Chapter XXIII: Appendix: I (2)

[103] The vegetables, that were ordinarily taken as a relish and a means of producing appetite for the meal, have only been introduced here (Pesachim 114b) for the purpose of attracting the attention of the children. According to the custom of those ancient days, the master of the house had before him a table covered with the different dishes required for the meal, and sent portions to every member of the company. When the meal was finished, before Grace, this table was removed. But on the Seder-evening the table was removed immediately after the partaking of a little parsley or other vegetables. The child, accustomed on ordinary evenings to have supper without such an introduction, asks expressly or implicitly why things are different to-night, adding also other questions. Instead of parsley, other vegetables, or even some of the bitter herbs, may be taken. This last act not being an essential element in the Service, and not being obligatory, is not preceded by the berachah, “Blessed art thou ... who hast commanded us, &c.,” but “Blessed art thou ... who hast created the fruit of the earth.”—At present the table is not removed, but the lifting up of the Seder-dish while reciting the first paragraph (הא לחמא) is the survival of that custom.

[104] Two views are expressed in the Talmud concerning charoseth: (1) it is a medicinal protective against the evil effects of the bitter herbs; (2) it is an essential part of the mitsvah, a symbol and reminder of the bricks and mortar with which the Israelites had to do the work imposed on them by their taskmasters (B. Talm., Pesachim 115b); it may also serve to suggest to us the idea that there is a means of softening the bitterness of oppression, viz., faith in God (Mishnah, Pesachim x. 3).

[105] The bone and the egg are symbols of two dishes that used in the time of the Temple to be on the table: the Passover sacrifice and the festive offering called חגיגה; the latter was added when the company was large (ibid. vi. 3, and B. Talm., Pes. 114b).

[106] The eating of anything dipped in water or in any other liquid was usually preceded by the washing of the hands. But as the eating of vegetables at this point is not obligatory, the reader alone washes his hands, but without reciting the blessing, על נטילת ידים.

[107] See p. 381, note 1.

[108] Comp. p. 380, note 1. The part laid aside is called afikuman, a name of which many curious etymologies have been suggested. The meaning is clear; it is that which is eaten just before the table is removed (p. 381, note 1), or before the dishes are cleared away: the dessert. The name is therefore a compound of two Chaldaic words, afiku-man, “dish-remover,” i.e., the dessert after which all dishes are removed and the company is ready for Grace (B. T. Pesachim 86a Rashi).

[109] The term is derived from the words of the Pentateuch, והגדת לבנך “And thou shall tell thy son” (Exod. xiii. 8). Hence also the name of the book Haggadah.

[110] The first paragraph is not an invitation sent forth to those whom it cannot reach, but an appeal to those present to join heartily in the Service and the succeeding meal; that none should feel ashamed of his poverty, none elated on account of his possessions; all having been brethren in past troubles, and in the deliverance from them, and all destined alike to share in the glories of the coming redemption.

[111] The questions have been arranged according to their importance; otherwise the third question might have been expected first (see p. 381, note 1). The expression “dipping” (טבול) used in this question merely signifies “taking some relish,” in distinction from the real and solid meal, and the meaning of the question is, “Why do we to-night partake twice of the vegetables before approaching the actual meal? It indicates a festive supper. What is the reason for this?”

[112] The three different forms correspond perhaps to the three characters or ages of the inquirers: the ignorant, the simple, and the sceptic; whilst the answer to the wise has not been formulated, but depends on his question, and the capacity of the father to instruct him. It is only the general question as to the difference between the Seder-evening and other evenings that is answered in these three forms. Each of these forms was probably followed by the explanation of Pesach, Matsah, and Maror.

[113] The Midrashic comparison of “finger of God” to “His hand” and the multiplication of the number of plagues must not be understood as intended to gratify our feeling of revenge, but merely as a simple and child-like illustration of the greatness of the Divine Power displayed on those occasions.—Rabbi Jehudah, probably from a feeling of tender sympathies with the sufferers, would not mention even the full names of the plagues, but merely indicated them by initial letters.

[114] It seems that in the time of the Talmud the one piece was eaten after the first blessing, and the other after the second. As, therefore, the partaking of matsah has taken place before the second blessing, the formula על אכילת מצה is used (see p. 329, note 2). The same is the case with regard to the blessing before “eating bitter herbs,” as it was not contrary to usage to partake of bitter herbs instead of karpas at the beginning of the Service.

