Chapter LXV: Remaining Antarctic Work (2)

_Cunningham Mount_ (D). (_Leader of first Danish Voyage_), Itivdlek.

_Cunningham Fjord_ (D). (_Leader of first Danish Voyage_), Itivdlek
Fjord or Amerdluk, 67° 25′ N.

_Gabriel Mount._

_Hope Harbour._ Gilbert Sound of Davis. Modern Godthaab, 64° 15′ N.

_Huntcliff Mount._ (_After Huntcliff Foot near Redcar_), in Godthaab
Fjord.

_King’s Fjord._ (See Christian’s Fjord.)

_Knight Islands._ (_Captain John Knight_, see pp. 129, 130).

_Lancaster River._ (_Sir James Lancaster_), a branch of Godthaab
Fjord.

_Sophia Cape_ (D). (_Queen of Denmark_), Proestefjeld, 1770 ft., just
N. of Holsteinborg.

_Rommel’s Fjord_ (D). (_Hendrik Rommel_), 66.54 N., now Holsteinborg.

_Thoroughgood Island._

_Wilkinson Isles._ (_Merchant sent with Hall by the Adventurers._)

[70] See _An Historical Enquiry concerning Henry Hudson_, by John Meredith Read (Albany, 1856).

[71] See my _Life of John Davis_, p. 29.

[72] Engroneland.

[73] _Purchas_, III, p. 464, reprinted by Asher in his _Hudson’s Voyages_, p. 146. Among some protests of the Muscovy Company against Dutch encroachments, in the State Paper Office, there is one by a Captain Millworth in which _Hudson’s Touches_ is mentioned.

[74] The following were the names of the crew: Henry Hudson (Master), and his son John Hudson, Robert Juet (Master’s Mate), Arnold Ladley (Mate), John Cooke (Boatswain), Philip Stacey (Carpenter), John Braunch (Cook), John Barnes, John Adrey, James Scrutton, Michael Pearce (or Pierce), Thomas Hilles, Richard Tonson, Robert Rayne, and Humphrey Gilby.

[75] “We were against Fair Foreland in 79° N.” [north end of Prince Charles Island]. “The night was very clear with fair weather, also calm, by which I had a very good opportunity to find the sun’s refraction. For beholding it about a north-north-east sun, by a common compass, at which time the sun was at the lowest, it was but one-fifth of his body above the horizon, having about four-fifth parts below, so near as I could guess. His declination for that instant was 10° 35′ N., being at noon in the 2° 7′ of Virgo, his daily motion was 58′ whose half being twenty-nine, to be added to the former, because it was at twelve hours after noon. I say his place at the instant was 2° 26′ of Virgo, whose declination was as before 10° 35′; the latitude of the place was 78° 47′ whose complement was 11° 13′ the declination being subtracted from the complement of the pole’s elevation, leaveth 38′, four-five part of which 12′, which being subtracted from 38 leaveth 26′ for refraction. But I suppose the refraction is more or less according as the air is thick or clear, which I leave for better scholars to discuss; but this I thought good to note for the better help of those who do profess this study.”

[76] In December 1615, Captain Joseph was appointed to command the fleet of the East India Company, consisting of the _Charles_ and _Unicorn_ (the Journal is in the India Office, No. 20). In 1617 he was slain in a fight with a Portuguese carrack. His widow received a pension.

[77] The family of Fotherby was from Grimsby. Martin Fotherby of Grimsby had two sons, Charles, Dean of Canterbury, who died in 1619, and Martin, Bishop of Salisbury. There is an elaborate tomb of the Dean in Canterbury Cathedral. Robert Fotherby was of the same family. His narratives of his three Spitsbergen voyages show that he had received a classical education, was observant, intelligent, and a thorough seaman. He afterwards entered the service of the East India Company, probably made one voyage to India, and was agent to the company at Deptford and in 1621 at Blackwall. He probably died in that employment.

[78] In 1617 Captain Marmaduke proposed to the King that he should be employed to make the north-east passage, but I have failed to discover anything more of his history.

[79] Since found to be three islands; the proper name of the group being Wyche Islands.

[80] For instance Wyche’s Sound, discovered by Baffin and Fotherby in 1614, if not by Marmaduke in 1612, is now called Wijde Bay, a name, as Sir Martin Conway has pointed out, that was never heard of before 1670.

