Chapter XXII: Appendix: I (1)

THE THIRTEEN PRINCIPLES OF FAITH.

אנו מאמין באמונה שלמה

א—שהבורא יתברך שמו הוא בורא ומנהיג לכל הברואים והוא לבדו עשה ועושה ויעשה לכל המעשים׃

ב—שהבורא יתברך שמו הוא יחיד ואין יחידות כמוהו בשום פנים והוא לבדו אלהינו היה הוה ויהיה׃

ג—שהבורא יתברך שמו אינו גוף ולא ישיגוהו משיגי הגוף ואין לו שום דמיון כלל׃

ד—שהבורא יתברך שמו הוא ראשון והוא אחרון׃

ה—שהבורא יתברך שמו לו לבדו ראוי להתפלל ואין ראוי להתפלל לזולתו׃

ו—שכל דברי הנביאים אמת׃

ז—שנבואת משה רבנו עליו השלום היתה אמתית ושהוא היה אב לנביאים לקודמים לפניו ולבאים אחריו׃

ח—שכל התורה המצויה עתה בידינו היא הנתונה למשה רבנו עליו השלום׃

ט—שזאת התורה לא תהי מחלפת ולא תהי תורה אחרת מאד הבורא יתברך שמו׃

י—שהבורא יתברך שמו יודע כל מעשי בני אדם וכל מחשבותם שנאמר היצר יחד לבם המבין אל כל מעשיהם׃

יא—שהבורא יתברך שמו גומל טוב לשומרי מצותיו ומעויש לעוברי מצותיו׃

יב—בביאת המשיח ואף על פי שיתמהמה עם כל זה אחכה־לו בכל יום שיבוא׃

יג—שתהיה תחית המתים בעת שתעלה רצון מאת הבורא יתברך שמו ויתעלה זכרו לעד ולנצח נצחים׃

Note.—שתעלה רצון “when it will be decreed,” lit. “when it—the resurrection—will ascend into the will.” Comp. the Talmudical סלקא דעתך “you think,” lit. “it ascends into your mind.”

II.

THE JEWISH CALENDAR.

1. Nisan.—The Sabbath before Passover is called שבת הגדול “the Great Sabbath,” on account of the importance of the approaching festival.

14th: ערב פסח “the Eve of Passover.” Fast of the First-born.
15th to 22nd: פסח “Passover.”
16th: “Beginning of counting the Omer,” ספירת העומר
17th to 20th: חול המועד “Half-holydays.”
23rd: אסרו חג “Farewell to the Festival.”

2. Iyar.—14th: פסח שני “Second Passover” (Num. ix. 9 sqq.).

18th: ל״ג בעומר the 33rd of the Omer. “Scholar’s feast.”
שני חמישי ושני Fasts kept by some, on the first Monday, Thursday,
and Monday succeeding each other in the beginning of the month, in
order to atone for sins they may have committed on the Holydays.

3. Sivan.—3rd, 4th, and 5th: שלשת ימי הגבלה “The three days of bordering” (Exod. xix. 10–12).

5th: ערב שבועות “The eve of the Feast of Weeks.”
6th and 7th: שבועות “Feast of Weeks,” also called “Pentecost.”
8th: אסרו חג “Farewell to the Festival.”

4. Tammuz.—17th: “Fast of Tammuz,” שבעה עשר בתמוז

5. Ab.—“Sabbath before the Fast,” שבת חזון (see p. 413)

9th: “Fast of Ab,” תשעה באב
“Sabbath after the Fast,” שבת נחמו (ibid.).
15th: חמשה עשר באב “15th of Ab.” Reconciliation of the Benjamites
with the other Israelites (Judges xxi.).

6. Ellul.—ימי הסליחות “Days of propitiatory prayers,” beginning on the first day of the month according to the Spanish Rite, and according to the German Rite, on the Sunday (or 2nd S.) before ראש השנה

29th: ערב ראש השנה “The eve of New-year.”

7. Tishri.—1st and 2nd: “New-year,” ראש השנה

3rd: “Fast of Gedaliah,” צום גדליהו
1st to 10th: “The ten penitential days,” עשרת ימי תשובה
“The Sabbath after New-year,” שבת שובה (see p. 405).
9th: ערב יום כפור “The eve of the Day of Atonement.”
10th: יום כפור or יום הכפורום “The Day of Atonement.”
14th: ערב סכות “The eve of Sukkoth.”
15th to 21st: סכות “Feast of Tabernacles.”
17th to 21st: חול המועד “Half-holyday.”
21st: הושענא רבא “The Great Hoshana Service.”
22nd and 23rd: שמיני עצרת “Feast of the eighth day.”
23rd: שמחת תורה “Rejoicing of the Law.”
24th: אסרו חג “Farewell to the Festival.”
Heshvan.—שני המישי ושני “The Fast of ‘Monday, Thursday, and
Monday,’ kept by some in the course of the month.”

9. Kislev.—25th to 2nd (or 3rd) of Tebeth: חנוכה “Feast of Dedication.”

10. Tebeth.—10th: עשרה בטבת “The Fast of Tebeth.”

11. Shebhat.—15th: חמשה עשר בשבט “New-year for trees.”

The last Sabbath in the month (or the first of Adar, if on
Saturday) is שבת שקלים “The Sabbath of Shekalim.” Exod. xxx.
11–16 is read in addition to the weekly section.

12. Adar.—7th: Anniversary of death of Moses.

Sabbath before Purim, שבת זכור (Deut. xxv. 17–19).
13th: תענית אסתר “Fast of Esther.”
14th: Purim, פורים “The Feast of Lots.”
15th: שושן פורים “Purim of Shushan.”
The last Sabbath but one, שבת פרה Num. xix. is read as an extra
lesson.
The last Sabbath in the month, or the first of Nisan, if on
Saturday, is שבת החודש Exod. xii. 1–20 is read as an extra
lesson.

[13. Adar Sheni.—שושן פורים, שבת זכור, תענית אסתר, פורים שבת פרה, and שבת החדש which in an ordinary year are observed in Adar, are in a leap-year kept in Adar Sheni; and שבת שקלים either on the last Sabbath in Adar, or on the first of Adar Sheni, if on Saturday.]

Note.—The 15th of Shebhat is, according to the opinion of the Hillelites (Mishnah, Rosh ha-shanah i. 1), “New-year for the trees;” i.e., in reference to tithes, and to the fruit of the fourth or fifth year (Lev. xix. 24, 25); the fruit that begins to grow on a tree between the 15th of Shebhat of one year and the same date next year is reckoned as the fruit of one year.