[115] The afikuman has been reserved wrapped in a napkin (reminding of Exod. xii. 34), in order that the meal should finish up with matsah, just as in the time of the Temple it finished up with meat of the Passover-sacrifice.—In the Talmud (Pes. 109a) the rule is given וחוטפין מצה “We make haste to come quickly to the eating of matsah,” before the younger members of the company become drowsy or fall asleep. The words וחוטפין מצה have erroneously been interpreted, “We should snatch away the matsah,” and this interpretation caused the Service to be accompanied by a certain kind of childish amusement: some one of the company stealthily possesses himself of the matsah laid aside for afikuman, and does not surrender it until the master of the house promises him some present—The custom is unseemly and ought to be discouraged.

[116] After Grace a few verses from the Bible (Ps. lxxix. 6, 7, and Lam. iii. 66) have been added, beginning שפך חמתך and containing a prayer for God’s wrath to be poured forth over the godless people who seek the destruction of Israel. The cause of the addition is this: The season of Passover was, in the Middle Ages, a season of constant terror and danger to the Jews, because of the hostilities of their Christian neighbours against them. Helpless and defenceless, the Jews had no other way of meeting their foe than to cry to Him “who is near to all who call upon Him in truth.” The conduct of their neighbours towards them hardly suggested thoughts of love, especially at that moment. For it frequently happened that several families met in one house for the purpose of hearing the Seder-Service. They dispersed after the first part of the Service, took their meals at home, and assembled later in the evening for the second part of the Seder. Sometimes another course was taken. One person read the Service in several houses consecutively for the benefit of those who were not capable of doing so for themselves; then, after having had his meal, he began his circuit again for reading the second part of the Service. The return of the Reader or of the several families was anxiously waited for. The opening of the door before שפך חמתך, at present meaningless, had its origin in this circumstance. On returning to the second part of the Service, the guests had too often a sad tale to tell of their experiences in the street, and filled with indignation, they gave expression to their feeling in the above verses. We continue to read these verses now, but in a different spirit. We live in peace with our neighbours, protected by the laws of the country and unmolested in the performance of our religious duties. We have nothing but feelings and thoughts of love for our fellow-men, and in reciting these verses we merely condemn the wickedness of those who seek the destruction of the people of the Lord. Our Christian neighbours may certainly join us in this condemnation.

[117] Comp. Isa. xl. 2.

[118] An omer is, according to Tradition, equal to the space occupied by 43⅙ eggs of ordinary size; it is about half a gallon.

[119] Or היום … לעמר שהם … (Portug. Ritual).

[120] As the month of Iyar corresponds to some extent to May, some assert, without foundation, that the Jews hold no weddings this month, because May is held by non-Jews to be an unlucky season for marriages. Jews who refuse to celebrate marriages in May for this reason are guilty of gross superstition.

[121] According to the traditional interpretation of ממחרת השבת “from the morrow after the Sabbath,” the term “Sabbath” signifies “day of rest” or “festival,” and refers to the first day of Passover (comp. Lev. xxiii. 32). The Sadducees, and afterwards the Karaites, contested the correctness of this interpretation, but without success (see Babyl. Talm., Menachoth 65; and Ibn Ezra on Lev. xxiii. 15).

[122] The collection of these passages is called תקון לליל שבועות. A similar collection for the seventh night of Tabernacles is called תקון לליל הושענא רבא. See p. 398, note 1.

[123] On Sabbath the lulabh is not taken, because it might be necessary to carry it from place to place through the street (רשות הרבים), and this is forbidden (see Mishnah, Shabbath i. 1 and vii. 2). For the same reason the shofar is not blown on the first day of New-year, if it happens to fall on Saturday. In the Temple, however, there was no occasion for the above apprehension; the lulabh was therefore taken and the shofar was blown on Sabbath (Mishnah, Succah iv. 1, and Rosh ha-shanah iv. 1).

[124] In the Temple willow-branches were placed round the altar, the shofar was blown, and the priests made then a circuit round the altar, with the lulabh in their hands, and singing part of Hallel.—The hoshaanoth refer chiefly to the redemption of Israel and the rebuilding of the Temple.—The circuit round the altar reminds us of the taking of Jericho, and strengthens our hope that in future also the Almighty will be with us, and help us through all difficulties to ultimate victory.

[125] The lulabh alone is mentioned in the blessing, because it is the most prominent, and the other three species seem to be its appendages.—The form על נטילת is explained by the fact that we generally hold the four species in our hand, and thus commence the mitsvah, before the berachah (see p. 329, note 2).—The three species, palm-branch, myrtle, and willow, are usually bound together by means of leaves of the palm-tree. Some used to add golden bands to these leaves (Mishnah, Succah iii. 8).