[81] This reverend but mutinous gentleman had previously been in Persia with the Shirleys.

[82] These islands are off Cape Sophia on the Greenland coast, a fact that the writer has good cause to remember, as he was once aground on them, and in some danger.

[83] I found Knight’s Journal among some other papers thrown aside in a very damp place in the tower of the India Office, and printed it at the end of my volume of Sir James Lancaster’s voyages, edited for the Hakluyt Society. A version of it is given by Purchas, but much is omitted.

[84] Brunel was a Dutchman. He had proposed to Christian IV to discover the lost colony of Greenland, and was probably in Hall’s first voyage. A Cape on the Greenland coast was named after him. The story of Oliver Brunel was brought to light by S. Müller and Koolemans Beynen, the very able young editor of the 2nd edition of the Barentsz voyages.

[85] The names and rank of the crew were as follows:

1. Henry Hudson (Captain).
2. John Hudson (Captain’s son).
3. Robert Juet (Mate).
4. Robert Bylot (Mate).
5. John King (Mate).
6. Edward Wilson (Surgeon).
7. Francis Clements (Boatswain).
8. William Wilson (Boatswain).
9. John Williams (Gunner).
10. Philip Staffe (Carpenter)
11. Sylvanus Bond (Cooper).
12. Bennet Mathews (Cook).
13. Henry Green (Clerk).
14. Habakuk Prickett (servant of Sir D. Digges).
15. Thomas Woodhouse (mathematical student).
16. Arnold Ladley (or Ludlow), A.B.
17. Michael Pierce, A.B.
18. John Thomas , A.B.
19. Adrian Moter , A.B.
20. Syriack Fanner, A.B.
21. Adam Moore , A.B.
22. Michael Butt , A.B.
23. Nicholas Sims (Boy).

[86] Prince Henry died November 6th, 1613, aged 18 years and a half.

[87] This distance would be greatly in error, unless the declinations of both heavenly bodies were the same.

[88] John Searle, a licensed surgeon, published his ephemeris in 1609. It was from 1609 to 1617, and the book also contained a correction of time in respect of several meridians, a list of places with latitude and longitude in time, and a table for converting degrees and minutes into time. David Origanus was the author of an ephemeris for the years from 1595 to 1650. His meridian was Wittenberg.

[89] I have not been successful in my attempts to discover who Master Herbert was. He was probably a gentleman volunteer.

[90] This map is excessively rare. It is only to be found in one or two copies of Foxe’s book. The British Museum copy has not got it, but a facsimile has been inserted.

[91] The Portuguese Admiral, Ruy Freire de Andrada, and 17 guns were captured when the Kishm fort was taken. Ormuz then surrendered and was handed over to Shah Abbas.

[92] La Peyrère’s account in his _Relation du Groenland_ is unreliable and inaccurate.

Munk’s narrative, _Navigatio Septentrionalis_ (Copenhagen, 1621), has been edited for the Hakluyt Society (1897) by Mr Gosch.

[93] This is the first place in which I have found the use of log and line mentioned, although it had been known for at least 60 years; indeed an obscure passage in Pigafetta seems to suggest its use by Magellan. Bourne, in his _Regiment of the Sea_, published in 1573, describes the log-ship as so made that it remains where it falls into the water, while the line runs out during a fixed interval by a minute glass. The intervals between the knots on the log line are to a minute as a mile is to an hour. In Bourne’s _Inventions or Devices_, No. 21, published in 1578, the inventor of the log and line is said to be Humphrey Cole of the Mint in the Tower; the maker of the instruments for Frobisher’s first and second voyages bought in 1576.

[94] It is interesting to note the equipment necessary to enable a mathematical captain to observe efficiently in 1631. Captain James had:--

A quadrant of pear-wood of 4 ft. semidiameter.
Equilateral triangle of 5 ft. radius.
Quadrant of 2 ft. semidiameter.
Staff of 7 ft., another of 6 ft.
Gunter’s cross-staff.
3 Jacob’s staves.
2 Davis’s back-staves.
6 Meridian compasses.
4 Needles in square boxes.
6 Needles of 3 inches.
4 Special 6-inch needles.
A loadstone to refresh needles.
A watch-clock 6 inches in diameter.
A lesser watch.
Small sand-glasses.
Log-line.
Hakluyt.
Purchas.
The best mathematical books available.

