Chapter VI: Introduction (3)

(8.) xlviii. to liv.—It is not only deliverance from exile that the Jews have to hope for, but far greater things. The people of the Lord are to become glorious, and to be the source of salvation to all mankind. They will suffer at the hand of the nations, but the latter will ultimately see what wrong they have done to Israel. Notwithstanding all apparent obstacles, this prophecy will be fulfilled.

(9.) lv. to lx.—The prophet exhorts the people to follow the word of God, to abandon idolatry, and to be sincere in their prayer and repentance; only then might they hope for salvation. God has punished Israel, but the redeemer will come unto Zion.

(10.) lxi. to lxvi.—Encouragement is given especially to the ענוים “the meek,” “the broken-hearted;” the day of vengeance is announced against the haughty and sinners. The prophet prays to God, and God answers him with the promise of the ultimate triumph of the ענוים and יראי יי “the meek and the God-fearing.”

2. Jeremiah (ירמיה).—Jeremiah prophesied in the thirteenth year of Josiah, and continued to prophesy during his reign and that of his successors, and after the fall of Jerusalem, but it is not certain how long he lived after the destruction of the Temple, and where he died. He was the son of Hilkiah, of the priests in Anathoth, in the tribe of Benjamin. He was exposed to cruel persecutions, but these did not deter him from delivering the Divine message with which he was entrusted to the king and to the people. The prophecies of Jeremiah were written down by Baruch, at Jeremiah’s dictation (chap. xxxvi.), but the book was seized by King Jehoiakim, and burnt by him. The Book of Jeremiah, in our Bible, is probably the copy made later on by Baruch, and mentioned in Jer. xxxvi. 32.

The book is composed of the following parts:—

(1.) Chap. i.—The appointment of Jeremiah as prophet “over the nations and the kingdoms, to pluck up and to break down, and to destroy and to overthrow, to build and to plant” (ver. 10).

(2.) Chaps, ii. to vi.—Jeremiah addresses the inhabitants of Jerusalem. “Israel is a holy portion, belonging to the Lord; whosoever eats of it is guilty, and will be punished.” Israel ought therefore to be faithful to God. This they are not, in spite of the benefits bestowed on them; they are exhorted to repentance: in vain. They are therefore threatened with a hostile invasion from the north.

(3.) Chaps, vii. to x.—The prophet addresses the people in the gate of the Temple, exhorting them to true repentance. Without obedience to God the Temple and sacrificial service have no value. The foundation of the Law is, “You shall be to me a people, and walk in the way which I command you.” You have not obeyed, and punishment is determined upon. Jeremiah, foreseeing the desolation of the country and the ruin of the nation, laments and weeps, but he is sure that God is עשה חסד משפט וצדקה “one who doth loving-kindness, judgment, and righteousness,” and that those nations which indulged in cruelties against the Israelites when under Divine punishment will themselves not escape retribution.

(4.) xi. to xiii.—“The covenant was: Hear my voice, and do what I command you: ye shall be my people, and I will be your God.” You have broken this covenant and worshipped idols; evil must come upon you. This Jeremiah proclaimed in “the cities of Judah and the streets of Jerusalem,” and probably also in Anathoth; whereupon he was threatened with death. Such conduct gave occasion to further prophecies concerning the wickedness of the people and their impending punishment. The fact that Israel has been chosen to be the people of the Lord and has shown himself unworthy of the distinction, is symbolised by a girdle, forming at first an ornament to man, but which when rotten by moisture in the crevices of rocks, is no longer of any use.

(5.) Chaps, xiv. to xvii.—Drought visits Judah; Jeremiah prays to God for relief from famine. God rejects his petition. The prophet is disappointed, but he is assured that God will protect him from the attacks of the people, if he tries “to bring forth a precious thing from the vile.” He tries, but in vain.

(6.) xvii. 19–27.—Exhortation to keep the Sabbath, to abstain from all manner of work, and from carrying burdens out of or into the town.

(7.) xviii.—God changes His decrees according to the deeds of man, as a potter transforms the clay from one vessel to another. Jeremiah is again insulted and threatened, and he prays to God against his persecutors.

(8.) xix. and xx.—In the valley of Hinnom, Jeremiah denounces the idolatry of Israel, and as a symbol of the impending ruin of Israel, he breaks a pot of earthenware. Returning from the valley, he announces the coming evil in the court of the Temple in the presence of the people; he is taken into prison by Pashchur, the chief of the Temple, for one day. When released he repeats the same prophecy, but feels that he has given offence, and in utter despair curses the day of his birth.

(9.) Chaps, xxi. to xxiv.—Nebuchadnezzar attacked Judah, and Zedekiah (later king of Judah) sent to Jeremiah asking him to pray for the safety of the people. But Jeremiah prophesied defeat and disgrace on account of their iniquity. He went even by the command of God to the royal palace, and repeated there the Divine decree against the royal family, Shallum (= Joahaz), Jojakim, and Coniah (= Jeboiachin). There will come, however, one day a righteous offspring of David, who will rule justly and prosperously; He shall be called “The Lord is our salvation.” For the present it would be better to submit to the Babylonian rule. They are false prophets who flatter and speak in the name of God of victories over the Babylonians. The false prophets will all be punished—those who proclaim as their own prophecy the very words they heard from true prophets, those who in different words reproduce messages of the true prophets as their own, and those who invent falsehood. The advisability of submitting to the Babylonian power is also illustrated by the vision of two baskets of figs; good figs representing those who will submit, and bad figs those who prefer war with the Babylonians.

(10.) xxv. to xxvii.—Jeremiah continues, during the reign of Jehoiakim, his prophecies in favour of a peaceful submission to the Babylonians, with the Divine promise of a redemption from the exile and the restoration to their own country and dominion.

