor and needy, whether he be of thy brethren or of thy strangers that are in the land within thy gates” (Deut. xxiv. 14).

(3.) Rich and Poor.—“The rich and poor meet together: the Lord is the maker of them all” (Prov. xxii. 2). Those who are fortunate enough to possess more than is wanted for the necessities of life, are expected to spend part of the surplus in relieving those who possess less than they require for their maintenance. Sympathy towards the poor and needy is the duty of the rich; gratitude towards the generous and benevolent is the duty of the poor. But the rich must by no means make their gifts dependent on the signs of gratitude on the part of the poor; they must even avoid eliciting expressions of thanks, as these lead too often to flattery, hypocrisy, and servility. The rich find ample reward for their benevolence in the joyous feeling that Providence has chosen them as the means of diminishing the sufferings, the troubles, and the cares of some of their fellow-men.

(4.) The following have a just claim on our respect:—

Learned Men (תלמידי חכמים), who, even if not directly our teachers, in many ways benefit us by their learning. “It is a great sin to despise or to hate the wise: Jerusalem has chiefly been destroyed as a punishment for the contempt shown for the learned; as it is said (2 Chron. xxxvi. 16), ‘They mocked the messengers of God, and despised his words, and misused his prophets, until the wrath of the Lord arose against his people till there was no remedy’” (Maimonides, l. c. vi. 11). “He who despises talmide-chachamim,” says Rab, “has no remedy for his disease” (Babyl. Talm. Shabbath, 119b), and belongs to those who forfeit their portion in the world to come (אין להם חלק לעולם הבא, ibid., Sanhedrin 90).

The Aged.—“Thou shalt rise up before the hoary head, and honour the face of the old man, and fear thy God” (Lev. xix. 32). The Bible illustrates, in the history of Rehoboam (1 Kings xii.), the evil consequences of the contempt shown by this king to the words of the old men.—“With the ancient is wisdom, and in length of days understanding” (Job xii. 12). “The building of the young is destruction; the destruction of the old is building” (B. T. Megillah 31b). [45]

Great men who have accomplished great works in the interest of mankind, and have thus merited the gratitude of all.

The great men of our nation, their works and the institutions founded by them at various periods of our history. “Do not despise thy mother, though she hath become old” (Prov. xxiii. 22). The feeling of piety and reverence towards our Sages and Teachers of former generations, and towards institutions of ancient times that have come down to us, is an essential element in our inner religion (חובות הלבבות).

The magistrates, judges, and statesmen, who devote their time, their talents, and their energy to promoting the well-being of the State.

The Head of the State.—“Fear the Lord, O my son, and the king, and do not mix with rioters” (Prov. xxiv. 21).

(C.) KINDNESS TO ANIMALS.

“Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth, and subdue it: and have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over every living thing that moveth upon the earth” (Gen. i. 28 and ix. 2, &c.; comp. Ps. viii. 7, &c.). Thus spake the Creator to the first man. He gave him a right to make use of the animals for his benefit; and man makes the animals work for him; they serve him as food, provide him with clothing and other necessary or useful things. In return for all these services the animals ought to be treated with kindness and consideration. It is a necessity to force certain beasts to work for us, and to kill certain animals for various purposes. But in doing so we must not cause more pain than is absolutely necessary. It is a disgraceful act to give pain to animals merely for sport, and to enjoy their agony. Bullfights and similar spectacles are barbarous, and tend to corrupt and brutalise the heart of man. The more we abstain from cruelty to animals, the more noble and loving is our conduct likely to be to one another. “A righteous man regardeth the feelings of his beast, but the heart of the wicked is cruel” (Prov. xii. 10).

The following are instances of kindness to animals enjoined in the Pentateuch:—

“Ye shall not kill an animal and its young on one day” (Lev. xxii. 28).

“If a bird’s nest happen to be before thee on the way upon the earth or upon a tree, with young ones or eggs, thou shalt not take the mother with the young. Let the mother go away; then thou mayest take the young ones, in order that it may be well with thee, and thy days be long” (Deut. xxii. 6, 7).