[95] See p. 40.

[96] Hans Egede made out half a dozen words to be common to Eskimos and Norsemen. _Quan_, the word for angelica, is nearly the same in both languages. In Eskimo _Kona_ is a woman, in Norse _Kone_; in Eskimo _Nerriok_ to eat, in Norse _Naere_; _Nise_, the word for porpoise, is the same in both languages. Ashes is _Asket_ in Eskimo, in Norse _Aske_. In Eskimo a lamp is _Kollek_, in Norse _Kolle_.

[97] Count Zinzendorf was the founder of the congregation from Moravia, formed to promote the conversion of the heathen. He built a station on one of his estates in 1728, which was called Herrnhut. From hence missionaries went forth--chiefly to the West Indies, Greenland, and Labrador--known as Moravian missionaries. “Herrnhut” means “the Lord’s keeping.”

[98] Egede was the author of two books, one on the history of the Greenland Mission, the other a description of Greenland.

[99] Paul Egede was afterwards a Professor at Copenhagen, and Provost of the Royal Danish Mission.

[100] “A cruel attack on the reputation of a skilful and intrepid navigator.” _John Barrow._

[101] Ledyard was one of those remarkable men that Arctic service so often produces. He had been befriended by Sir Joseph Banks, who encouraged him in his enthusiasm for travel. Having been to Kamschatka by sea, Ledyard resolved to find his way there by land. He crossed to Ostend with no more than ten guineas in his pocket, made his way to Stockholm, and walked thence, round the Gulf of Bothnia, to St Petersburg. There he obtained permission to accompany a party with stores to Yakutsk and thence to Okhotsk. But, for some unknown reason, he was arrested, hurried back across Siberia, and put across the frontier near Königsberg. Quite destitute, he ventured to draw a small cheque on Sir Joseph Banks which enabled him to reach England. The African Association had just been formed, and Sir Joseph selected this resolute and fearless traveller as the best man to execute the instructions of the Association. Ledyard was to make his way from Senaar to the Niger. He set out in June 1788, but his career was brought to a premature close by fever at Cairo.

[102] _Philosophical Transactions_, LXVIII, p. 1057.

[103] Second edition 1818. Daines Barrington was also the author of _Observations on the Statutes_, 1766; _Naturalist’s Calendar_, 1767; _Miscellanies_, 1781; and of contributions to the _Archaeologia_ and _Philosophical Transactions_. He died at the Temple on March 11th, 1800, aged 73.

[104] _A Voyage towards the North Pole_, 1773 (4to, pp. 76 and 177), Bowyer and Nichols, 1774. Sir Albert Markham also published the narrative of a midshipman named Floyd, who was serving on board the _Racehorse_, in a book entitled _Northward Ho_ (Macmillan, 1879). Sir Albert obtained a correct list of the officers from the Admiralty.

[105] A Corresponding Member of the Royal Geographical Society, 1843. He died in 1876.

[106] F. Martens. _Voyage to Spitzbergen._ Translation edited for the Hakluyt Society by Adam White (1855).

[107] C. G. Zorgdrager. _Bloeyende Opkomst der Aloude en Hedendaagsche Groenlandsche Visscherij_ (Amsterdam, 1720).

[108] A bentick boom is a long straight spar to which the clews of the foresail are secured.

[109] _Spek_ is the Dutch for blubber.

[110] From the Dutch _afmaaken_, to finish or adjust.

[111] The Swedish steamer _Sophia_ reached 81° 42′ in 1868.

[112] His life was written by his nephew, Scoresby Jackson.

[113] Commander Buchan again served on the Newfoundland coast in the _Grasshopper_ from 1820 to 1823. Fifteen years afterwards he was lost in the _Upton Castle_ coming home from India, that Indiaman being heard of for the last time on December 8th, 1838.

[114] Sir John Ross was much hurt at the doubting remarks and criticisms respecting the brilliant crimson on his plate of the crimson snow. They still rankled 32 years afterwards when the present writer served with him, and he wrote an article on the subject in our Arctic periodical, the _Aurora Borealis_. Mr Bauer, of Kew Gardens, it appears, pronounced the crimson snow to be of the genus _Uredo_, allied to “smut” in wheat, and he grew some in snow. It was first green, then as bright a crimson as in Ross’s plate. Ross called it _Uredo nivalis_ of Bauer in his 2nd edition.