(11.) xxviii.—The same prophecy is continued during the reign of Zedekiah. He was opposed by the false prophet Hananiah, to whom Jeremiah foretold that he would be punished and die the same year; this came also to pass.

(12.) xxix. to xxxi.—To the Jews already in Babylon Jeremiah sends a letter of consolation and encourages them in their hopes for the redemption from exile. Of the same tenor were the messages spoken by Jeremiah to all Jews. In days to come a new covenant will be instituted; new in so far as it will not be broken again, the Law remaining permanently written on their heart, “I shall be their God, and they shall be my nation.”

(13.) xxxii. and xxxiii.—Jeremiah, kept in prison, bought property from his uncle Hanamel, wrote and signed the document of transfer, and handed it to Baruch. By this he expressed his conviction that the Jews would return from exile and take possession of their land. In addition to this he sent forth from the prison a Messianic prophecy, describing the future greatness of the seed of David, and the restoration of the priests and Levites to the sacrificial service.

(14.) xxxiv. and xxxv.—Jeremiah exhorts the people to keep “the year of release,” and held up the family of the Rechabites as patterns of piety, who could not be induced to break their vow of abstinence, though it was voluntarily undertaken.

(15.) xxxvi. to xlv.—Jeremiah continues to prophesy, advising, though fruitlessly, submission to the Babylonian king. Zedekiah made war against Nebuchadnezzar, was defeated, and Jerusalem was taken by the Babylonians. When some Jews wanted to emigrate to Egypt, Jeremiah warned them in the name of God not to do so. He was not listened to; he was even forced to go with them; but he prophesied against them, and foretold their ruin. Baruch, to whom Jeremiah dictated his prophecies, was discontented at being driven from place to place; Jeremiah appeased and encouraged him.

(16.) xlvi. to lii.—Jeremiah prophesies against Egypt, the Philistines, Moab, Ammon, Edom, Damascus, Kedar, Elam, and Babylon. The book concludes with an account of the fall of Jerusalem, similar to that given at the end of the second book of Kings.

3. EZEKIEL (יחזקאל)—Ezekiel prophesied in exile.

(1.) Chap. i. to vii.—In the fifth year of the exile of Joiachin, Ezekiel, in the vision of the chariot, representing the rule of God over the universe, is appointed a Divine messenger, to warn the people and tell them of the impending danger, that they might not be ignorant of the fate awaiting them, whether they listened or forbore to listen. The message with which he is inspired is represented as a scroll which he swallows. The threatened danger he indicates by symbolic acts, followed by their explanation. The siege of Jerusalem is illustrated by the prophet besieging a brick representing Jerusalem, and the ruin of the nation by cutting and scattering the hair of his head and beard.

(2.) viii. to xi.—In the sixth year, on the sixth day of the fifth month, in the presence of the elders of Judah, Ezekiel is carried in a prophetic vision to Jerusalem, is shown there the sins committed by the Israelites in the very Temple, and the consequent departure of the Divine Presence from the Temple. Israel will suffer for his sins, but will at last repent and improve. God promises, “I will give them one heart, and I will put a new spirit within you; and I will take the stony heart out of their flesh, and will give them a heart of flesh; that they may walk in my statutes, and keep mine ordinances, and do them; and they shall be my people, and I will be their God” (xi. 19, 20).

(3.) xii. and xiii.—The prophet indicates the coming captivity by the symbolic act of preparing the things necessary for going into exile. The false prophets and prophetesses, who tell the people to have no dread of any coming exile, will be disappointed and punished. The falsehood of the proverb, “In the length of time every vision faileth,” will then be evident.

(4.) xiv. to xix.—Ezekiel describes the sinfulness of Israel, and exhorts them to return to God, or else the threatened calamity will overcome them. He illustrates the approaching calamity by the figure of a cedar-tree and the eagle. Although the fathers have sinned, if the sons abstain from sinning they may prevent the catastrophe; for the proverb, “The fathers have eaten the sour grapes, and the teeth of the children are set on edge,” will prove untrue. If they do not improve, the catastrophe must take place which the prophet depicts in the parables of the lioness caught and of the vine consumed by fire.

(5.) xx.—In the seventh year, the Elders of Israel came to Ezekiel “to inquire of the Lord,” לדרש את ה. Ezekiel describes the wickedness of Israel, and the punishment they deserved.

(6.) xxi. to xxiii.—Comparing Jerusalem and Samaria to two sisters, Oholibah and Oholah, he complains that the former, having witnessed the punishment of the latter, has not profited by it.

(7.) xxiv.—On the tenth day of the tenth month in the ninth year Ezekiel prophesies the siege and fall of Jerusalem on the very day on which the siege commenced. The greatness of the calamity, to express which the usual outward signs of grief would be inadequate, is indicated by the Divine command that the prophet on the death of his wife should exhibit no signs of mourning.

(8.) xxv. to xxxii.—Like Isaiah and Jeremiah, he foretells the fate of the neighbouring nations, Ammonites, Moabites, Edomites, Philistines, Tyrians, and Egyptians. The last-named are promised recovery after forty years’ desolation of their country.

(9.) xxxiii. and xxxiv.—The prophet describes the duties and responsibilities of watchmen and shepherds, and blames those of his own time as not fulfilling their duties: “But I will save my flock, and they shall no more be a prey; and I will judge between cattle and cattle. And I will set up one shepherd over them, and he shall feed them, even my servant David: he shall feed them, and he shall be their shepherd. And I the Lord will be their God, and my servant David prince among them” (xxxiv. 22–24).

(10.) xxxv.—He prophesies against Seir, for their enmity against Israel.

(11.) xxxvi. and xxxvii.—Ezekiel foretells the restoration of Israel in the parable of the dry bones. The union of Israel and Judah is symbolically shown by the union of two staves.