[126] Mishnah, Succah iv. 5.—In the Temple the shofar was sounded during the priests’ circuit round the altar. A similar custom exists in the Spanish and Portuguese Synagogues on Hoshaana-rabba.—Tradition attributed great importance to the Morning Service on Hoshaana-rabba, and made it a kind of sequel to the Service on the “Solemn Days,” as if to give another opportunity of repentance to those who had not made full use of the means of grace afforded by the Day of Atonement, before the final sentence (גמר חתימה תובה) is pronounced. The preceding evening is therefore spent by many in devotional exercises (תקון לליל הושענא רבא). Comp. p. 394.

It is an old custom to take a few extra twigs of the willow-tree on this day and keep them in one’s hand during the chanting of the hoshaanoth. These branches, when shaken or struck, lose their leaves one after the other; so do the trees from which the branches have been cut, and so also all other trees. But the rain and heat sent by God in due time give them fresh life, and they produce new leaves. A similar experience is ours. The struggle for life reduces our strength and weakens our health; cares and troubles discourage us. But faith in God and trust in His Providence renew our strength; our health improves, our cares and troubles are diminished, and we feel ourselves restored to fresh life.

[127] Lit. “the eighth day, a festival.”—A prayer for rain (גשם) is inserted in the Musaf-Service, and corresponds to the prayer for dew on the first day of Passover; for fine weather we pray on the first day of the Festival, for rain on the eighth day. From Shemini-atsereth to the Musaf of the first day of Passover the words משיב הרוח ומוריד הגשם “Thou causest the wind to blow and the rain to fall,” are inserted in the second paragraph of the Amidah. The words do not contain a direct prayer for rain, but a praise of Him who causes the rain to fall (גבורות גשמים), whilst the daily direct prayer for rain (ותן טל ומטר “Give dew and rain”) begins about two months later,—the time when the pilgrims that had come from distant countries to Jerusalem to the Festival were assumed to have reached their homes.

[128] It has always been considered a special mitsvah and honour to be called to the reading either of the last or of the first section of the Pentateuch. Those on whom this honour is conferred are called respectively חתן תורה “Bridegroom of the Law,” and חתן בראשית “Bridegroom of the first section of the Law.” In the rejoicing with the Law special efforts are made to induce the younger members of the congregation to take part. They are usually invited to join the procession with the scrolls of the Law round the Synagogue, and have also the privilege of being called to the Torah, although they are not yet thirteen years old. This and similar things are done in order to inspire our children with love for the Torah and for the study of the Torah.

[129] Whilst the three Festivals demanded great sacrifices of each individual Israelite—to undertake a pilgrimage to the Temple, and not to appear empty before the Lord—the “Solemn Days” demanded only abstention from work, and on one day also from food. The Sacrificial Service on the Day of Atonement concerned directly the High-Priest and the priests in the Temple, the public at large but indirectly; and if great multitudes assembled in the Temple, it was curiosity rather than duty that brought them there. More importance was therefore attached by chroniclers and historians to the three Festivals and the national gathering in and round the Temple on the Feasts of Pilgrimage than to the Day of Memorial or the Day of Atonement. The Law deemed it necessary to urge on the Israelites the celebration of the former more frequently than that of the latter. When Solomon at the dedication of the Temple celebrated with the Israelites twice seven days, the first seven days probably commenced the 1st of Tishri on the Festival (1 Kings viii. 2), and the second seven days on the 15th of the month; therefore they are reckoned separately (ibid. viii. 65; 2 Chron. vii. 9, 10). Ezra, who read the Law to the Jews on the 1st of Tishri (Neh. viii. 2), which was a Holy-day (ibid. 10), read it also on the second day, which may likewise have been a special day for reading the Law, probably the Day of Atonement, and here they learnt that they were commanded to build booths for the next Festival. They must therefore have heard Leviticus xxiii., which includes the commandment concerning the fasting on the Day of Atonement. It may also be noticed that, although the commandment concerning the Day of Atonement is not mentioned in Exodus, the day is referred to as a well-known institution (Exod. xxx. 10).

[130] The reason Tradition assigns for this observance is as follows: After the giving of the Law Moses ascended Mount Sinai on the 7th of Sivan, and descended on the fortieth day, the 17th of Tammuz, with the tables of testimony. On the 18th he ascended again, and spent forty days in prayer for forgiveness for Israel; and ascended for the third time on the 1st of Elul, and returned on the 10th of Tishri with the Divine message, “I have pardoned in accordance with thy words of prayer.” Cherishing the hope that we may ourselves receive such a heavenly response on the Day of Atonement, we follow the example of Moses, and add these Selichoth or devotional exercises to our daily prayers, while the sound of the shofar aids in awakening us to earnest reflection and true improvement.