[115] Much attention was given to the provisioning. There were the preserved meats and soups of Donkin and Gamble; Burkitt’s essence of malt, hops, and spruce; lemon juice, vinegar, sauerkraut, pickles, and herbs as antiscorbutics. Coal was used for ballast, 70 chaldrons in the _Hecla_, 34 in the _Griper_. The Admiralty supplied warm clothing and wolf-skin blankets for the men without any charge.

[116] Cyrus Wakeman, in the _Dorothea_ with Buchan, and the _Griper_, 1819–20, was afterwards at the battle of Navarino, where his splendid gallantry is recorded by Lady Bourchier in her _Memoirs of Sir Edward Codrington_, II, p. 102 (Longman, 1873). He died in the Niger expedition.

Sir Joseph Nias, K.C.B., was in the _Alexander_, _Hecla_, and _Fury_ with Parry, 1818–23. He distinguished himself in the _Herald_ during the first China war, at the capture of the forts of the Bocca Tigris and in all the operations in the Canton river, becoming Rear-Admiral in 1857. In 1855 he married Isabella, only child of John Laing of Montagu Square, where he died December 16th 1879.

[117] Bushnan, on his return, was appointed to Franklin’s land journey, but died before starting, in 1825.

[118] All three were with Parry again in his third voyage.

[119] Mr Hooper was with Parry in his third voyage. Afterwards he for some time held the post of Secretary to Greenwich Hospital. He died in 1833.

[120] The Rev. G. Fisher was afterwards Head Master of Greenwich School from 1834 to 1863. He died in 1873.

[121] The instructions for Parry’s second expedition were signed by Sir George Cockburn, Sir Henry Hotham, and Sir George Clerk.

[122] Captain Lyon served on board the _Albion_ at the battle of Algiers. He made an important journey from Tripoli to Mouzourk and wrote an excellent account of a very little known country. In 1825 he married Lucy, daughter of Lord Edward Fitzgerald, who died in 1826. In 1828 he published a journal of travels in Mexico. This accomplished and much beloved officer died in 1832.

[123] Henry Foster, son of the Rev. Henry Foster of Woodplumpton near Preston, was born in 1796. He was a midshipman in the _Conway_ with Captain Basil Hall on the Pacific Station, an excellent school for young officers; then in the _Griper_ with Clavering, Assistant Surveyor in Parry’s third voyage, and in the voyage of 1827, when he explored Hinlopen Strait. His magnetic work was published in the Philosophical Transactions of 1826, for which he received the Copley Medal of the Royal Society. In 1827 he became a Commander, and the Duke of Clarence gave him the command of a discovery ship owing to his exceptionally high scientific attainments. He commissioned the _Chanticleer_ in 1827 with Horatio T. Austin as his first Lieutenant. Foster was chiefly engaged in pendulum observations, going as far south as the South Shetlands and surveying Staten Island. He was drowned in the Chagres river, when engaged in determining the meridian distance between Chagres and Panama on February 5th, 1833. The polar story would be incomplete without a notice of one of the most distinguished of Arctic scientific officers.

[124] Or rather connection. The step-mother of Flinders was Franklin’s aunt on the mother’s side.

[125] The Civil Lord of the Admiralty who signed Parry’s instructions.

[126] This is manifestly an error for 1845–46.

[127] Under the title _Versus Tennysoniani_ no less than 165 renderings of “Not here ...” etc., in Greek, Latin, Sanscrit, Arabic, German, Italian, and French, etc. were published by Canon Wright in 1882 at the Cambridge Press, written by Archbp. Benson, Canon Ainger, Dean Bradley, Prof. Butcher, Dr Haig-Brown, Dr Butler, Master of Trinity, Calverley, Prof. Cowell, Farrar, Gladstone, Jebb, Lord Lyttelton, Dean Merivale, Max Müller, Prof. Palmer, Lord Selborne, Bp. Wordsworth, and others. (Ed.)

[128] Ross died on April 3rd, 1861, after seventeen polar navigable seasons, and nine Arctic winters; Captain Bird retired an Admiral and died in his 83rd year on December 3rd, 1881.