(12.) xxxviii. and xxxix.—Gog, the prince of Rosh, Meshech, and Tubal, will make the last efforts for the destruction of Israel. All his preparations will be in vain. He and his army will fall in the land of Israel. And the Divine promise is given: “They shall know that I am the Lord their God, in that I caused them to go into captivity among the nations, and have gathered them into their own land, and I will leave none of them any more there: neither will I hide my face any more from them; for I have poured out my spirit upon the house of Israel, saith the Lord God” (xxxix. 28, 29).

(13.) xl. to xlviii.—In the fourteenth year after the fall of Jerusalem, in the beginning of the year, on the tenth day of the month, Ezekiel is carried in a vision to the land of Israel, and is shown there the rebuilding of the future Temple, and the division of the land among the twelve tribes, the Levites and the priests.

4. THE TWELVE MINOR PROPHETS, תרי עשר—

(1.) Hosea (הושע).—Hosea, a contemporary of Isaiah, prophesied about the sinfulness of the northern kingdom of the ten tribes, and turns his attention to Judah only in so far as Judah participated in the sins of Israel, and their consequences.

(a.) Chaps, i. to iii.—In an allegory of a faithless woman and her three children the sin of the ten tribes is represented, who faithlessly turned away from the worship of God in Jerusalem. The consequent three stages of punishment are represented by the names of the three children: Jezreel, referring to the catastrophe of the house of Ahab, ending in the death of Jezebel in Jezreel; Lo-ruhama (“Not pitied”), indicating the fall of the house of Jehu, from which the mercy of God was withdrawn after it had been shown in the successes of King Jeroboam II.; and the third, Lo-ami (“Not-my-people”), predicting the final dissolution of the kingdom. But a time of mercy and Divine protection is foretold by the prophet when he said in the name of God, “I will betroth thee unto me for ever; and I will betroth thee unto me in righteousness and judgment and in loving-kindness and in mercy; and I will betroth thee unto me in faithfulness, and thou shalt know the Lord; and I will sow them unto me in the land, and I will show mercy to Lo-ruhama; and I will say to Lo-ami, Thou art my people; and he shall say, My God” (ii. 21, 22, 25). This happy time, however, will only come after a period of trial, represented in the allegory by the period of trial of a faithless woman before the husband has again full confidence in her. “For many days shall the children of Israel dwell without king, without prince, without sacrifice, without a statue, and without ephod and teraphim. After that the children of Israel will return and seek the Lord their God, and David their king; and they will anxiously hasten to the Lord and to His goodness in latter days” (iii. 4, 5).

(b.) iv. to viii.—Hosea rebukes Ephraim for their sinfulness and obstinacy. When an attempt is made at repentance it is not made in earnest, and is soon abandoned. The sins of Ephraim find imitation in Judah, and therefore the punishment of Ephraim will also affect Judah.

(c.) ix. to xiv.—The prophet blames Israel for seeking help in their distress in Egypt or Assyria. He censures their conduct, and contrasts it with the kindness of God in the course of the history of Israel since the time of the patriarchs. Samaria must fall, but Israel need but earnestly return to God, and “he will be like dew to Israel, who will blossom like the lily, and extend his roots like the cedars of Lebanon” (xiv. 6); for “straight are the ways of the Lord: whilst the righteous walk by them, transgressors stumble by them” (Ibid. 10).

(2.) Joel (יואל).—Joel is a contemporary of Isaiah. Locusts have devastated the fields in Judah. Joel exhorts the people to repentance and prayer. His exhortation is acted upon, and relief is promised. At the same time the punishment of the enemies of Israel in the valley of Jehoshaphat is announced. “The day of the Lord, great and wonderful,” will be indicated by extraordinary phenomena in heaven and on earth, so clear that all will understand their significance and foresee the coming judgment.

(3.) Amos (עמוס)—Amos, a contemporary of the former, prophesied during the reign of Uzziah, king of Judah, and Jeroboam, king of Israel. Amos first mentions in short paragraphs the sinful conduct of the neighbouring states, Damascus, Gaza, Tyre, Edom, Ammon, Moab, and Judah, and the punishment decreed against them, introducing each paragraph with the words, “For three sins of ... (scil., will I take back the decree of punishment), but for the fourth, I will not take it back.” He then dwells on the sins of Israel, laying special stress on the luxuries of the rich, obtained through oppression of the poor, and tells them that, though God has frequently pardoned, He will pardon no more. Amaziah, a priest of Beth-el, warns Amos, and bids him leave the country, but the prophet, nevertheless, continues to proclaim the coming judgment of God, viz., the exile of Israel, adding, however, the comforting prophecy that the time will come when Israel shall be restored to his own land and enjoy lasting happiness.

(4.) Obadiah (עבדיה).—Obadiah prophesies against the Edomites, and announces the Divine decree against them for their cruel treatment of Judah in times of distress.

(5.) Jonah (יונה).—Jonah, son of Amittai, prophesied success to King Jeroboam II. (2 Kings xiv. 25). He was sent to threaten the inhabitants of Nineveh with the destruction of their city in forty days. Instead of going to Nineveh he set out in a boat for Tarshish; during a storm he was thrown overboard, swallowed by a fish, and again brought to the shore. He then carried out the Divine mission, the result of which was that the Ninevites repented of their evil deeds and obtained a respite. Jonah, disappointed that the threat of which he was the bearer was not fulfilled, was rebuked by God, and taught by his own grief at the destruction of a plant “that had come up in a night” how wrong it was to wish that God should not show mercy upon the inhabitants of Nineveh, and to neglect anything that could lead to their repentance and consequent salvation.

(6.) Micah (מיכה).—Micah of Moresha was likewise a contemporary of Isaiah. He prophesied in Judah.