There are various names for these additional prayers: תחנונים “Supplications,” and סליחות “Prayers for forgiveness,” the latter being the general name for the early additional Service. Some of them have special names: פתיחה “opening” (i.e., the first prayer); פזמון “psalm,” a hymn sung or recited alternately by the Reader and the congregation; עקדה a composition referring to the binding of Isaac; תחנה “supplication,” generally at the end of the Selichoth. Prominent among these prayers is the recitation of the Thirteen Attributes of Mercy (Exod. xxxiv. 6, 7) and the “Confession of sins” (ודוי).

[131] Although Nisan, the month of the departure of the Israelites from Egypt, is the first month, and Passover the first of the Festivals of the year, Tishri, though the seventh month, was in many respects the beginning of the year. In the month of Tishri the Jubilee year commenced, the slaves were liberated, and landed property returned to the original owners (comp. Mishnah, Rosh ha-shanah i. 1).

[132] The name does, however, occur in the Mishnah as a term long in use and well known. It is impossible to decide when the name was introduced. The words ראש השנה in Ez. (xl. 1) denote the beginning of the year, including ten days or more, but do not signify “New-year.”

[133] The blowing of the shofar is preceded by the blessing: … ברוך אשר קדשנו … לשמוע קול שופר “Blessed art thou ... who hast sanctified us by thy commandments and hast commanded us to hear the sound of the shofar.” This blessing is followed by שהחינו.

[134] According to Saadiah, the shofar reminds us of the following ten things with which it is directly or indirectly connected:—(1) Creation; (2) Our duty to return to God; (3) Revelation on Mount Sinai; (4) The exhortations of the Prophets; (5) Destruction of the Temple; (6) The binding of Isaac for sacrifice; (7) Imminent danger; (8) Day of Judgment; (9) Redemption of Israel; (10) Resurrection.

[135] In some congregations it is the custom to walk in the afternoon of New-year along the banks of a river or the sea-shore, in order to reflect on the purifying effect which water has on the body, and to be reminded that even as the body is purified by water, so ought our souls be purified by repentance and the appeal to the help and mercy of God. An appropriate passage from Micah (vii. 18–20) is recited, and the custom has received its name tashlich from the word ותשליך “and thou wilt cast,” which occurs in the passage.

[136] The confession of sins (ודוי) as contained in our Prayer-book is made by the whole community collectively; and those who have not themselves committed the sins mentioned in the confession regret that they were unable to prevent them from being committed by others. The form of the confession is therefore in the plural: “We have been guilty,” &c. The words אבל אנחנו חטאנו “Indeed we have sinned,” would suffice for the purpose of confession. But the long lists of various forms of sins in the sections beginning אשמנו, על חטא or על חטאים and which are repeatedly recited during the Service, help us to remember our misdoings; what has escaped our attention the first time may be revived in our memory, when we read the confession a second or third time. Especially numerous are the terms denoting sins committed with our tongue; and indeed they are numerous! And where is the person that could say that his tongue has never been employed in falsehood, or slander, or self-praise, or hasty promises, and similar offences? It is necessary that we should reflect over and over again on these vices, and on the way in which to obtain better control over our tongue, and thereby a fuller mastery over the passions of our heart.

[137] The Evening Service is preceded by a formal rescinding of previous vows. Of what kind were the vows which are thus annulled? None of those that were made by a member of the community individually. No one can by means of this formula free himself from the obligation to fulfil what he has promised to his fellow-man. The declaration concerns the whole congregation, and has probably its origin in the customs of former days, when those who refused to join in the communal work, or to submit to the law of the congregation, or shocked by any act of theirs the conscience of their brethren, or abandoned Judaism outwardly, were excommunicated and shut out from all contact with their co-religionists. Such transgressors, abarjanim, when desirous to pray in the Synagogue on the Day of Atonement, were admitted, and all opposition was silenced by the solemn declaration.

That such was the original object of Kol-nidre is sufficiently clear from its surroundings. It is preceded by the following announcement: “In the name of God, and in the name of the congregation, with the sanction of the Court above, and that of the Court below, we declare that it is permitted to pray together with those who have been transgressors (abarjanim).” Kol-nidre is followed by the verse, “And it shall be forgiven all the congregation of the children of Israel, and the stranger that sojourneth among them; seeing all the people were in ignorance” (Num. xv. 26).

The original object of this declaration does not apply at present; but it serves as a reminder of the following principles:—

1. We should always be disposed to forgive those who, in the heat of strife, acting under strong irritation, have offended us.

2. We should be careful with regard to vows, and before making them consider their effect.

3. We should reflect on human weakness, and consider that what we believe to be able to do to-day may prove impossible for us to-morrow. This reflection would remove every thought of pride from our heart and inspire us with humility.

[138] At the conclusion of the Service we once more proclaim the Unity of God (שמע ישראל), repeat three times the praise of His kingdom, and seven times that He alone is the Almighty. The sound of the shofar announces, as on the occasion of the Revelation on Mount Sinai, the conclusion of the Holy-day.