Various reasons are given for the distinction of the 15th of Ab: (a.) The punishment decreed against the Israelites in the wilderness in connection with the spies (Num. xiv. 29) was discontinued from the 15th of Ab. (b.) The posts set up by Jeroboam on the borders of his kingdom for the purpose of preventing Israelites from going up to Jerusalem were removed on this date. (c.) The preparation of the wood for the altar was completed on the 15th of Ab. (d.) On this day the Israelites obtained permission to bury the bodies of those killed in the war against Hadrian. (e.) The reconciliation between the Benjamites and the other Israelites took place on the 15th of Ab (Judges xxi. 21 sqq.).

The Mishnah (Taanith iv. 8) states that the 15th of Ab and the Day of Atonement were to the Israelites once days of the greatest national rejoicings for all alike, rich and poor. In memory of these general rejoicings the daughters of Jerusalem wore on these days borrowed white garments, in order that those poor who had none of their own should not feel ashamed. The Mishnah then describes the causes of the rejoicings; namely, the dancings in the vineyards (Judges, l. c.) for the 15th of Ab, and the giving of the Law (i.e., the giving of the second tables, which, according to Tradition, took place on the 10th of Tishri), and the building of the Temple (i.e., the rearing of the Tabernacle, which, according to Tradition, was commanded on the 10th of Tishri for the rejoicings on the Day of Atonement).

III.

RELIGIOUS EDUCATION.

Professor Lazarus in his recent work “Die Ethik des Judenthums” made the following observations: “In the continuity of the spirit of our nation we discover the solution of the riddle, which puzzled so many thinkers, viz.: how the small tribe of the Jews managed to outlive great and mighty nations.” This continuity of the spirit has been secured by our religious education. It has been said that education aims at producing in the younger generation the capacity of receiving, preserving and developing the culture we have acquired; this applies pre-eminently to religious education. That such continuity exists in our religious education, is evident from the fact that up to the present day the chief text-book for religious instruction has remained the same:—the Torah, or in a wider sense, the Bible, that everflowing fountain of living waters, not only for us Jews, but for almost all civilised nations. Our duty to preserve this continuity by handing over to the next generation the religious principles inherited from our predecessors is frequently insisted upon in Holy Writ, and emphasized on every occasion. We have in this respect a double duty to perform: Every parent is bound to secure as far as possible the well-being of his children; religious education is indispensable for the children’s well-being. The Torah, the source of our religious education, is besides, our National treasure and inheritance, and every member of our community has as such the duty to guard and protect this treasure, that the rising generation receive it in its integrity. It is therefore not sufficient for any one of us to provide for the religious instruction of his own children, it is his duty to contribute his share towards the maintenance of the public schools or classes established for the religious instruction of the young. The Israelites in the wilderness joyfully received the National treasure, and solemnly declared “the Law which Moses commanded us, has been handed to us as an inheritance,” to be transmitted from generation to generation. These very words form the beginning of the religious education of our children, for as soon as they are able to speak, they are taught to recite and to understand the verse תורה צוה לנו משה מורשה קהלת יעקב “The Law which Moses commanded us, O congregation of Jacob, is an inheritance.” (Deut. xxxiii. 4.). In accordance with this principle, the Torah, the reading of the Torah in its original language, in the Hebrew, the translation and the understanding of the Torah, must form the basis of Jewish Religious Education, both in private and public instruction. The Torah is the essential element in the curriculum of Jewish Institutions for Religious instruction.

Our Sages therefore teach (Aboth v. 2): “Read the Torah again and again, for everything is in it, and in it thou wilt see everything; and even when thou art old and worn out, remain faithful to it, and from it do not move away, for there is no better measure for thee than the Torah.”

There are other important subjects which Jewish children of both sexes are expected to learn and to know: The principles of Religion, Scripture History, Jewish History and Literature, Geography of Palestine and Hebrew Grammar. None of these subjects should be excluded from the curriculum of a Jewish School. They must be taught, but must be taught in such a way that they help to illustrate the lessons of the Law, and to facilitate its study. It is certainly of great importance that our children should acquire as much knowledge as possible of our History and Literature; of far greater importance, however, is the training of the heart in the faith of God, the inculcation of reverence for the Torah and the creation of a desire to live a pure, good and holy life, based on the fear and love of God. Text-books of Religion, though useful both to teacher and pupil, must by no means supersede the original, the Torah. Where for some cogent reason a minimum of time is spared for religious instruction—as is e.g. the case in many Religion Classes connected with Public Schools and Colleges, special care should be taken that the Torah receive its due attention. The best method must be employed, the best possible teachers must be engaged, who are well trained in the art of teaching, and possess a thorough knowledge of our holy religion and our history. If in addition to these qualifications, the teacher devotes himself to his profession with love and enthusiasm, his words, coming from the heart, will find their way into the heart of the pupil. No time can be spared for metaphysical speculations or for problems of Bible criticism. Besides, “The hidden things belong to the Lord our God, but the things which have been revealed are for us and our children for ever: to do all the words of this Law.” (Deut. xxix. 28). According to the teaching of Aboth, (v. 22) “one moment of victory over sin and temptation in this life surpasses all the blessings of the future life,” and to train our youths in the way leading to such bliss, is the aim and motive of all Religious teaching.

IV.

PRAYER FOR BARMITZVAH.

Prayer which the young Candidate, having previously undergone a religious examination, should recite, when called to the Law, before the Blessing.

אֱלֹהַי וֵאלֹהֵי אֲבוֹתַי

בֶּאֱמֶת וּבְתָמִים אֶשָּׂא אֵלֶיךָ אֶת עֵינַי בַּיּוֹם הַגָּדול וְהַקָּדוֹשׁ הַזֶּה לֵאמֹּר׃ הִנֵּה יַלְדוּתִי חָֽלְפָה הָֽלְכָה לָהּ וְאָנֹכִי הָיִיתִי לְאִישׁ׃ עָלַי לִשְׁמֹור אֶת כָּל־חֻקֵּי רְצוֹנֶךָ. וְעָלַי לַעֲנוֹת בְּיוֹם פְּקוּדָתִי כַאֲשֶׁר תִּגְמוֹל לִי כפְרִי מַעֲלָלַי׃ מִיּוֹם הִוָּֽלְדִי בֵן יִשְׂרָאֵל אָנִי. אָמְנָם בַּיּוֹם הַזֶּה בָאתִי שֵׁנִית בַּקָּהָל לָךְ. וְלִפְנֵי כָל־הָעַמִּים אֶתְפָּאֵר עַל שִׁמְךָ אֲשֶׁר נִקְרָא עָלֵינוּ׃