1. (i.–iii.) He raises his voice especially against the princes, magistrates, and false prophets, who unite in oppressing and ruining the people. When Micah tells them their sins and the coming punishment, they say to him, “Do not preach; they do not preach for such things; they do not offend” (ii. 6). But the prophet of the Lord is not deterred from his mission, but continues to denounce their wickedness: “Her chiefs judge for bribery, and her priests teach for payment, and her prophets decide for silver; yet will they lean upon the Lord, and say, Is not the Lord in our midst? no evil shall come upon us. Therefore shall Zion be plowed into a field, and Jerusalem shall become heaps, and the mountain of the Temple as the high places of a forest” (iii. 11, 12).

2. (iv.–v.) Like Isaiah, he depicts the Messianic period, in which the house of Jacob will be an example of true faith in God to all nations; in which Israel will be restored to his land, under the rule of a descendant of David. But a period of trials and troubles must precede those happy days, in order to punish Israel, and to purify and prepare him for his future greatness.

3. (vi.–vii.) The same principles are taught in the next part (vi. and vii.) in the form of a controversy (ריב ליי עם עמו) between the Lord and His people. The latter are reminded of the benefits God has bestowed on them; and when they ask how they are expected to show their gratitude, the prophet says, “O man, He has told thee what is good; and what does the Lord require of thee but to do justice, love kindness, and to walk humbly with thy God?” (vi. 8).

(7.) Nahum (נחום).—The fall of Nineveh is predicted. The power of the mighty Assyrian Empire, hitherto a terror to Judah and other kingdoms, will come to an end; no remedy can save her any more.

(8.) Habakkuk (חבקוק).—Habakkuk prophesied at the time when the Casdim or Chaldeans were about to occupy the place of the Assyrians as conquerors of Syria, Palestine, and Egypt, and to become the rod in the hand of God for the punishment of Israel. Habakkuk, on receiving the mission to announce the Casdim as the executors of the Divine decree, is at a loss to understand why these wicked and cruel people should be chosen to chastise those who are far less wicked; why the evil-doer should swallow him who is more righteous. The answer he receives is, “But the just shall live by his faith.” The evil-doer will in due time receive his full punishment. Habakkuk then gives expression to his implicit faith in the justice of God, in a hymn which is superscribed, “Prayer (תפלה) of the prophet Habakkuk on account of errors;” for in it he rectifies, as it were, his previous groundless doubt.

(9.) Zephaniah (צפניה).—He prophesied in the days of King Josiah. He proclaims the approach of the great day of the Lord, on which all those who turned away from Him will receive their punishment, all the rich and powerful who say the Lord does neither good nor evil. He appeals to the humble in the land (ענוי ארץ) to seek the Lord in prayer, in order to be saved on “the day of the anger of the Lord.” For the Philistines, the Phœnicians, Moab, Ammon, and Assyria will be punished, nor will Jerusalem escape free. “I will then turn,” he says in the name of God, “a pure language to the nations, that all of them will call by the name of God, and serve Him with one accord” (iii. 9). “In that day shalt thou not be ashamed for all thy doings wherein thou hast transgressed against me; for then I will take away out of the midst of thee them that rejoice in thy pride, and thou shalt no more be haughty on my holy mountain. And I will leave in thy midst a poor and humble people, and they shall trust in the name of the Lord. The remnant of Israel shall not do iniquity, and they shall not speak falsehood, and a tongue of deceit shall not be found in their mouth” (iii. 9, 11–13).

(10.) Haggai (חגי)—The Israelites, who by the command of Cyrus had discontinued the rebuilding of the Temple after the foundation had been laid by his permission, were exhorted by Haggai, in the second year of the reign of Darius, to resume the work. Guided by Zerubbabel and Joshua, son of Jehozadak, they obeyed, and the prophet describes to them the blessing which they will henceforth enjoy.

(11.) Zechariah (זכריה):—

1. (i. to vii.) Zechariah, a contemporary of Haggai, exhorts the Israelites to listen to the words of the prophets, seeing that the words of former prophets have been fulfilled. The Divine scheme for the restoration of Israel and the rebuilding of the Temple in spite of all obstacles, is shown to the prophet in various visions. In one vision Joshua is appointed high-priest, notwithstanding the aspersions of his adversary (השטן), and Zerubbabel or Zemach, the political chief of the community. Joshua is exhorted “to walk in the ways of the Lord, to keep the charge entrusted to him, and to guard the House of God and His courts;” and Zerubbabel is reminded that success is not obtained “by might and strength, but by the spirit of the Lord.” “Thus the one—Zemach by name—shall sit on his throne and be ruler, and the other—Joshua—shall sit on his throne and be priest, and a counsel of peace shall be between the two” (vi. 13).

2. Chap. viii.—The prophet is asked whether the day of mourning in the fifth month is to be continued. The prophetic answer is as follows: The reason for the mourning was, that your fathers did not listen to the word of God, and were punished for their disobedience. Now, as the time of punishment is over, it is for you to prevent a recurrence of these sad experiences. What you have to do is this: Speak the truth one to another; truth and judgment of peace judge in your gates. Let no one plan in his heart the ruin of his neighbour, and do not love to swear falsely. Let the fasts of the fourth, fifth, seventh, and tenth months be to the house of Judah for rejoicing, joy, and good seasons; love truth and peace (viii. 16, 17, 19). At the same time the promise is given that the time will come when nations will seek the Lord in Jerusalem, and say to the Jews, “We will go with you, for God is with you” (viii. 23).

3. (ix.–xi.) The prophet encourages Zion to rejoice in her future mission; her enemies round about will be brought to silence, and her king, meek and humble, “poor and riding on an ass,” “will speak peace to the nations, and his rule will extend from sea to sea, and from the river to the ends of the earth” (ix. 9, 10). Judah and Ephraim will unite, and both will enjoy the Divine protection. If this has not yet taken place, it is the fault of the “bad shepherds,” i.e., the bad leaders of the people.