“Thou shalt not muzzle the ox when he treadeth out the corn” (ibid. xxv. 4).

In the Talmud we have the following saying in the name of Rab:—“We must not begin our meal before having given food to our cattle; for it is said, ‘And I will give you grass in thy field for thy cattle,’ and after that ‘thou shalt eat and be full’” (Deut. xi. 15; Babyl. Talm. 40a).

C.—DUTIES TO OURSELVES.

Our duties to ourselves are to a great extent included in our duties towards God and towards our fellow-men, because these likewise tend to promote our own well-being.

The fundamental principle of our duties towards ourselves is to make the best use of the gifts which the kindness of God has bestowed upon us.

1. Life and health are precious gifts received by us at the hands of Divine Providence. We must therefore guard them as valuable treasures, and must not endanger them without absolute necessity. On the contrary, as much as lies in our power, we must improve our health and preserve our life. Food and bodily enjoyment, however pleasant for the moment, must be let alone if they are injurious to health. If we find ourselves inclined to exceed the right measure in the enjoyment of a thing, it is advisable to turn, for a while at least, to the other extreme and avoid that enjoyment altogether. Thus persons that are easily misled to excess in drink should become total abstainers from drink. But in ordinary cases the golden mean is preferable, especially for us Jews who are trained by the Dietary Laws, and by other precepts, to have control over our appetites. We are not commanded to be ascetics and to lead a gloomy, miserable life. On the contrary, we are frequently told in the Pentateuch, “And ye shall rejoice before the Lord your God.” The Psalmist exhorts us to “serve the Lord with gladness; to come before his presence with singing” (Ps. c. 2). “He who doeth good to his own soul is a man of love; and he who troubleth his own flesh is a cruel man” (Prov. xi. 17); i.e., he who does good to himself is of a cheerful disposition, and is likely to do good to others; but he who deprives himself of enjoyments is often also cruel to his fellow-creatures. The Nazirite had to bring a sin-offering after the expiration of the period of his vow. “What sin has he committed?” was asked. The answer is given in the Talmud by Samuel: “Because he deprived himself of wine;” and the Rabbi further infers from this, that it is prohibited to impose a voluntary fast upon oneself. Rabbi Eleazar, however, thinks that the vow of a Nazirite is a praiseworthy act, and his view found many followers, especially in the Middle Ages. Abraham Ibn Ezra, e.g., explains that the sin of the Nazirite consists in not prolonging the state of Naziritism. But, however different their opinions may be theoretically, all agree that no voluntary fast should be undertaken, if it endangers the health of the faster, changes cheerfulness into sadness, and disables him from doing necessary or useful work.

2. Wealth, if acquired in an honest manner, by hard work, is conducive to our well-being. But in our search for wealth we must bear in mind that it is not an end in itself, but serves only as a means of securing our well-being. Koheleth tells us, what experience endorses, that there are “riches kept for the owners thereof to their hurt” (Eccles. v. 12). It is true we must struggle for the means of our existence. But in the struggle for wealth we must not entirely suppress the claims of our moral and intellectual wants, and if we were to suppress them, we should only work for our own ruin. “Two things have I required of thee; deny me them not before I die: Remove far from me vanity and lies; give me neither poverty nor riches; feed me with food convenient for me: lest I be full, and deny thee, and say, Who is the Lord? or lest I be poor, and steal, and take the name of my God in vain” (Prov. xxx. 7–9). To this golden mean we should adhere. It is our duty to seek an honest livelihood, but we are told, “Labour not to be rich: cease from thine own wisdom” (Prov. xxiii. 4). One of the various duties of parents towards their children is to take good care that they learn a trade, and “he who does not teach his son a trade,” say our Sages, “is as guilty as if he directly taught him to rob” (Babyl. Talm. Kiddushin, p. 29a).