וְעַתָּה אָבִי שֶׁבַּשָּׁמַיִם שְׁמַע אֶל הַתְּפִלָּה וְאַל הַתְּחִנָּה הַזֹּאת. שְׁלַח עָלַי שִׁפְעַת בִּרְכוֹתֶיךָ. גֶּשֶׁם נְדָבוֹת וּבְרָכוֹת הַנִיף עָלַי. לְמַעַן יָמַי יִשְׂבְּעוּן וְיִרְוְיוּן מִדֶּשֶׁן עֲדָנֶיךָ. הוֹרֵנִי נָא דֶּרֶךְ חֻקֶּיךָ. הַדְרִיכֵנִי בִנֵתִיב מִצֵוֹתֶיךָ תֵּן בְּלִבִּי לֵאַהֲבָה וּלְיִרְאָה אֶת שְׁמֶךָ. הַחֲזֵק בְּיָדִי וְאַל תַּרְפֵּנּי וְלֹא אֶכָּשֵׁל עַל דַרְכִּי אֲשֶׁר אַנֹכִי הוֹלֶךְ עָלֶיהָ הַיּוֹם בָּרִאשׁוֹנָה׃ הַצִּילֵנִי מִיֵּצֶר הָרָע וְתֵּן בִּי כֹחַ לִשְׁמוֹר אֶת תּוֹרָֽתְךָ הַקְּדוֹשָׂה וְאֶת פִּקּוּדֶיךָ אֲשֶׁר יַעֲשֶׂה אוֹתָם הָאָדָם וָחַי בָּהֶם׃ וּבְכָל־יָמַי אֶקְרָא בְּקוֹל גָּדוֹל וְלֹא אֵבוֹשׁ שְׁמַע יִשְׂרָאֵל יְיָ אֱלֹהֵינוּ יְיָ אֶהָד׃

IV.

O MY GOD AND GOD OF MY FOREFATHERS!

On this solemn and sacred day, which marketh my passage from boyhood to manhood, I humbly venture to raise my eyes unto Thee, and to declare, with sincerity and truth, that henceforth I will observe all Thy commandments, and undertake and bear the responsibility of all mine actions towards Thee. In my earliest infancy I was brought within Thy sacred covenant with Israel, and to-day I again enter as an active responsible member, the pale of Thine elect congregation, in the midst of which I will never cease to glorify Thy holy name in the face of all nations.

Do Thou, O Heavenly Father, hearken unto this my humble prayer, and vouchsafe unto me Thy gracious blessings, so that my earthly life may be sustained and made happy by Thine ineffable mercies. Teach me the way of Thy statutes, that I may obey them, and faithfully carry out Thine ordinances. Dispose my heart to love Thee and to fear Thy holy name, and grant me Thy support and the strength necessary to avoid the worldly dangers which encompass the path lying before me. Save me from temptation, so that I may with fortitude observe Thy holy Law, and those precepts on which human happiness and eternal life depend. Thus I will every day of my life trustfully and gladly proclaim:

“Hear, O Israel, the Lord is our God, the Lord is One!”

V.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Religious books for the use of children at home or in school were unknown in olden times. The Torah was taught, and with it every thing else. A great part of the Book of Proverbs and many of the Psalms may have been intended for the education of the young. In the early post-Biblical time we meet with books like The Wisdom of Solomon, The Wisdom of Joshua, son of Sirach, and Sayings of the Fathers, which may have served the same purpose. To these may be added “The Duties of the Heart,” by Bachya ibn Pekuda, “The Examination of the World” (Bechinath Olam), “The Choice of the Pearls,” by Ibn Gabirol, Abraham ibn Ezra’s “Foundation of the Fear of God, and Principle of the Law,” and “The Book of the Righteous,” by Rabbenu Jacob Tam, and “The Moral Lessons” (Toaliyyoth) by Rabbi Levi ben Gerson, and “The Shulhan Aruch” of R. Judah Aryeh di Modena. All these works are excellent books for the instruction of the young. They inculcate religious lessons, and shew the way to a pious life, but they are not text books of religion in the modern sense of the term. This branch of literature began to develop in the last century, with the exception of Abraham Jaghel’s Lekach-tob, which was written in the beginning of the seventeenth century, and was the first Catechism of Jewish Religion. It was composed in the Hebrew Language and subsequently translated into Latin and English. Since last century, however, religious books of all sizes, forms and tendencies have been produced in all countries, especially in Germany. The following list contains such books as are included in the Jews’ College Library:—

ENGLISH—

Albu, I., חק לישראל. London, 1860.

Asher, B. H., Initiation of the Youth. London, 1850.

Asher, D., Outlines of Jewish Religion. Manchester, 1845.

Cahen, M., Catechism of Religion. Liverpool, 1890.

Cahun, B., The Thirteen Articles of Faith. English and French. London, 1885.

Cohen, M. R., Principles of Judaism. Sydney, 1855.

Cohen, S. I., Elements of Jewish Faith. Philadelphia, 1813.

Cohen, S. I., Elements of Hebrew and English. London, 1815.

Davidson, M., Moral and Religious Guide. London, 1855.

Early lesson in the Jewish Religion, adopted from the Catechism of Giuseppi Levi. London, 1869.

Festivals of the Lord. London, 1839.

Friedländer, M., Text book of Jewish Religion. London, 1891.

Goodman, T., Faith of Israel. 1835.

Joseph, N., Religion: Natural and Revealed. London, 1879.

Kley, E., Catechism, translated from the German by I. Lutomirski. Oxford, 1842.

Lesser, Isaac, Instruction in the Mosaic Religion. Philadelphia, 1830.

Meldola, R., Way of Faith. London, 1848.

Mendez, A. P., The Law of Moses. London, 1861.

Moss, Ph., Calendar, Hebrew and English. London, 1853.

Van Oven, J., Manual of Judaism. London, 1835.

Picciotto, M. H., Translation of Reggio’s Guide for the Religious Instruction. London, 1855.

IN GERMAN—

Arnhein, A., Leitfaden. Glasgow, 1829.

P. Beer, Handbuch. Prague, 1818.

Ben-Zev, יסודי הדת. Wien, 1806.

Bing, A., Hauptlehren des Judenthums. München, 1827.

Bock, M. H., Catechismus. Berlin, 1814.