[129] Pemmican is a preparation of beef from which all that is fluid has been evaporated over a wood fire. The fibre is then pounded, and mixed with an equal weight of pounded beef fat.

[130] M’Clintock’s sledge crew in his first great journey deserve a niche in the Arctic temple of fame. James Wilkie, captain of the sledge, aged 33, was a splendid seaman, zealous, cheerful, and humorous. James Hoile, a fine, tall man of 25, excellent in all respects, a sailmaker. James Dawson, aged 23, was a good-looking foretopman. John Salmon, a small, wiry man, who was with M’Clintock in the _Enterprise_, was really the strongest of all. Hood and Jim Heels were Marines, the former a shoemaker, aged 31, the latter, aged 24, sang a good song.

[131] Captain Austin was afterwards Superintendent of Deptford Dockyard during the Crimean War, a post of great importance at that time, Admiral, K.C.B., and Admiral Superintendent of Malta Dockyard in 1863; he died in 1865. Captain Ommanney, in the _Eurydice_, commanded the squadron in the White Sea. In 1853 he had the _Hawke_ in the Baltic; and the _Brunswick_ in the West Indies until 1860. He was Captain Superintendent at Gibraltar in 1864, retiring a K.C.B. in 1874. He died in December 1904, aged 91.

[132] Mate in the _Resolute_, then aged 22, afterwards Sir George Nares, K.C.B., died January, 1915.

[133] Among these was a devotional book which Sir George Back had given to his old shipmate Gore. It was restored to Sir George, who to the day of his death always kept it on his drawing-room table under a glass case.

[134] The Observatory on Pendulum Island was in 74° 32′ 19″ N. and 18° 50′ W.

[135] Clavering’s fate was a sad one. He sailed in command of the _Redwing_ from Sierra Leone in the summer of 1827, and was never heard of again, though some wreckage was found on the coast.

[136] There had been two early attempts to explore the east coast before Graah’s expedition. In 1752 Walloe got as far as 60° 28′, and Giesecke, a German, got to 60° 9′ in 1806.

[137] Captain Graah’s narrative was translated by Gordon Macdougall, and published by the Royal Geographical Society in 1837.

[138] At my request the late Commodore Jansen searched the Dutch archives, and wrote an admirable memoir on the ice years in the Novaya Zemlya and Spitsbergen Seas, with notices of the chief Dutch voyages and discoveries. The same accomplished officer was the author of the chapter on Land and Sea Breezes in Maury’s _Physical Geography of the Sea_.

[139] The instrument consists of four arcs graduated so as to read to 30 with the verniers. Two of these arcs, representing the altitude and latitude, are moveable. The two others, which represent the declination and hour circle, are fixed. In using it the verniers of the proper arcs are set to the declination, the altitude, and the latitude respectively. The readings on the hour circle will then show the hour angle.

[140] The northern lands which Payer thought he saw from Cape Fligely, and which he named Oscar and Petermann Lands, as well as the north-easterly extension of Kronprinz Rudolf Island from Cape Fligely to Cape Sherard Osborn, have since been found by Captain Cagni to have no existence.

[141] The Franz Josef flora includes the ubiquitous _Saxifraga oppositifolia_, _Cardamine bellidifolia_, _Arenaria sulcata_, _Draba alpina_, _Cerastium alpinum_, _Papaver nudicaule_, and _Cochlearia fenestrata_. A rare and beautiful grass, _Pleuropogon sabinii_, was also found, only previously known at Melville Island, at one or two places up Prince Regent’s Inlet, and in Novaya Zemlya, where it is abundant. Only 27 flowering plants have been collected in Franz Josef Land, and 25 mosses.

[142] The price of walrus hides has risen since they have been found to be the best material for burnishing parts of bicycles. The steamer _Balaena_ was, therefore, sent to Franz Josef Land in 1897, and obtained 500 hides, while about 1500 were lost owing to the animals sinking when dead, so that this monstrous slaughter amounted to 2000, not counting the number of young that must also have perished.

[143] The great depth found by the _Sophia_ to the north of Spitsbergen pointed to a deep ocean as existing north of the whole Spitsbergen and Franz Josef system. I formed this deduction in 1876, and Nansen’s discovery afterwards proved it to be correct.