4. (xii.–xiv.) The prophet foretells troubles which will come upon Jerusalem when the nations will make the last effort to take that city. They will be defeated, and Judah will be filled on that occasion with “a spirit of grace” (רוח חן ותחנונים), and will pray to God for the safety of his enemy; the very Jews, “whom the enemy desired to pierce,” will pray for him, and mourn for his death as a father mourneth for the loss of his only child. Judah will then be free from false prophets and bad shepherds. God will make Himself known to all: “And the Lord will be a King over the whole earth; on that day will the Lord be One and His name One” (xiv. 9). All will come to Jerusalem “to worship the King, the Lord Zebaoth, and to celebrate the feast of Succoth” (Ibid. 16), expressing thereby their conviction that God alone is able to afford protection and blessing.

(12.) Malachi (מלאכי).—Malachi, the last of the prophets, exhorts the priests to true reverence of the sanctuary, and to conscientious fulfilment of their duties. The distinction of the priest was based on the distinction of his conduct: “The law of truth was in his mouth, and iniquity was not found on his lips; in peace and uprightness he walked with me, and many turned he back from iniquity. For the lips of the priest shall keep knowledge, and instruction shall they seek of his mouth, for he is a messenger of the Lord Zebaoth” (ii. 6, 7). Judah is then rebuked for his faithlessness. Both, the Levites (including the priests) and Judah, will pass through a process of refining; the wicked will be removed, whilst for “those who fear the name of God” the sun of salvation will shine. Those who desire to obtain a place among these latter must “remember the law of Moses, the servant of God, which God commanded him on Horeb for all Israel; statutes and judgments” (iii. 22). Before the great day of the Lord, the day of judgment, the Lord will send “the prophet Elijah, who will cause the hearts of fathers and children to unite in returning to God.”

3. THE HAGIOGRAPHA (כתובים).

The Hagiographa form the last collection of holy writings, composed by men who, although they were not prophets, were filled with the spirit of the Lord (רוח יי). They include the three larger works: (a) תהלים (or תלים) Psalms, משלי Proverbs, and איוב Job; (b) the Five Scrolls (חמש מגלות), viz., שיר השירים Song of Songs, רות Ruth, איכה Lamentations, קהלת Ecclesiastes, אסתר Esther; (c) the historical books: דניאל Daniel, עזרא Ezra, נחמיה Nehemiah, and דברי הימים the two books of Chronicles.

1. Psalms (תהלים).—The Psalms are hymns containing praises of God’s greatness, prayers for His mercy, and meditations on His wisdom, power, justice, and goodness. However various the Psalms are in form and contents, they have this in common, that they all are based on the purest and sincerest trust in God’s justice and goodness. “The mighty and proud, זדים who rely on their own strength and are guided by the dictates of their own will, cannot succeed for ever; the poor and humble, ענוים who rely on God’s mercy and are guided by the word of God, will not suffer for ever.” This is the truth which the Psalmist proclaims in his songs over and over again. Yet there is a great variety in the contents of the Psalms. Some are simply praises of God’s greatness, e.g., viii., xix., xxxii., xcii., xcv. to xcix., ciii., civ., &c. Others are the expression of gratitude, e.g., ix., xviii., xxxiv., lxvi., lxviii., &c. Many are prayers in time of trouble; in most of these the suppliant feels sure that God will accept his prayer, and is confident that help will come. Such psalms are iii., iv., v., vi., xii., xiii., &c. To this class belong also all the psalms which refer to the troubles of David during the reign of Saul, as lii., liv., lvi., lix., lxiii., &c.; some of the Asaph-psalms, lxxiii., lxxvii., lxxix., lxxx.; the penitential psalms, in which the sinner prays for mercy, as xxv., xxxii., xxxviii., li.; and those in which a longing is expressed for the House of God, e.g., xxvii., xlii., xliii., lxv., lxxxiv. Some psalms are a protest against those who rely on human force and human cunning instead of having faith in God, a protest of the ענוים against the view and creed of the זדים and גאים or גוים e.g., ix. and x., xi., xiv., xvi., xvii., &c. Some psalms are of a more didactic character, showing the way of true happiness (Ps. i.), depicting a truly pious life (xv., xxiv.), or the excellence of the word of God, as xix., cxix.; or the uselessness of sacrifice without purity of heart (xl., l., li.).

The poetical form of the Psalms, as of Hebrew poetry in general, is parallelism. The sentences are formed in such a manner that the psalm can be arranged in lines divisible into two parts, which are either two elements of a single idea, or a double expression of the same idea, or a combination of two ideas or things opposed to each other, illustrating an idea by its antithesis. In some of the Psalms the parallelism is perfect throughout, in others it is partly abandoned, probably in order not to slavishly subordinate the idea to the form of its expression. The same is to be noticed as regards other forms of the Psalms. Some are arranged alphabetically, that is, the successive verses begin with successive letters of the alphabet; but deviations from the plan are met with almost in all such psalms. There are psalms which are divided into a certain number of parts or strophes, each part beginning or ending with the same phrase or verse; but almost invariably these phrases or verses undergo some modification.