Brück, M., Ceremonialgebräuche. Breslau, 1857.

Büdinger, A., מורה לתורה. Cassel, 1830.

Fassel, H. B., Mosaisch-rabbinische Religionslehre. Gross Kanisza, 1858.

Feilchenfeld, W., Systematisches Lehrbuch der israelitischen Religion. Posen, 1878.

Friedenthal, M. B., עקרי אמונה Prag, 1827.

Funk, B., Die Zehngebote. Breslau, 1816.

Grünbaum, E., Die Sittenlehre des Judenthums. Mannheim, 1867.

Dr. Heinemann, תורת אמונת בית ישראל (Hebrew and German). Cassel, 1812.

Dr. Herxheimer, Glaubens- und Pflichtenlehre. Bernburg, 1843.

Hirsch, R., חורב Israel’s Pflichten. Altona, 1837.

Hochstädter, B., Glaubenslehre. Ems, 1862.

Johlson, J., Leitfaden, אלומי יוסף Pf. a/M. 1839.

Kaufmann D., Catechismus. Pest, 1884.

Kohn, S., Religionslehre. Wien, 1853.

Landau, T., Das Levitenhaus, Häusliche Ritual-Gesetze. Fkft. a/M. 1859.

Lash, G., Die göttlichen Gesetze. Halberstadt, 1857.

Prof. Lazarus, Die Ethik des Judenthums. Berlin, 1898.

Lehrbuch der israelitischen Religion. Stuttgart, 1837.

Leimdoerfer, D., Religionslehre. Nordhausen, 1876.

Loewenheim, Die mosaische Religion. Liesnach, 1864.

Mannheimer, I., Gebetbuch und Religions Unterricht. Darmstadt, 1881.

Mira. H., Leitfaden. Breslau, 1839.

Neuman, M. S., Religionslehre. Pest, 1826.

Philippson, L., Israelitische Religionslehre. Leipzig, 1861.

Philippson, S., Catechismus. Leipzig, 1843.

Plessner, S., Jüdisch-Mosaischer Religions unterricht. Berlin, 1839.

Stein, L., Torah u. Mizwa. Fkft. o/M. 1850.

Stern, M. E., Handbuch zum jüdischen Religions-unterrichte. Wien, 1861.

FRENCH AND ITALIAN—

Bloch, S., La Foi d’Israel. Paris, 1859.

Lambert, L. M., Catéchisme Hebreu, Allemand et Français. Paris, 1837.

Loeb, H., Chemin de la foi. Paris, 1859.

Vogue, L., La guide du croyant Israelite. Metz, 1857.

Castiglioni, I. V., Dottrina Religiosa. Trieste, 1861.

Tremellius, Imm., Dottrina Religiosa. English translation. London, 1818.

Modena, D. Z., Catechism. Reggio, 1825.

JUDAEO-GERMAN—

הינוך הילדים. Warsaw, 1852.

טהנה יששכר Moral lessons, illustrated by tales from Talmud and Midrash. Rödelheim, 1837.

COLLECTIONS OF MORAL SAYINGS—

Maier, J., Sprüche. Texts for Moral Lessons. Tf o/M, 1830.

Steinschneider, M., אמרי בינה. Berlin, 1847.

Mocatta, M., Sayings from Proverbs and Ecclesiastes. London, 1837.

Josh. Steinberg, משלי יהושע. Wilna, 1871.

Edelmann, H., דרך טובים. London, 1852.

NOTES

[1] When our great theologians, Saadiah, Bachya, Maimonides, Albo, &c., considered it necessary to write long and abstruse metaphysical essays in order to firmly establish certain truths, it was done rather for the purpose of combating the views of opponent theologians than for the instruction of the multitude, and it may fairly be said that Maimonides has done far greater service to his brethren by the composition of a systematic code of laws than by his philosophical “Guide.” The former, the Mishneh-Torah, never fails to enlighten those who seek in it enlightenment with regard to some religious duty, whilst the “Guide” would scarcely relieve anyone of his perplexities in matters of religious belief. There is a saying in the Talmud Jerus. (Chagigah, ch. i.), “Would that they had forgotten me, and kept my commandments!” or, in other words, “Theologians would do better if they were less eager to investigate into the essence of God and His attributes, and were more anxious to study and to do God’s commandments.” Instead of devoting their chief attention to the knowledge and the practice of the Law, they waste their energy and their time in attempts to solve problems to which the human mind is unequal (S. Plessner, Religions-Unterricht, p. xxxviii.).

[2] Post-biblical authors frequently employ the term אמונה in the sense of religious belief, and תורה in the sense of religious duties; the equivalent for religion is דת.

[3] For the Hebrew see Appendix I.

[4] The Hebrew נביא as well as the Greek προφητης “prophet,” signifies “speaker” or “preacher.”

[5] i.e., that the war with the Canaanite tribes was to be carried on as a holy war, in fulfilment of God’s command, and not for the purpose of spoil and plunder.

[6] King Amaziah of Judah challenged Joash, king of Israel, to fight with him. Joash considered this challenge as an arrogance to be compared to the arrogance of the thistle in the above fable.

[7] The faith of Israel in the Omnipotence of God, who can do wonders for the salvation of His people, is figuratively represented as a child, called “The Almighty, &c., deviseth wonders,” &c.

[8] Comp. p. 83.

[9] i.e., he who is truthful in ordinary conversation is also a trustworthy witness in a court of justice; those who are accustomed to say falsehood cannot be trusted in important matters.

[10] It seems that the author copied the dream as Daniel had written it down, but the interpretation was handed down by tradition.

[11] The Israelites. Comp. Exod. xix. 6.—Part of this vision refers to the time of the Maccabees, part to the Messianic period.

[12] Some are of opinion that the term “weeks” is not to be taken literally, but in the sense of “year,” or “a period of seven years.” There is, however, no proof for such interpretation. The many attempts to explain the seventy year-weeks have without exception proved a failure.

[13] See p. 121.

[14] It is, however, possible that דברי, lit. “words,” means here “history.”

[15] The Talmud is also called ש״ס (Shass), the initials of ששה סדרים.

[16] The word יד is intended to indicate the number 14, the work being divided into 14 books.

[17] According to Rashi, Rabbi Hillel meant to say that the Jews would not be redeemed by any Messiah, but by God Himself. Comp. Haggadah for Seder-evening, “And I will pass through the land of Egypt; I myself, and not an angel.”

[18] Comp. supra, p. 122.