[144] I knew Dr Kane when he served in Grinnell’s relief expedition, of which he wrote the history. His was certainly a charming personality, talented, cheerful, and enthusiastic.

[145] Kane adopted the Danish name of ice-foot (_Iis-fod_) for this permanent frozen ridge or terrace.

[146] It is a singular fact that the changing of names of Arctic vessels has frequently coincided with misfortune. The names of all the ships but one in the Franklin search were changed, and all were lost except the _Fox_, and her name was not changed.

[147] Length 160 ft., extreme breadth 33·4 ft., depth of hold 17 ft., tonnage 751, nominal h.-p. 60.

[148] Length 166 ft., extreme breadth 30 ft., depth of hold 18 ft., tonnage 668, nominal h.-p. 43.

[149] Each sledge had its flag, which, at my suggestion, was designed on proper heraldic rules. The cross of St George at the hoist, the fly swallow-tailed, party per fess with the colours of the sledge-commander’s arms, and his crest or principal charge over all, a border or fringe of the colours of the arms. The same pattern was adopted for the sledge flags of Captain Scott’s Antarctic expeditions.

[150] Hans Hendrik was born at the German missionary station of Fiskernäs in Greenland, and had become a good kayaker and hunter when he agreed to join Dr Kane’s expedition, where he was under the protection of Carl Petersen. He was with Morton when he reported having seen the open polar sea. After Kane’s second winter Hans joined the Arctic Highlanders and married a girl named Markut. Hans and his wife later joined Hayes’s expedition, and afterwards settled at Upernivik. In August, 1871, they joined Hall’s expedition, and were left on the floe which drifted down Baffin’s Bay, where, as we have seen, Hans saved the rest of the party by his skill as a huntsman. He was most useful in some of the sledge journeys from the _Discovery_. In 1877 he wrote his memoirs in Eskimo, which were translated into English by Dr Rink (_Trübner_, 1878). He afterwards lived at Upernivik.

[151] Rawson was mortally wounded at the battle of Tel-el-Kebir, while serving as naval aide-de-camp to Sir Garnet Wolseley. Admiral Sir George Egerton, K.C.B., became Commander-in-Chief at Devonport.

[152] Tidal observations, under the direction of Lieutenant Archer, were taken in 81° 45′ N., during 7 months; and in 82° 25′ N., for two months. They were reported upon by Professor Houghton (Nares, II, p. 356).

[153] _Ivigtut_, the cryolite mine, is about 16 miles up the Arsak fjord. Cryolite is a white mineral found on the gneiss of S.W. Greenland and nowhere else--a double hydro-fluorate of soda and alumina. In 1857 a licence was given to a company to work the mine to the amount of about 26 ship-loads yearly.

[154] In 1892 these two young Swedish enthusiasts started with the object of exploring the part of Ellesmere Island between Jones and Smith Sounds. They bought a small cutter of 37 tons at St John’s, Newfoundland, and went up Baffin’s Bay to the Cary Islands. In 1893 a whaler found her driven on shore at one of the Cary Islands and full of ice. There was a record written by Björling asking that, if nothing was heard of them in 1893, relief might be sent to Clarence Point on Ellesmere Island. They went away in an open boat. I appealed for funds and collected £100 as a help to Nordenskiöld’s fund for sending a steamer. She went, but nothing more was ever found or heard of these gallant youths.

[155] Both his sons inherited much of the ability of their father. The eldest died young, but not before he had done valuable ethnographic work. The younger, Erland, now Baron Nordenskiöld, has made two journeys among the Amazonian Indians, with excellent ethnographic and linguistic results.

[156] Sir Fridtjof Nansen, in an Appendix to his _Through Siberia_, has lately made a record of all voyages across the Kara Sea from the voyage of Burrough in 1556 to the present day, with notes on the state of the ice in each year. His conclusion is that in the great majority of years it is possible to reach the Siberian rivers through the Kara Sea, though there are great variations in the quantity of ice in different years. He thinks it very improbable that these differences are caused by winds and sea currents from the north. His conclusion is that the ice that is met with is formed in the Kara Sea itself, and that the differences of ice conditions are caused by differences in the winters. In a cold winter, with little precipitation, more ice will be formed, and little ice will melt in a cold spring and summer. When there is a warm winter and heavy snow-fall succeeded by a warm spring and summer, the melting of the ice will proceed rapidly, and there will be a fairly ice-free Kara Sea. Nansen’s remarks on the navigation of the Kara Sea are extremely valuable, based on the most complete information and long experience of ice conditions.