[139] The idea of introduction is implied in the term minchah, “introduction” (from the root נחה “to lead,” “to conduct”).—Minchah, originally denoting any present or offering, was the special name of flour-offerings, probably because flour or corn was the most common minchah offered by people to their sovereign.—Comp. “I will appease him with the present (minchah) that goeth before me, and afterwards I will see his face” (Gen. xxxii. 21).

[140] תפלה from פלל “to judge,” implies self-examination whether we are worthy of addressing the Most Holy. As to the purifying effect of prayer, see above, p. 183.

[141] This was necessary for two reasons: it served to foster a disposition for devotion and to assist the multitude in their endeavour to give expression to their feelings; it gave also uniformity to the prayers, which is indispensable in public Divine Worship (תפלה בצבור).—The free effusion of our heart before our Creator is by no means restrained, and is certainly not intended to be excluded by these regulations.

[142] מנהג עוקר הלכה “Custom overrules law,” is a well-known saying that is frequently acted upon (Soferim xiv. 18).

[143] Comp. supra, page 183 sqq., on the efficacy of prayer. Comp. page 280 sqq.

[144] This is one of the three explanations suggested in Babyl. Talm., Berachoth 29b: (1) A burdensome task, of which one desires to get rid; (2) a claim and not a supplication; (3) fixed without any spontaneous addition.

[145] Hence the phrases in the Talmud, “He went down toward the Ark” (tebhah), or simply “He went down” to read the tefillah. It was not so in all places of worship, because another phrase is sometimes used, “He passed toward the tebhah.”

[146] On such occasions a large congregation was expected, coming from the whole neighbourhood, and the Synagogue was considered too small. It is also possible that a prayer-meeting in the open air was intended to attract the indifferent, who did not attend the regular Services in the Synagogue.

[147] See Mishnah, Berachoth iv. 5, 6, and Babyl. Talm., Berachoth 30a.

[148] As our religion demands frequent recitations of berachoth in the course of the day, the custom spread among the Jews of keeping the head always covered. Comp. Babyl. T., Kiddushin 31a; Shulchan aruch, Orach Chayyim ii. 6.

[149] Attempts have been made to modify and to soften down the seemingly harsh words against those who design our ruin; some even wish to have the whole paragraph expunged from the prayer. In these attempts it has been ignored that the prayer is not directed against certain persons or nations; it is a petition for the protection of Israel from the wicked plans of evildoers.

[150] This fact is probably the source of the statement in Midrash Rabboth (Num. xviii.), that the tefillah before the birchath ha-tsadukim was added contained seventeen paragraphs.

[151] In the Temple the priests recited daily the Decalogue, and no objection was raised, because the congregation—priests, Levites, and general worshippers—constantly changed; and secondly, the very Service in the Temple sufficiently proved the existence of other Divine laws.—This ruling applies only to the addition of the Decalogue to the shema, not to its introduction into any other part of the Service.

[152] The priests were classed in twenty-four divisions; they had to perform a week’s active Service in the Temple by turns; the same was the case with the Levites. The Israelites of the district of which it was the turn of the priests and the Levites to serve in the Temple sent a deputation (Maamad) to Jerusalem, who represented them in the Temple; whilst they themselves held special prayer meetings, called Maamadoth.

[153] E.g., the addition of הנותן ליעף כח to, and the omission of שלא עשני בור from, the ברכות השחר.

[154] Machzor, lit., “Cycle” of prayers, both the obligatory and the optional, or the ordinary tefilloth and the piyyutim, for the various seasons of the whole year. It is called Machzor Vitry, after its compiler, Simcha of Vitry (about 1100).

[155] As to the importance of minhag in our religious life, see above, p. 420.

[156] According to the Mishnah (Berachoth iv. 1), the time fixed for this Service is the first fourth of the day; but the notions of “early” and “late” are now different from what they were in ancient times. An extension of the time has long been conceded, especially for the Public Service on Sabbaths and Festivals.

[157] As to the principle expressed in these three berachoth, see supra, p. 170.

[158] In the German Ritual for week-days a third berachah, beginning ברוך יי לעולם and concluding ועל כל מעשיו, is added. This berachah seems to have been at first a substitute for the Amidah, which was optional in the Maaribh Service. The substitute became in many congregations an integral part of the Maaribh, and was retained even when the Amidah was generally adopted as obligatory. On the eve of Sabbath and Festivals the Amidah was always recited, and there was no need for the substitute. The third berachah is therefore absent from the Maaribh on these evenings.

[159] See note 2 on p. 446 sq.