[19] See Essays on the Writings of Ibn Ezra, by M. Friedländer, p. 7 note 1.

[20] The Piel of a verb has frequently this meaning, e.g., קדש “to be holy;” Pi., “to declare as holy;” טהר “to be pure;” Pi., “to declare as pure;” so כלה “to be at an end;” Pi., “to declare as being finished.”

[21] Die Religions-Philosophie der Juden, by S. Hirsch. p. 445 ff.

[22] The phrase עיון תפלה is also used in the sense of “devotion during prayer.”

[23] I.e., the name or God consisting of four letters (י, ה, ו and ה). The correct pronunciation of the word not being known, adonai, “Lord,” is substituted for it.

[24] The “second day” (Neh. viii. 13), as a day of devotion and meditation on the Word of God, is probably the Day of Atonement.

[25] It is here assumed that the Torah was not intended to be written in a chronological order, and that this commandment was given after the Blessing of Moses was written.

[26] Maimonides accepts for this verse the Midrashic explanation: nothing of the Torah has remained in heaven for later revelations.

[27] את צמח דוד עבדך.

[28] He is probably called Elijah on account of the zeal which he will display in bringing men back to the service of God.

[29] Mishnah Eduyoth viii. 7.

[30] Lit., “The accepting of the yoke of the heaven’s dominion;” “The accepting of the yoke of the precepts.” The expression “yoke” is here by no means derogatory. It simply indicates the duty which in the one case “the dominion of heaven,” and in the other case “the Divine precepts,” impose upon us.

[31] Hebrew titles of books are often fanciful names, which more or less distinctly imply either the nature or contents of the books, or the name of their authors. The Hebrew names for the fourteen books of Mishneh-torah are as follows: (1) מדע “Knowledge;” (2) אהבה “Love;” (3) זמנים “Seasons;” (4) נשים “Women;” (5) קדושה “Sanctification;” (6) הפלאה “Distinction;” (7) זרעים “Seeds;” (8) עבודה “Service;” (9) קרבנות “Sacrifices;” (10) טהרה “Purity;” (11) נזיקין “Damages;” (12) קנין “Acquisition:” (13) משפטים “Disputes;” (14) שופטים “Judges.” Rabbenu Jakob calls his work ארבעה טורים “Four Rows,” a name borrowed from Exod. xxviii. 17. The names of the four parts are: ארח חיים “Path of Life” (Ps. xvi. 11); יורה דעה “Teacher of knowledge” (Isa. xxviii. 9); אבן העזר “Stone of Help” (1 Sam. vii. 12, and Gen. ii. 18), and חשן משפט “Breastplate of Judgment” (Exod. xxviii. 15).

[32] I.e., if a person has no fear of God, he is himself the sole cause of its absence, and he alone is responsible for it.

[33] The words of the Mishnah are בכל מדה ומדה שהוא מודד לך הוי מודה לו מאד The meanings of three roots are combined in this interpretation of the words בכל מאדך viz., מאד “exceedingly,” מודד “measuring,” and מודה “thanking.” The three words are similar in sound.

[34] The term עיון תפלה (lit., “reflecting on prayer”) has two meanings: (1) reflecting on the prayer while uttering it; devotion; in German, Andacht; (2) reflecting on the prayer after having uttered it, while we are waiting for the sure fulfilment of the wishes expressed in it.

[35] In the whole Book of Esther the name of God does not occur even once. It is not mere chance; there are several passages where the mention of the Divine Being is expected, and it is believed that the omission is due to the fear of a subsequent desecration of the book in the hands of the Persians.

[36] I.e., the word consisting of four letters, yod, hé, vav and hé.

[37] E.g., by giving bad advice and transgressing the law, “Thou shalt not put a stumbling block before the blind” (Lev. xix. 14).

[38] Comp. the saying, לא עכברא גמבא אלא חורא “Not the mouse is the thief, but the hole.”

[39] Those who become security for a stranger are blamed (Prov. vi. 1 seq.) as acting rashly, and foolishly endangering their peace and welfare.

[40] See p. 294.

[41] The Hebrew is composed of the names of the three consecutive Sidras, Lev. xvi.–xxiv.

[42] Lit., inquiring, scil., what the condition of the patient is, and what is needed for his recovery.

[43] Comp. supra, p. 261.

[44] The prayer for the head of the State, beginning הנתן תשועה למלכים has its origin in this sense of loyalty towards the State in which we live.

[45] I.e., When the old and experienced counsel to pull down a house, the pulling down is essential to its rebuilding; whilst the counsel of young and inexperienced men to build may imply destructive elements.

[46] There are some exceptions to this rule:—The Reader wears the talith during every Service; in some congregations mourners wear it when they recite kaddish. On the Day of Atonement the whole congregation wear the talith during all the Services. On the Fast of Ab the talith is put on before the Afternoon Service instead of during the Morning Service.

[47] There are two forms of the blessing which accompanies the performance of a Divine precept: the precept is expressed (1) by a noun which is preceded by the preposition עא “concerning;” (2) by the infinitive of a verb preceded by the preposition ל “to,” e.g., “concerning the commandment of tsitsith,” and “to wrap ourselves with a garment provided with tsitsith.” The latter form is used (1) when the blessing is recited before the performance of the mitsvah has commenced; (2) when he who performs the mitsvah is personally commanded to perform it. In all other cases the first form is used. Hence על מצות ציצת, because we are, as a rule, not in a fit state for prayer when we put it on, and therefore recite the blessing later on; על מקרא מגלה; because he who reads might just as well be one of the listeners. We say להניח תפלין at the commencement of the mitsvah; על מצות תפלין before the second part. (See Babyl. Talm. Pesachim, p. 7.)

[48] The term תפלין reminds us of תפלה “prayer,” and denotes things used during prayer. Originally it had probably the more general signification: ornament or head-ornament; in the Chaldee Version it is the translation of טטפות, which denotes “head-ornament.” (Comp. Mishnah Shabbath vi. 1.)

[49] Two sides of the bayith have the shin impressed on them, the right and the left; but in different forms, on the right the letter has three strokes (ש), on the left it has four strokes (ש), in order to ensure the right order of the four paragraphs (פרשיות) which the bayith contains from right to left.

[50] The knot formed by the רצועות of the tefillah shel rosh has the shape of a daleth, that of the tefillah shel yad is like a yod; these two letters added to the shin of the tefillin shel rosh read shaddai, “Almighty.”