The style is naturally poetical, and figurative language is employed throughout. God is a Rock (צור), an habitation (מעון), a Shepherd (רועה), who feeds His flock with great care and love; He is an eagle, under whose wings (אברתו, כנפיו) the weak find protection; He rides in the heavens of the heavens of old (רכב בשמי שמי קדם). Man is compared to “grass that withers,” to a “flower that blossoms in the morning, and in the evening it is withered and dried up;” the life of man is but a breath (הבל); a lie (כזב); light in the balance (במאזנים לעלות); he changes like a garment, like a raiment. The days of a long life are like the days of the heavens, the sun or the moon (כימי שמים, לפני שמש, עם שמש or לפני ירח). The mighty are mountains with many peaks (הרים גבנונים), they have horns like those of the unicorns, whilst the weak are “a wall bent” (קיר נטוי), “a fence thrust down” (גדר הדחויה); “they have sunk in deep mire;” “they have come into fire and into water;” “the waters have come unto the soul.” The meek are “broken in heart,” “crushed in spirit.” The wicked and unjust are like lions and dogs; they have poison “like the poison of a serpent, like a deaf adder that stoppeth its ears, that does not listen to the voice of charmers, to the clever sorcerer.” Their words are smooth like cream and oil, whilst in the heart there are war, daggers, sharp swords. The threatened one runs like a hind, escapes like a bird. Those who have no higher aim than material enjoyments are like “sheep driven to death;” “man in his dignity, without understanding, is like cattle that perish.” Mishaps come upon man like the waves of the sea. The Divine judgment visits the wicked like a thunderstorm; it shakes the earth like an earthquake or volcano. Sinners receive “the cup of confusion” (כוס התרעלה) at the hand of God; for “a cup is in the hand of the Lord, and the wine therein is red; it is full with drink, and He pours out from it, but its dregs all the wicked of the earth will suck and drink.”

The sinner is punished by his own deed; “he digs a pit and falls into it;” he feels like a sick person whose “bones are troubled, and wither;” his purification is toe healing of the soul; he is purified with hyssop; he becomes whiter than snow (li. 9). When man sins he feels as if he had become a changed creature, as if he had now been born and conceived in sin (ver. 7); when he repents and improves, God creates in him a new heart, and renews a firm spirit within him (ver. 12). The wife of the God-fearing man is compared to the fruitful vine, his children to young olive-trees (cxxviii.). The righteous will flourish like a palm-tree, will grow high like a cedar upon Lebanon (xcii. 13). Whilst the righteous is like a tree planted by the brook of water, the wicked are like chaff which the wind drives away (i. 3, 4). Israel is likened to a vine brought from Egypt and planted in Palestine (lxxx. 9). Peacefulness and brotherly love, between high and low, the mighty and the weak, the rich and the poor, the wise and the simple, are illustrated by the fine oil that flows down from the head to the beard, the beard that descends over the garments, and the dew of the high Hermon that comes down to the lower mountains of Zion (cxxx.).

There are some instances of play upon words (lvi. 9), and of rhymes (cxlv. 11; xxxiv. 6); the latter are apparently not intentional.

Although we generally speak of the Psalms of David, only a portion of them was composed by King David; the headings ascribe also one psalm to Moses, two to King Solomon, twelve to Asaph, one to Heman, and one to Ethan; and some have no author mentioned in the heading. Many have no superscription at all, and most of these seem to belong to a later period.

The individual psalms have various names. The most general of them is מזמור a poem, set in music. Of some it is distinctly stated that they were intended to be sung; this is expressed in the heading by the word שיר “song,” which either precedes or follows the title מזמור or stands alone without מזמור. The term, שיר “song,” is further qualified by חנוכת הבית “of the dedication of the house,” ידידות “of love,” and המעלות or למעלות “of degrees leading upward,” i.e., towards God. Another name occurring in twelve psalms is משכיל “instructive song;” the maschil proclaims the lesson that God is King of the universe, and that those are happy who trust in His justice and mercy. A similar meaning attaches to ללמד the word superadded to משכִל in Ps. lx.; lit. “to teach,” i.e., that the song be learnt by all, in order that people may strengthen their confidence in God in times of trouble (comp. 2 Sam. i. 18). The meaning of להזכיר which occurs in two psalms (xxxviii. and lxx.), is “for prayer.” There is one psalm לתודה (c.), “for thanksgiving;” another “for the Sabbath-day,” ליום השבת (xcii.). Four psalms are called תפלה “prayer” (xvii., lxxxvi., xc, cii.); one (cxlv.), תהלה “praise;” one (vii.), שגיון “an error,” [8] referring to the miscalculation of the wicked in preparing weapons against the innocent, which weapons are turned against themselves; and six are superscribed מכתם “a jewel.” Such a jewel is the Psalmist’s “faith in God,” that inspires him with hope and pure joy in the midst of misfortune.

The headings include also instructions for the singers and references to the musical instruments which are to be used. The most general term is למנצח “to the chief,” scil., of the singers or Levites; it refers to the chief of a particular division of the Levites if it is followed by a qualifying phrase, and to the chief of all the Levites if it is not followed by any qualification. The term למנצח describes the psalm as a Temple-song, although this may not have been its original object. Even poems which have been composed by David on certain personal events became—perhaps slightly modified—national songs, and formed part of the public service. The adaptation was easy, because these historical psalms rarely contain any allusion to the particular event mentioned in the superscription.

The term למנצח is qualified by על נגינת “on a stringed instrument,” נגינת being the particular instrument of the Levites, of whom this מנצח was the master. The term בנגינות which in several psalms follows the word למנצח is grammatically unconnected with the latter; it means “on stringed instruments,” and is the instruction for the מנצח. There were several kinds of such instruments; two kinds are named שמינית and גתית “the neginath with eight strings” or “chords,” and “the gittith” coming from Gath, a town in the land of the Philistines. Other kinds of musical instruments are נהילות (v.), מחלת (liii.), and עלמות (xlvi.); these are hollow flute-like instruments, also called נבלים (1 Chron. xv. 20). In some cases the division of Levites is named instead of the instrument: ידותון “Jeduthun” (xxxix., lxii. and lxxvii.; comp. 1 Chron. xxv. 3); לבני קרח “to the sons of Korah” (xlii. to xlix., and lxxxiv. to lxxxviii.); once the direction occurs לענות (lxxxviii.), “to sing alternately,” referring to the two divisions of Levites headed by הימן האזרחי and איתן האזרחי “the Ezrahite Heman,” and “the Ezrahite Ethan” (lxxxviii. and lxxxix.).