[160] As to the merits of Public Service, see above, p. 284. Ten male persons of thirteen years and upwards constitute a congregation, צבור (or מנין “number” or “quorum”), and their united devotions form Public Service (תפלה בצבור), into which the additions enumerated above are introduced.

[161] Before meals we wash our hands, say the blessing, על נטילת ידים, and eat a piece of bread after having said the berachah, המוציא.—Some wash their hands a second time (מים אחרונים) before Grace. See Shulchan-aruch, Orach-chayyim clxxxi.

[162] Comp. Babyl. Talm., Berachoth, p. 48b.

[163] בריך רחמנא מריה דהאי פיתא or ברוך שאכלנו משלו.

[164] מתוך שלא לשמה בא לשמה.

[165] The Reader must be שליח צבור the real representative of, and acceptable to the congregants (Shulchan-aruch I. liii. 4).

[166] See above, page 417.

[167] E.g., גשם and טל in the Musaph of the first day of Pesach and the eighth day of Succoth are based on the climatic conditions of Palestine.

[168] Those who fear that the seemingly harsh expressions might imply or suggest ideas and feelings of a baser kind can easily modify them and remove the sting.—Similarly, expressions contrary to our taste and sense of propriety ought to be removed.

[169] I.e., of the new corn. This law of חדש applied to the corn sown during the year preceding the festival of Passover and beginning with the previous Passover (Babyl. Talm., Menachoth 69).

[170] The grafting of two species of trees one upon the other is included in this prohibition.

[171] E.g., “Neither shall there come upon thee a garment of two kinds of stuff mingled together.” Such mixture is called שעטנז, and applies only to the mixture of wool and linen (Deut. xxii. 11). Another commandment belonging to this category is this: “Thou shalt not plow with an ox and an ass together” (ibid. 10). Ibn Ezra, in his Commentary on the Pentateuch (ad locum), suggests the following reason for this commandment, “The Almighty has mercy upon all His creatures; the strength of the ass being inferior to that of the ox, an unfair demand would be made upon the strength of the former when drawing the ploughshares together with the latter.”

[172] טרפה originally designated meat of animals torn by wild beasts, but it is used to designate food, especially meat, forbidden by the Law. All permitted food is called kasher (כשר).

[173] In accordance with the traditional explanation of the commandment, “Thou shalt not destroy the corners of thy beard” (Lev. xix. 27), a razor is not employed, and shaving is avoided; the hair of the beard and the face is clipped with scissors. This prohibition, like that of “rounding the corners of the head” (ibid.), belongs to a group of precepts which aimed at keeping the Israelites away from the idolatrous customs of their heathen neighbours. The second prohibition has led to the fashion noticeable among Russian and Polish Jews of letting the hair of “the corners of the head” (in Hebrew peoth) grow very long.—In the Mishnah (Kethubhoth vii. 6) it is mentioned as a distinctively “Jewish custom” that married women have their head covered when going out. Many Jewish women observe also this custom within the house.—With these exceptions there is nothing in his dress and appearance that need distinguish the Jew from the Gentile, only that sometimes Jews are more conservative with regard to fashion than their neighbours, and old-fashioned style is then mistaken for “Jewish fashion.”

[174] Some people leave on one of the walls of the house a certain piece unpapered and unpainted as a sign of mourning for the destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple. From the same reason, in some congregations, the bridegroom on the wedding-day has ashes strewn on his head. In accordance with Ps. cxxxvii. 6 we remember Jerusalem on various occasions. We recite Ps. cxxxvii. on week-days, and Ps. cxxvi. on Sabbath and Holy-days, after every meal. Again, when we give expression to our sympathy with mourners we pray that God may comfort them together with those who mourn for the destruction of Jerusalem.

[175] The above-mentioned exceptions, and the fact that the woman is passive in the marriage ceremony as well as in the case of a divorce, have been erroneously interpreted as evidence of the low estimate in which she is held by the Jewish Law. How the Jews were taught to honour their wives may be gathered from the Jewish marriage document, in which the husband promises “to honour his wife in accordance with the rule in practice among Jews, that every husband honours his wife.” There are, unfortunately, also bad Jews who ill-treat, neglect, or entirely abandon their wives; but these cases are exceptions, and proportionately less numerous than among non-Jews. On the whole, Jewish women are treated by their husbands with love and regard, and the good relations that exist between husband and wife ensure the comfort and happiness of both.

[176] To this respect for feminine modesty is due the arrangement made in the Synagogue for female worshippers (see p. 426). It is also the reason why girls have no ceremony corresponding to the celebration of the bar-mitsvah.