[51] In the evening it was but natural that tsitsith and tefillin should be laid aside, as the greater part of the night was devoted to sleep; the rule was therefore generally adopted: “The night is not the proper time for laying tefillin” (לילה לאו זמן תפילין). The opposite principle, however, “The night is likewise a suitable time for laying tefillin” (לילה זמן תפלין), had also its advocates among Rabbinical authorities (Babyl. Talm. Menachoth 36b).

[52] With the completion of the thirteenth year a boy becomes of age in reference to the fulfilment of all religious duties. He is then called Bar-mitsvah (lit. “a son of the commandment”), a member of the Jewish community, upon whom devolve all such duties as a Jew has to perform. On the Sabbath following that birthday he is called to the Law, either to read a portion of the Sidra or to listen to its reading, and publicly acknowledge God as the Giver of the Law.

[53] Compare p. 329.

[54] See Daily Prayer Book, Morning Service.

[55] There are, besides, on the back of the scroll, just behind the names of God in the first line three words of a mystic character consisting of the letters following in the alphabet the letters of these divine names. The words have in themselves no meaning, and it may be that their object is simply to indicate from outside where the names of God are written, and to prevent a nail being driven through that part in fixing the mezuzah to the door-post.

[56] Mishneh-torah III., Zemannim, Hil. Shabbath, ch. xxx. § 1.

[57] Maimonides applies these terms to Sabbath; but they apply generally with equal force to the Festivals.

[58] We “remember” also the Sabbath or Festival by naming after it the preceding day, the night following, and in the case of Festivals the day following: the eve of Sabbath or Festival ערב שבת, ערב יום טוב; the night after Sabbath or Festival, מוצאי שבת, מוצאי יום טוב; “the day after the Festival,” אסרו חג (lit., “bind the Festival,” with reference to Ps. cxviii. 27).

[59] A similar ceremony takes place before the first meal in the morning. A cup of wine or other spirituous liquor is poured out, some Biblical passages referring to the Sabbath are recited, and the usual blessing is said before partaking of the beverage. The blessing containing the Kiddush is not said, and the ceremony has the name Kiddush or Kiddusha rabba, “great Kiddush,” only on account of its similarity with the evening Kiddush. The passages recited are the following: Exod. xxxi. 16, 17, xx. 8–11; Isa. lviii. 13, 14.

[60] ברוך אתה … בורא פרי הגפן “Blessed art thou, O Lord, our God, King of the universe, who hast created the fruit of the vine.” In the absence of wine, or if wine is disliked or injurious to health, the blessing over bread is substituted for that over wine.—The blessings are generally preceded by the word סברי “Is it your pleasure, scil., that I read?” whereby it is simply intended to call the attention of the company to the prayer.

[61] See p. 352, on the difference between the holiness of Sabbath and that of Festivals.—The last two ברכות, viz. בורא מאורי האש and המבדיל are added; the second part of the latter is slightly modified in order to suit the transition from Sabbath to Festival.—The Habhdalah on the night following the Day of Atonement consists of three ברכות, that over spices being omitted, except if Jom-kippur falls on Sabbath; in that case the Habhdalah includes all the four ברכות.

[62] Habhdalah is likewise omitted when Sabbath is closely followed by the Fast of Ab. On Sabbath night, eating and drinking being forbidden, only the one blessing, בורא מאורי האש is recited; that over spices is omitted, and the remaining two blessings are recited on Sunday evening after the fast.

[63] Although the whole of the Day of Atonement is devoted to Divine Service, less time is given to reading from the Law than on Sabbath, in order to leave more time for Prayers, Confessions, and Meditations. Rabbi Akiba, however, was of opinion that seven should be called up to the Law on the Day of Atonement, and six on Sabbath (B. Talm. Megillah 23a).

[64] The distance allowed is called תחום שבת “a Sabbath-journey,” and is 2000 cubits in every direction; it is reckoned from the outskirts of the place in which we live. If, however, a person desires to perform a mitsvah, such as milah, at a place distant about a double Sabbath-journey from his domicile, he may fix before Sabbath his abode for that day half-way between the two places, and then traverse on Sabbath the whole distance from the one place to the other. This change of abode is called erubhe thechumin, “combination of two Sabbath-journeys into one,” by changing the centre from which they are measured.

[65] They are called אבות מלאכות “principal kinds of work,” and are those which directly or indirectly were wanted in the erection of the Tabernacle, and were therefore included in the prohibition of doing any work for this purpose (Exod. xxxi. 15 and xxxv. 2).

There are certain things which cannot be brought under any of these heads, and are nevertheless prohibited, because they frequently lead to a breach of the Sabbath laws; e.g., riding in a carriage or in any kind of conveyance; playing music. These prohibitions are called שבות i.e., acts prohibited on Sabbath and Holy-days by our Sages; or גזרה (lit., “decree”), safeguard against breaking the Law.

Divine precepts, however, ordained for the Sabbath—e.g., sacrifices—or for a certain day, which happens to fall on a Sabbath—e.g., initiation of a male child into the covenant of Abraham on the eighth day of its birth, or saving the life of a fellow-man in case of illness or any other danger—must be performed although they may involve any of the acts otherwise prohibited on the day of rest.

[66] The preparation of food is only permitted on Holy-days if wanted for the same day, except when Sabbath follows immediately after the Holy-day. In that case it is allowable to prepare the food for Sabbath on the Holy-day, provided such preparation has commenced before and need only be continued on the Holy-day. The preparation made for Sabbath before the Holy-day comes in is called erubh tabhshilin, “combination of dishes,” i.e., of the dishes prepared for Sabbath on the eve of the Festival (ערב יום טוב) and of those prepared on the Festival itself; it is accompanied by a blessing and a declaration of the significance of the erubh. The following is the blessing: ברוך … אשר קדשנו במצותיו וצונו על מצות ערוב “Blessed art thou ... who hast sanctified us by thy commandments, and hast ordained for us the mitsvah of erubh.”

It may here be noted that there are, besides, three kinds of erubh, viz.:—

1. Erubh techumim. See above, page 350.

2. Erubh chatseroth (lit., “combination of the houses in a court”). According to the traditional law, we must not carry anything on Sabbath from a private place (רשות היחיד) into the street (רשות הרבים). The former is defined to be a locality belonging to one person or family, and separated from the public by a fence. The Jewish inhabitants of a court or a town closed on all sides combine to form one family, and thus turn the רשות הרבים into רשות היחיד. The symbol of such combination consists of some food kept in a room, to which all have access (e.g., the Synagogue). This is the origin and meaning of the Passover-cake (מצה) which may still be noticed in some of the Continental Synagogues.