A few terms are met with in the headings which describe the contents of the psalm in a poetical style. Such are (a.) שושן עדות, ששנים עדות and ששנים (lx., lxxx., xlv., and lxix.), “Testimony for the lily or lilies,” or “for lilies.” The poet calls by this name the flower of the nation, the meek and God-fearing, who are under the special protection of God, and are destined to be crowned in the end with glory and victory, (b.) אילת השחר (xxii.), “The strength of the dawn.” The phrase refers to the strength given to the sufferer in the darkness of his despair by the awakening of his faith in God, which is compared by the poet to the dawn as the forerunner of daylight, (c.) אל תשחת “Do not destroy” (lvii., lviii., lix., and lxxv.). By this heading the author indicates that the psalm is a protest against the self-confidence of the wicked in the success of their wickedness, either with reference to their evil designs against the author himself, or to their plans in general. (d.) יונת אלם רחקים “Dove in the force of those far,” scil., from God (lvi.). The psalm contains the expression of David’s faith in God when he was caught by the Philistines in Gath.

In some of the headings the event is mentioned which prompted the Psalmist to compose the psalm: David’s flight from Jerusalem when Absalom rebelled against him (iii.); the slander of the Benjamite Kush (vii.); the death of Labben (ix.); rescue from the hands of Saul and other enemies (xiii.); dedication of the house (xxx.); David’s escape from Abimelech, king of the Philistines (xxxiv.); his capture by the Philistines in Gath (lvi.); his stay in the cave of Adullam (lvii., cxlii.); danger of being put to death by the servants of Saul (lix.); war with Aram and Edom (lx.); sojourn in the wilderness of Judah (lxiii.).

The order of the Psalms is not chronological; e.g., chap. iii. refers to the rebellion of Absalom, whilst chap, cxlii. was composed before the death of Saul. The principle which guided the collector in fixing the place of each psalm is not known. But it is certainly not the result of mere chance that the first two psalms speak of the Law of God, and of the punishment of those who rebel against God and against His anointed; and that the last psalm calls upon all to praise God with all their soul: “Let every thing that hath breath praise the Lord, Hallelujah!” Nor is it mere chance that the psalms are divided, like the Law, into five groups or books, each one ending with a doxology. It is possible that the psalms were recited or sung at the public service in a manner corresponding to the reading of the Law and the Prophets.

The first two books contain most of the psalms superscribed לדוד “by David,” but there are also some in the other books (one in III., two in IV., fourteen in V.). At the end of the second book (lxxii. 20) the following words are added: “The prayers of David, the son of Jesse, are ended;” i.e., the hope which has just been expressed in the words וימלא כבוד יי את כל הארץ “And the whole earth shall be filled with the glory of God,” forms the aim and end of all the prayers of David, the son of Jesse. The verse does not mean that the first seventy-two chapters of the Psalms contain all the prayers of David, as there are several psalms of David between chaps, lxxiii. and cl.

The Psalms were composed by David and other authors partly for private use, partly for the public service in the Temple and other places of worship. Of those that were originally for private use some were subsequently adapted for public service, and even those intended from the beginning for public worship were adapted to the different modes of recitation or singing. The Book of Psalms includes, therefore, two recensions of several chapters; e.g., xiv. and liii.; xviii. and 2 Sam. xxii.; lx. 7–14 and cviii. 7–14; lvii. 8–12 and cviii. 2–6; cv. 1–15 and 1 Chron. xvi. 8–22; xcvi. and 1 Chron. xvi. 23–33; cxxxv. and cxxxvi.

A considerable portion of our daily prayers consists of psalms. We distinguish the following groups:—(a.) פסוקי דזמרא “Verses of song,” Ps. cxlv. to cl.; to which the following are added on Sabbaths and Festivals: xix., xxxiv., xc, xci., cxxxv., cxxxvi. (called הלל הגדול “the great Hallel”), xxxiii., xcii., and xciii. (b.) שיר של יום “Song of the day;” a different psalm is recited each day of the week after the morning prayer in the following order: xxiv., xlviii., lxxxii., xciv., lxxxi., xciii., xcii. (c.) קבלת שבת “Friday evening psalms,” xcv. to xcix. (d.) Sabbath afternoon psalms: civ., cxx. to cxxxiv. (e.) הלל “Praise,” cxiii. to cxviii. (f.) Penitential psalms after evening prayer on week-days, in the following order: xxv., xxxii., xxxviii., li., lxxxvi.

2. משלי Proverbs of Solomon, the son of David, king of Israel. The Book of Proverbs belongs to those Biblical books which are called ספרי חכמה “books of wisdom.” They appeal to the reason of man, and do not support their words by the authority of Revelation, although the authors and those who gave them the final shape were inspired and guided by the רוח ה׳ “the divine spirit.” The commandments of God and His ways are referred to as the safest guide for man in all conditions of life. Three books are included in this class: Proverbs, Job, and Ecclesiastes.

“The Proverbs of Solomon” are divided into the following six sections:—(A.) Introduction, i. to ix.; (B.) Collection of Proverbs: (a.) Proverbs of Solomon, x. to xxii. 16; (b.) Words of the Wise, xxii. 17 to xxiv. 22; (c.) Second group of Words of the Wise, 23 to 34; (d.) Proverbs of Solomon collected by the men of Hezekiah, xxv. to xxviii.; (e.) Words of Agur-bin-yakeh, xxx.; (f.) Words of Lemuel, xxxi.

The fourth section (chaps, xxv. to xxix.) is introduced by the following superscription:—“Also these are the Proverbs of Solomon, which the men of Hezekiah, king of Judah, had removed.” The men of Hezekiah seem to have been uncertain whether this section should form part of the book, because of the seeming contradiction between the fourth and fifth verses of the twenty-sixth chapter. The men of the Great Synagogue decided the question in favour of its incorporation in the book, and reconciled the seeming contradiction by their interpretation.