There is an erroneous opinion abroad, that commerce is more congenial to Judaism than handicraft. In our Law no trace of such preference is noticeable; on the contrary, agriculture was the principal occupation of the Israelites. “When thou eatest the labour of thine hands, happy art thou, and it is well with thee” (Ps. cxxviii. 2). “Love work, and hate lordship” is a well-known lesson of the sayings of the Fathers (Aboth i. 10). Bible and post-Biblical literature equally teach us the lesson that our comfort and happiness do not depend on the amount of wealth we have amassed, but on the degree of contentment our heart has acquired. “Sweet is the sleep of the labourer, whether he eat little or much: but the abundance of the rich will not suffer him to sleep” (Eccles. v. 11).

Industry is one of the sources of human happiness; but the blessing of industry is easily lost, if it is not combined with thrift and temperance. In days of prosperity we must bear in mind that days of misfortune may come; we must, so far as we can, provide for them, so that we may be able to hold out “till the storm has passed.” Temperance is inseparable from thrift and industry. Intemperance not only consumes the products of thrift and industry, but in course of time destroys these very sources of our prosperity. Even with regard to Sabbath, in honour of which some degree of comfort and even of luxury may be indulged in, the principle is laid down: “Treat thy Sabbath like an ordinary day, if additional expense is likely to make thee dependent on charity” (Babyl. Talm. Shabbath 118a).

3. Knowledge.—God has made man “a little lower than the angels, and has crowned him with glory and honour” (Ps. viii. 6); He has endowed him with the faculty of acquiring knowledge: “There is a spirit in man, and an inspiration of the Almighty, that gives him understanding” (Job xxxii. 8). It is our duty to cultivate this faculty, to nurse it with all possible care, that it may grow, produce beautiful blossoms, and bear goodly fruit. The training must begin very early, at an age in which we are entirely dependent on the assistance and guidance of others. Parents, to whom the Almighty has entrusted the care of their children, are therefore commanded to provide for their education; and as parents are not always capable of doing this, the duty devolves on the community or on the State. Every civilised country has its schools, colleges, and seminaries for the development of the intellectual and moral faculties of its inhabitants, and as these institutions increase in number and efficiency, the prosperity of the nation grows in like proportion. But the success of these educational institutions, however well provided they may be with an excellent teaching staff and the best appliances, depends on the regular and punctual attendance of the children, their attention, and their industry. It is the duty of parents to see, as far as it is in their power, that these conditions be fulfilled. Among the various branches of knowledge we seek to acquire, there is one branch of paramount importance, the absence of which would make all other knowledge valueless: it is—

4. Moral and Religious Training.—“The fear of the Lord is the beginning of knowledge; fools despise wisdom and correction” (חכמה ומוסר Prov. i. 7). The author of the Book of Proverbs teaches that knowledge must be combined with יראת השם “fear of God;” and that it is a perverse idea to separate wisdom (חכמה) from moral training (מוסר), and to seek knowledge (דעת) without the fear of the Lord (יראת ה׳). Our Sages teach us that our training should include both fear of God and wisdom. “If there is no wisdom, there is no fear of God; and in the absence of the latter there is no wisdom” (Aboth iii. 17). Fear of the Lord, however, and fear of sin must have precedence. Rabbi Chanina, son of Dosa, says: “If a man’s wisdom is preceded by fear of sin, his wisdom is well established; if the fear of sin is preceded by wisdom, his wisdom is not well established” (ibid. 9).

The result of our training must be the acquisition of good manners and noble principles. Avoid extremes, and hold to the golden mean, is an excellent rule that leads us safely through the various conditions of life and wards off many troubles and dangers. The following examples may serve as an illustration of this rule: Do not ignore your own self; let self-love and self-respect influence your conduct; but these must not be allowed to develop into selfishness and arrogance. Look after your own interests, but do not consider them as the supreme rulers of your actions. Be self-reliant, and keep equally far from self-conceit and self-distrust. Haughtiness and self-contempt are extremes to be avoided: be modest. When wronged or insulted by your neighbour, be neither callous nor over-sensitive; ignore insult and wrong in most cases, forgive them readily in others, and resent them only when forced to do so. In disputes and discussions be neither weak nor obstinate: be firm. Be neither passionate nor indifferent: be calm. Do not trust every one, lest your credulity mislead you; do not suspect every one, lest you become misanthropic: be discreet. Do not seek danger, nor fear it; but be prepared to meet it with courage. Be temperate in eating and drinking, and avoid both excess and needless privation. In spending your earnings show neither niggardliness nor recklessness: be economical. Work, but not in such a manner as to ruin your health. As to your future, be neither too sanguine in your hopes, nor despondent: do your duty, and trust in God.