[177] Women do not like to do needlework on Saturday evening immediately after the close of Sabbath; it was considered a mitsvah to prolong the Sabbath, just as it is a sign of love and esteem if we induce a friend to defer his departure. The saying that only shrouds are to be sewn on Sabbath evening may perhaps be traced to Mishnah, Shabbath xxiii. 4.

[178] In order to have warm food on Sabbath without breaking any of the Sabbath laws, the food is put in an oven which is heated in such a manner that the fire continues to burn without requiring to be stirred or rekindled, or in which the heat is otherwise retained. Such food is called chalet, which is probably a French word, corresponding to the Hebrew חמין “warm.”

[179] Or חבוב מצוה “love of mitsvah.”

[180] See p. 357.

[181] See p. 357 sqq.

[182] Jews consider it a duty to have guests (אורחים) at the table on three occasions, viz., the Seder-evening, Purim, and Succoth.

[183] The blessing generally consists of the priestly benediction, and the words of Jacob, “God make thee like Ephraim and like Manasseh” (Gen. xlviii. 20); Sarah, Rebeccah, Rachel, and Leah being substituted for Ephraim and Manasseh when females are addressed.

[184] A special Service of the day is called יום כפור קטן.

[185] Friday evening was especially selected for this purpose; the visitors were treated with fruit and sweets; and this secondary element in the custom became in course of time the principal thing. The custom received the name Shalom-zachar, probably from the usual greeting, “Shalom! (“Peace,” corresponding to our “How do you do?”) O male child!”

[186] In different countries there were different ways of expressing this sentiment. In some congregations a band (mappah) for the Sepher, with the name and birthday of the child inscribed on it, and ornamented with verses expressive of various good wishes, is presented to the Synagogue.

[187] I.e., a person who circumcises.

[188] Of those who assist in the mitsvah, the sandek (godfather), who holds the child during the operation, is the most prominent, and is called בעל ברית (“who is in possession of the covenant,” i.e., of the child to be initiated into the covenant). The religious enthusiasm required for the performance of this mitsvah is symbolically represented by “the chair of Elijah” (כסא של אליהו), upon which the child is placed before the operation; Elijah in Jewish Tradition being the type of religious zeal.

[189] The Service for the occasion is included in the Daily Prayer-book, by Rev. S. Singer, p. 304.

[190] For the Blessing and Prayers on this occasion, see Prayer-book, p. 308.

[191] The chief element in this Service is ברכת הגומל, the thanksgiving for the Divine protection enjoyed in the moment of danger. This Blessing is pronounced by (1) those who have crossed the sea, (2) or a desert, (3) or have recovered from a serious illness, (4) or have been released from prison. (Comp. Ps. cvii.)

[192] Leviticus was generally taken first.

[193] A misinterpretation of the dictum of Rabbi Eliezer, “Whoso teaches his daughter torah, teaches her, as it were, levity” (Mishnah, Sotah iii. 4), led many to believe that the Rabbis did not wish the daughters of Israel to know the Law. The dictum refers to a discussion which immediately precedes on the efficacy of the “bitter waters.” Rabbi Eliezer holds that it is dangerous to the morality of a woman to engage her thoughts with the details of the Law concerning a wife suspected of adultery (Num. v.).

[194] The feast in honour of the bar-mitsvah is סעודת מצוה only when it is accompanied by דברי תורה (“Words of the Law”) spoken by him.

[195] At festivities a glass was broken in order to remind those present of the transient nature of all earthly things, and thus warn them against excess of joy (Babyl. Talm., Berachoth 31a).—The same is done after the wedding ceremony.

[196] In the Talmud the custom of the ring is not mentioned; anything could be used, provided it had the value of a perutah, a small coin, and was the property of the bridegroom. Among Jews the use of the ring is a modern fashion. The ring must not contain any jewel or precious stone, the value of which can in many cases not easily be estimated, and which might therefore lead to misunderstanding and dispute.

[197] There are, besides, various explanations of the term chuppah: (1.) The wreath on the head of the bride when led to the marriage ceremony (הינומא, Mishnah, Kethubhoth ii. 10). (2.) A cover over the head of the bride; in some countries, therefore, instead of erecting a canopy, a talith is held over the bride and bridegroom during the ceremony; in others a separate ceremony of covering the head of the bride takes place before the actual marriage (comp. supra, p. 467, note 1). (3.) A private chamber into which bride and bridegroom retire for breakfast when the ceremony is over.

[198] In order to prevent mistakes the minister reads the formula slowly, and the bridegroom repeats it; the minister omits the word לי “unto me,” and the bridegroom inserts the word by himself, or assisted by some one else.

[199] “And of Israel” signifies: “According to the Jewish traditional interpretation of the Law of Moses;” these words are added because the rules of kiddushin are not directly mentioned in the Torah.