3. Erubh par excellence.—An opening left in a fence or wall round a רשות היחיד must at least have some token that indicates the closing of the space; e.g., a wire drawn through the open space from one part of the fence to the other. Such symbol is called erubh, “combination of the various parts of the fence or wall into one.” Such erubh may likewise be noticed in some of the Continental towns. In all these cases the symbol was not introduced for the purpose of permitting the actual transgression of a law, but rather for the purpose of reminding us of what the law forbids us to do; since, in fact, that which becomes permitted through these symbols is even in their absence no direct breach of any of the Sabbath laws.

[67] Comp. the two forms of the prayer השכיבנו in the Evening Service for week-days and for Sabbath, in the Spanish Ritual.

[68] שבת היא מלזעוק ורפואה (ונחמה) קרובה לבוא ושבתו בשלום

“To-day is Sabbath and we must not lament, for recovery (comfort) is near to come; now keep Sabbath in peace.”

[69] עשה שבתך חול ואל תצטרך לבריות (B. Talm. Shabbath, 18a).

[70] Exod. xvi. 13, 14.

[71] Another explanation of this custom has been suggested. Bread and wine being before us, it is doubtful which should have the preference for the purpose of Kiddush; the bread is therefore covered, so that no choice is left (Tur Orach Chayyim 271). Bread being the ordinary requisite at our meals, the use of wine for Kiddush is considered more indicative of the distinction of the day. If, however, wine is disliked or injurious, bread is used us its substitute (page 341, note 2).

[72] A peculiar ceremony may here be noticed. Some pass the knife over the bread before the berachah is said. The origin of this custom is this: the rule has been laid down that there should not be a long interval between the berachah and the partaking of the food. The knife and the bread are therefore kept ready, and originally an incision was made into the loaf in order to shorten that interval as much as possible.

[73] ברוך א׳ י׳ א׳ מ׳ ה׳ אשר קדשנו במצותיו וצונו להפריש חלה, “Blessed art thou, O Lord, our God, King of the Universe, who hast sanctified us by thy commandments, and commanded us to separate challah.”

[74] Comp. Mishnah Shabbath ii. 16.

[75] Some kindle the lights first, and then say the blessing whilst their hands are spread out before the lights. The origin of this latter practice is this: It happens sometimes that the housewife is not ready in time for kindling the lights, and lets another do it for her, she reserving to herself the privilege of saying the berachah later on. In that case the holding of the hands before the lights and withdrawing them after the blessing represents symbolically the kindling of the lights. What was originally done in exceptional cases became subsequently the rule.

[76] Calendar is derived from the Latin Calendæ, which signifies the first of the month. The Hebrew term לוח, used for “Calendar” or “Almanac,” denotes “table” or “tablet.” In the Talmud. Sod (or Yesod) ha-ibbur is used in the sense of “the theory of the Calendar:” literally, the term denotes the fixing of the additional day to the month or the additional month to the year.

[77] Or more exactly, 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, 3⅓ seconds. The technical formula in Hebrew is: כ״ט י״ב תש״צג 29 days, 12793⁄1080 hours.

[78] In the first month the barley becomes ripe; in the second the whole vegetation of the country stands in its full splendour; in the seventh the hardy fruit, which withstood the heat of the summer, ripens; and in the eighth the first rain of the season comes down.

[79] The meaning of most of these names is uncertain. The two names Elul and Tishri seem to denote “the disappearance” and “the beginning” of the year.

[80] The adjustment is necessary for the right observance of Passover, which must be celebrated in the first month (Exod. xii. 2), the month of Abib (Deut. xvi. 1), that is, in the spring, when in Palestine the corn begins to ripen. Without the periodical insertion of a month, Passover would be celebrated in every succeeding year eleven days earlier than in the previous one, and in course of time at different seasons, contrary to the Law.

[81] The Hebrew term חדש has a double meaning “beginning of the month” and “month;” comp. שבת, “day of rest,” and also “week,” or the period that passes between two consecutive Sabbaths.

[82] In Hebrew molad, “birth.”

[83] The molad of Tishri in the year 1 is assumed to have been on Sunday evening between eleven and twelve. (בהר״ד)

[84] In this tradition the period of the Persian rule in Palestine, which lasted over two centuries, is contracted to thirty-four years. It is possible that the years were counted according to the years of Release (שמטה) or the years of the Jubilee, and these were probably not kept immediately after the return of the Jews from Babylon.

[85] See Mishnah, Megillah iii. 4.

[86] Talm. Jerush., Shekalim i. 1.

[87] Mishnah, Shekalim i. 1.

[88] According to Tradition, Exod. xii. 2 not only deals with the appointment of Nisan as the first month of the year, but implies also the rules for fixing ראש חדש, New-moon, or the first of the month; and this verse, with its traditional interpretation, was therefore considered as the basis of the Jewish Calendar. Hence the prominence given to this section of the Pentateuch by having it read on the 1st of Nisan or on the Sabbath before the 1st of Nisan.

[89] Various reasons are given for this title. According to Tradition, the 10th of Nisan in the year of the Exodus was on Saturday; it was considered a great event, a miracle, in fact, that the Israelites could on that day select a lamb for sacrifice without being molested by their Egyptian masters, who at other times would have stoned them for such daring (Exod. viii. 22). Another reason is this: The Sabbath before any of the chief Festivals was called the great Sabbath on account of the instruction sought and given respecting the importance and the observances of the coming Festival (see Zunz, Ritus. p. 9). This name has only been preserved in the case of the Sabbath before Passover.—It is, however, possible that “the great day,” the predominant idea in the haphtarah of the day, suggested the name.

It is the custom in some congregations to read in the Afternoon-service of Shabbath haggadol part of the Haggadah instead of the Psalms (civ. and cxx.–cxxxiv.).

[90] The word פסח “Passover,” signifies (1) the act of passing over or sparing (Exod. xii. 11); (2) the sacrifice of passover, especially as object to the verb עשה “to make” (ibid. 47, 48); (3) the time when the passover was offered and consumed; i.e., the 14th of Nisan, afternoon and evening (Lev. xxiii. 5; Num. xxviii. 16); (4) the whole of Passover (Mishnah, and in all post-Biblical literature).