There are, however, exceptions from this rule; for in certain cases there is only the choice between two extremes. Such is Truthfulness. It is our duty to approach nearer and nearer the extreme of this virtue, and to consider the least deviation from it as vice. From our earliest youth we should train ourselves in the practice of this virtue. Every word that we desire to utter should be well examined before it passes our lips. We must be on our guard that nothing should escape our lips that is not in harmony with what we feel or think. In small matters as well as in important things truthfulness must be the principle which guides us in our utterances. “The lips of truth shall be established for ever, but for a moment only the tongue of falsehood” (Prov. xii. 19). “Keep thee far from a word of falsehood” (Exod. xxiii. 7). “Falsehood,” say our Sages, “has no legs to stand upon; whilst ‘truth’ is declared to be the seal of the Holy One, Blessed be He” (אמת חותמו של הקב״ה).

Our moral and religious training is based on the Word of God, on the Torah, and the study of the Torah, חלמוד תורה, is an essential element in Jewish education. The term Torah is to be understood in no narrow sense, but as including the written and the oral Law, all the books of the Holy Writings, and such works as have from time to time been composed for the purpose of facilitating and promoting the study of the Torah. The importance of this duty has been recognised from ancient times, and Jewish congregations, before building a synagogue, made provision for the religious education of the young and for the study of the Law, by establishing schools and colleges (בית ספר or בי רב and בית המדרש).

Talmud-torah is one of those duties to which no measure was fixed (אשר אין להם שיעור Mishnah Peah i. 1). Whenever we can find time and leisure, we ought to turn to the Word of God, every one according to his capacity and his opportunities. The readings from the Torah, both the written and the oral, which form part of our Service, have been introduced for the purpose of facilitating for the general public the fulfilment of the duty of Talmud-torah.

The study of the Law and the regular and punctual attendance at the Beth-hammidrash belong to those religious acts which “bear fruit here on earth and procure bliss in the future life” (ibid.). Our Sages exhort us in various sayings to devote ourselves earnestly to the study of the Torah. The object of this study is, in the first instance, to enable us to live in accordance with His Commandments; secondly, to purify our thoughts by turning them from common, ordinary things to higher and loftier subjects; for while we are reading the Divine messages and reflecting on them, we move in a purer atmosphere and must be inspired with holy and noble thoughts.

The book which is expected to produce these results must be approached “with awe, with meekness, with cheerfulness, and with purity” (Aboth vi. 6). Our intention must be to be instructed and guided by what we read. We must not presume to criticise the Divine decrees therein recorded. If we meet with passages that strike us as strange or objectionable, we may be sure that we have not yet comprehended the true sense of the Divine words. Modesty must cause us rather to assume shortcomings on our part than to find fault with the Holy Writings. “Turn it over, and read it again and again; for all is in it, and behold everything through it; and even when old and weak, cleave to it, and do not move away from it; for there is no better guide for thee than this one” (Aboth v. 22). There is one great advantage in the study of the Torah; it constantly supplies us with one of the best means of promoting our moral training, viz., with good company.

The society in which we move and the persons with whom we associate are an important factor in the formation of our character. Bad companions corrupt us, and lead us to ruin; good companions improve our moral conduct by their example and not rarely by their words. “If one joins mockers, he will be a mocker; if he joins the lowly, he will show grace” (Prov. iii. 34). “Keep away from a bad neighbour; do not associate with the wicked, and do not believe thyself safe from evil” (Aboth i. 7). In our daily prayers we ask God for His assistance in our endeavour to act according to this principle.

The aim and end of all our moral training must be to keep our mind pure from evil thoughts, to make our heart the seat of noble and lofty desires; to accustom our tongue to the utterance of that which is good and true, and to lead a pure, honourable, and godly life. If we succeed, we establish our well-being during our life on earth, and secure Divine blessing for our soul in the future world.