[200] The kethubhah is in its essential elements very old, and dates probably back to the time when the Jews in Palestine spoke Aramaic. The settlement described in this document should be made to correspond with the actual deed of settlement legally executed. On the other hand, even the poorer bridegrooms should be induced to make a real settlement corresponding to the promises made in the kethubhah. The system of life insurance facilitates such a course. Otherwise the kethubhah has no importance.

[201] The contents of these Blessings are: (1) Benediction over wine; (2) praise of God as the Creator of the Universe, (3) as the Creator of man, (4) and of woman; (5) prayer for the comfort of Zion, (6) for the rejoicing of the young couple, and (7) for their united happiness.

[202] Lit., “Good planet.” The term has entirely lost its original meaning, and denotes simply “hearty congratulation.”

[203] In the Torah polygamy is not forbidden, but not encouraged. It was a luxury inaccessible to the multitude, and the king is distinctly told that he must not have many wives (Deut. xvii. 17). The principle of monogamy is implied in many Biblical passages, as, e.g., Gen. ii. 20 sqq.; Mal. ii. 14; Ps. cxxviii. 3; Prov. v. 18 sqq.

[204] A woman divorced from her husband by גט or from her brother-in-law by חליצה cannot marry a kohen.

[205] In every congregation there is a special society of those who devote themselves to the needs of the sick (חברת בקור חולים). See above, p. 302.

[206] “Many have made confession and have afterwards recovered” are the very words to be addressed to the patient according to the Shulchan-aruch, Jore deah cccxxxviii.

[207] See Sefer ha-chayyim, and Daily Prayer-book, p. 314 sqq.

[208] See supra, p. 302.

[209] Those present exclaim: ברוך דין אמת “Blessed art thou ... who art the true Judge.” The same is done by those who are not present on hearing the sad news. Relatives rend also their garments (קריעה).

[210] In Hebrew אוננים and אבלים; the former term is applied to the mourners during the time between the death and the interment of their relatives; the latter after the interment during the whole period of mourning.

[211] Some consider it a dishonour to the departed to leave the corpse unburied over night, since the Law does not allow even the body of a criminal to be treated in this way. The practice may also have commended itself on sanitary grounds.

[212] The shroud is made of white linen. The kittel or sargenes is part of the raiment in which the dead are clothed. It is the custom in some countries that the bride presents the bridegroom with this article on the wedding-day; and it is worn by the husband on New-Year’s Day and on the Day of Atonement, and on the Seder-evening during the Service. Some think that the object of wearing it is to remind us of death, and thus turn our thoughts away from the vanities of earthly life.—The custom has probably its origin in the fact that the white kittel was the festive garment of the day.

[213] In Hebrew בית החיים or בית עלמין “the house of life” or “the house of eternity.”

[214] The case is known by the name of מת מצוה “the corpse which claims attention as a mitsvah.”

[215] The usual formula is, “May the Almighty comfort you together with those who mourn for Zion and Jerusalem.” These words are addressed to the mourners when they return from the grave to the Hall, while passing the line (שורה) formed by those present, and are repeated during the week of mourning, especially on Friday evening when the mourners enter the Synagogue. When the Service is over, the mourners return home, and partake of a meal prepared for them by friends or neighbours (סעודת הבראה). In days of old wine was taken on that occasion (Kethubhoth 8b), but this custom, like several others, has dropped into oblivion. In the Grace the section which begins ובנה “And build,” is modified during the week of mourning in order to give expression to the sentiments of the mourners.

[216] During the week of mourning the mourners (1) remain at home, with the exception of Sabbath; (2) abstain from work and business; (3) hold the Morning and the Evening Services at home, and add appropriate psalms (such as xvi. and xlix.), prayers, and meditations; (4) sit on the floor or on low chairs; (5) listen to no music, avoid play, and all kinds of amusement, and (6) let the hair grow long.—During the rest of the month—or of the year, in case of mourning for father or mother—the last two observances are followed; the hair is only cut when it has become cumbersome as well as unsightly, and a banquet is only attended when it is a סעודת מצוה.

[217] A symbol of the soul of the departed, in reference to Prov. xx. 27.

[218] The three principal mitsvoth are: Study of the Law (תורה), Divine Service (עבודה), and Charity (גמלות חסדים). As regards the first, a section of the Mishnah is studied daily; as regards the second, the bereaved, during the year of mourning, or on the Jahrzeit, acts as Reader in the Synagogue for the whole or part of the Service; and as regards the third, relief is given to the poor in memoriam.

[219] Babyl. Talm., Gittin 14b.

[220] The numbers refer to pages in the Authorized Daily Prayer-book, with a new translation by the Rev. S. Singer.