The day on which an Israelite brought a sacrifice was a Festival to him and his family; and no work was done on that day. Accordingly on the afternoon of the 14th of Nisan, ערב פסח, the time fixed for the Passover-offering, no work was done; some abstained from work the whole day (Mishnah, Pesachim iv. 1; comp. also ibid. 5).—It is customary for the first-born to fast the whole or part of ערב פסח (Talm. Jerus. x. 1, and Masecheth Soferim xxi. 3). They might rather be expected to feast in memory of the deliverance of the first-born Israelites in Egypt. But the case is similar to that of Purim. Both the day of danger and the day of victory are celebrated; the one by fasting (fast of Esther), the other by feasting (Purim). So here the 14th of Nisan was for the first-born the day of danger, the following night the season of deliverance. Hence the fasting during the day and the feasting in the evening. The day suggests thoughts like the following: Our forefathers were saved from danger: should we deserve to be saved if danger threatened us? Such reflections may have been the origin of the fast of the first-born on the eve of Passover. Some also fast on this day, or at least abstain on it from a full meal, in order to do honour to the festive meal in the evening and approach it with appetite (לתיאבון). A similar custom obtains, though not to the same extent, on the eve of Sabbath and of every Festival (Mishnah, Pesachim x. 1).

[91] Within the four days there was ample time for examining the lamb, whether it was really תמים, without blemish, and fit both for sacrifice and for human food.—Some suggest that the keeping of the lamb for four days was to be a test of the faith of the Israelites, whether they would obey the Will of God in spite of the dreaded wrath of the Egyptians.

[92] Their faith in God had to be shown by their willingly going forth whither the command of God led them, without taking with them any provision for the journey. The lamb which they had prepared was to be consumed before they left Egypt, and whatever was left had to be burnt. This was probably also the object of the precepts that no bone of the lamb was to be broken, and no part of it was to be carried from one house to another; for the breaking of the bones and the carrying part of the meat about from place to place would facilitate its being stored away for the journey.—Other precepts, which implied haste and readiness, e.g., the roasting it with fire, eating it with loins girded, &c., were to teach the Israelites the lesson that they were to be always ready and willing to do God’s bidding.

[93] An instance of Passover being put off because of the unfitness of the priests to offer up sacrifices is met with in the Second Book of Chronicles (xxx. 2). It seems similar to the rule of Pesach sheni, but is in reality different from it. King Hezekiah did not put off the Passover sacrifice for a month on account of the uncleanness of the priests, but he made the preceding year a leap-year, and the month which would have been the second became the first, whilst the first was counted as the thirteenth of the past year (comp. Mishnah, Pesachim iv. 9).

[94] It is only the fermentation of any of these five kinds of grain that forms חמץ. Fermentation of grapes or other fruit constitutes no חמץ.

[95] חמץ is both אסור באכילה and אסור בהנאה (Mishnah, Pesachim ii. 1).

[96] It is now the custom to eat חמץ on Erebh Pesach, only during the first third of the day; i.e., till about ten o’clock in the morning (ibid. i. 4).

[97] Ibid. i. 1.—The evening was chosen for this task, because with a taper or lamp the corners and dark recesses can be better searched than by daylight. Besides, in the evening, when every one has finished his day’s work, people are more at ease to do the searching in a thorough manner.

[98] The formula with על is employed here, because we need not do the searching by ourselves; it may be done by a substitute.—Although we only search in the evening, we use the term על ביעור חמץ “concerning the removal or the destruction of the chamets,” because this removal or destruction is the object of the searching.

[99] The declaration, printed usually on the first page of the Haggadah, is made twice: once in the evening after the searching of the chamets, and once in the morning after its removal; with this difference, that in the evening only the chamets that has not been found is disclaimed; in the morning all chamets, if left in the house, is disclaimed, whether it has been noticed in the course of searching or not.

[100] There are different kinds of the process of kasher: (1) by making the articles in question red hot—this applies to the iron oven and other iron vessels; (2) by dipping the vessel in boiling water, or pouring boiling water over it, or letting the water in the vessel boil over. The object of this process is to free the vessel from any chamets it may have absorbed.—Before the process of kasher begins, the vessel must, of course, be thoroughly cleaned.

[101] The four cups of wine are not taken at once; but one serves for Kiddush, as on Sabbath and Holy-days; the second is taken at the conclusion of the first part of the Seder; the third after Grace, it being customary also on ordinary days to take a cup of wine after Grace; the fourth at the conclusion of the second part of the Seder. The four cups are also said to indicate our joy in reference to four elements constituting the redemption, and implied in the four terms: והוצאתי, וגאלתי, והצלתי, and ולקחתי, (Exod. vi. 6, 7), liberation from bondage, deliverance from service, redemption from all dependence on Egypt, and appointment as “the people of the Lord.”—These four cups were considered of such importance for the Seder-evening that the poor were provided as of right with wine for the arba kosoth (Mishnah, Pesachim x. 1).—Although the number of the four cups of wine is sanctioned by the reference to the above four expressions of redemption, a fifth cup may, if needed, be interpolated before singing Ps. cxxxvi. (Tosaphoth, Pesachim 117b).

It is customary to pour in an extra cup and keep it ready for any new-comer that might join the company. The cup is called כוס של אליהו “the cup of Elijah,” because his advent may be looked for at any time. Comp. Mal. iii. 23.

[102] Two of them are the “double portion,” לחם משנה, of Sabbath and Holy-day. The third represents the לחם עני “bread of poverty,” and is therefore broken into pieces, in order to be distinguished from the others as “bread of poverty.” The bread of poverty is intended to remind us of the bread of poverty or affliction eaten by our forefathers when kept as slaves in Egypt. But les extrèmes se touchent; it is remarkable that this very term לחם עני admits also of the meaning “bread of song,” and has been interpreted to signify the bread eaten at a joyous meal, such as the Israelites in Egypt ate the night of their liberation. It is possible that the author of the opening paragraph of the Haggadah purposely employed the term לחם עניא in this double sense (Pes. 115a).

Among some Israelites it is the custom to style the three unleavened cakes, Cohen, Levi, and Israel. The three matsoth, as a play upon words, are also called mitsvoth, “commandments;” i.e., matsoth employed in fulfilment of the commandment, “In the evening ye shall eat unleavened bread.” These matsoth are distinguished from the rest by being baked especially for this purpose. Some are careful in regard to these matsoth to have every process in their preparation, from the cutting of the wheat to the baking of the matsoth, done for the express purpose of the Seder, and to have the wheat and the flour well guarded from moisture or any foreign admixture. Matsoth prepared in this way are called מצה שמורה, “guarded matsoth.” People still more particular have all their unleavened bread for Passover prepared in this way.