The fifth collection of proverbs is ascribed to Agur-bin-yakeh, an allegorical phrase meaning “collection deserving respect.” The collection is further called “the burden”—the usual heading of prophecies—in order to give it more weight. Also the rest of the superscription, “The saying of the man Leïthiel,” Leïthiel ve-ucchal, is of an allegorical character, signifying, “God—i.e., the word of God—is my task, and I shall prevail.” The phrase is set forth more clearly in the succeeding verses: human knowledge is insufficient, but “All the word of God is pure; he is a shield to those who trust in him” (xxx. 5). The second half of this collection has the heading La-alukah, “For a necklace” (comp. i. 9), similar in meaning to the heading מכתם “Jewel,” in the Psalms. The form of these proverbs, based on the numbers two, three, and four, is similar to that of the prophecies of Amos (chaps, i. and ii.). The last collection is headed, “Words to Lemuel, the king; the burden wherewith his mother instructed him.” The contents of the instruction is, “Be not licentious and intemperate; help the poor and oppressed.” The name Lemuel is likewise allegorical, meaning “God-ward.” The book concludes with the praises of a virtuous woman.

(A.) Introduction.—The object of the book is set forth in verses 2 to 7 of the first chapter as follows: “To make man know wisdom and instruction, comprehend words of understanding, and take the instruction of acting wisely, with justice, judgment, and righteousness; to give skill to the simple; to the young knowledge and discretion; that the wise may hear and increase doctrine, and the prudent acquire cleverness to understand proverb and figure, the words of wise men and their allegories. The beginning of knowledge is the fear of the Lord; wisdom and instruction fools despise.” This last sentence is the basis of the book. Without fear of the Lord all knowledge and wisdom will prove insufficient for establishing man’s true happiness. The Introduction consists of several connected addresses, in which the author persuades the reader to listen to his advice, and keep away from wicked people before it is too late. He exhorts man to entrust himself to the guidance of the Lord, and not to rely on his own understanding. “Be not wise in thine eyes, fear the Lord, and depart from evil” (iii. 7). He warns against bad society, against becoming security for debtors, and against idleness. The two ways open to man are allegorically represented by two women, the one wise, the other foolish; the one leading to happiness, the other to ruin; each one inviting man to her house, and displaying in the very act of invitation her full character.

(B.) The collections of proverbs begin with the tenth chapter. The proverbs have the form of parallelism, each verse being divided into two parts, mostly containing an antithesis illustrating the difference between the wise and the foolish, the good and the bad, the just and the unjust, the industrious and the idle, the rich and the poor, and the like. Each verse is a proverb by itself, and is independent of the verses which precede and follow. There are only a few passages in which several verses are connected, and these occur in the later collections, e.g., xxii. 22–23, 24–25, 26–27; xxiii. 1–3, 4–5, 6–9, 10–11, 12–13, 20–21, 29–35; xxiv. 3–7, 10–12, 30–34; xxvii. 23–27. The whole of the thirtieth chapter consists of small paragraphs of three or four verses, and the last chapter consists of two continuous parts.

In these collections of proverbs we find advice for every condition of our life. Our relation to God is shown; how He loves the good and just:—

“The way of the wicked is an abomination of the Lord; but he loveth
him who pursues righteousness” (xv. 9).

“The sacrifice of the wicked is an abomination of the Lord, but the
prayer of the righteous is his pleasure” (xv. 8).

“The Lord is far from the wicked, but he heareth the prayer of the
righteous” (xv. 29).

“To do justice and judgment is more acceptable to the Lord than
sacrifice” (xxi. 3).

He protects the poor, the weak, the widow, and the orphan:—

“He who oppresseth the poor, blasphemeth his Maker; and he who is
gracious to the needy, honoureth him” (xiv. 31).

“He who is gracious to the poor, lendeth to the Lord, and he will
repay him his reward” (xix. 17).

“Do not rob the poor because he is poor; and do not crush the poor
in the gate, for the Lord will plead their cause, and will take the
soul of those who rob them” (xxii. 23).

“The Lord will pull down the house of the proud, and will establish
the border of the widow” (xv. 25).

“The rich and the poor meet; the Maker of them all is the Lord”
(xxii. 2).

He punishes the evil-doer and rewards the righteous:—

“Do not say, I will repay evil; hope in the Lord, and he will help
thee” (xx. 22).

“He who closeth his ear because of the crying of the poor, he also
will call and will not be answered” (xxi. 13).

“He who keepeth a command, keepeth his soul; he who despiseth his
ways shall die” (xix. 16).

“When the Lord is pleased with the ways of man, he will cause even
his enemies to make peace with him” (xvi. 7).

“The Lord will not let the soul of the righteous be hungry, but the
desire of the wicked will he thrust back” (x. 3).

He knows the heart of man:—

“There is a test for silver, and a refining pot for gold; but God
trieth the hearts” (xvii. 3).

He directs all events:—

“Man’s heart planneth his way, but the Lord directeth his step”
(xvi. 9).

“The horse is prepared for the day of war, but the victory is the
Lord’s” (xxi. 31).

His blessing is a true blessing:—

“The blessing of the Lord, it maketh rich, and doth not increase
trouble with it” (x. 22).

His Will alone must be obeyed:—

“There is no wisdom, and no understanding, and no counsel against
the Lord” (xxi. 30).

“Whoso despiseth a word will be punished, but he who feareth a
commandment will be rewarded” (xiii. 13).

“Without a vision the people cometh into disorder; but he who
keepeth the Law, happy is he” (xxix. 18).

The fear of the Lord is the basis of a virtuous and happy life:—