[157] Announced in the _Morgenblad_ by Professor Mohn in 1884.

[158] Quite unknown to Nansen I had come to a similar conviction in contemplating the results of the Nares expedition. In my Report on the origin, proceedings, and results of this expedition (_R. G. S. Proceedings_, 1877), I pointed out that a current flowed across the polar sea from the eastern to the western hemisphere, that Franz Josef Land was part of the Spitsbergen group, rising from the same plateau with a deeper sea to the north, and that to overstep the boundary of the known polar sea, though attended by great difficulties, would reward with important discoveries the future explorer who boldly forced his way north in this direction. My Report came to Nansen’s knowledge after his return home.

[159] Length of keel 102 feet, length of deck 128 feet, beam 36 feet, depth 17 feet, thickness of ship’s side 24 to 28 inches. In the stern the oak beams were 4 feet thick.

[160] The British sledges 1850–9 were 3 feet wide, the runners of metal, 3 inches wide, and slightly convex.

[161] See Nansen’s “Oceanography of the North Polar Basin” in Vol. III of the results of the expedition, the “Bathymetrical Features” in Vol. IV, also _The Sea West of Spitsbergen_ (Christiania, 1912) and the oceanographic observations of the Isachsen Spitsbergen expedition, by Bjørn Helland Hansen and Fridtjof Nansen.

[162] _Through Siberia_ (Heinemann, 1914). Appendix on the navigation of the Kara Sea.

[163] The writer was shipmate with one of them for more than a year, and there could not be a better disposed lad or a more reliable comrade when travelling.

[164] He may have adopted the position fixed by the observations of Lieut. Aldrich. The sun was below the horizon when Peary started.

[165] Commodore Jansen was one of the most active and accomplished of the honorary corresponding members of our Royal Geographical Society of his time and the chief promoter of the revival of Arctic voyages in Holland. He saw much service in the Royal Dutch Navy, joining its surveying branch, and was for several years engaged on a survey in the Riouw Archipelago, the Straits of Sunda, and elsewhere. As a Lieutenant on board the frigate _Prins van Oranje_ he served in the West Indies, and during a visit to Washington in 1851 formed a life-long friendship for Maury, the great American hydrographer. He contributed the chapter on land and sea breezes to Maury’s _Physical Geography of the Sea_ and in 1864 published an important work _The Latest Discoveries in Maritime Affairs_. In the following year he became a Commodore in the Royal Dutch Navy, and was appointed to superintend the building of the ironclad _Prins Hendrik_, which he afterwards commanded. In 1868 he retired from active service, after a distinguished naval career of 35 years. At my request Jansen examined the Dutch archives with a view to a study of ice navigation in the Spitsbergen and Barentsz seas, and the results of his researches were published in the _R. G. S. Proceedings_ (Old Series, IX. 9, 163). In 1873 he was appointed a Councillor of State, and attained the rank of Rear Admiral. He died in September 1894, aged 77.

[166] Beynen published _De Reis van de Pandora in den Zomer van 1876_.

[167] The Committee consisted of the Baron van Wassenaer van Catwyck, Councillor of State Commodore Jansen, Franzen van de Putte, Professor Buys Ballot, Professor Veth, Jonkheer J. K. J. de Jonge (_Treasurer_).

[168] Lady Markham’s translation of the _Life of L. R. Koolemans Beynen_ by Charles Boissevain was published by Sampson Low in 1885.

[169] Author of _Ice-bound on Kolguev_.

[170] _No Man’s Land_, Camb. Univ. Press, 1906.

[171] The Danish Committee for the geographical and geological investigation of Greenland was formed in 1876, and a valuable periodical, the _Meddelelser on Grönland_, containing the narratives of the explorers and the scientific results of the expeditions, has ever since been published at Copenhagen.

[172] “Botanical Exploration of the East Coast of Greenland between 65° 35′ and 74°30′ N.” by Chr. Kruuse (1904), _Meddelelser on Grönland_ (Heft. 30, Afd. I), Kjöbenhavn, 1907.

[173] Thalbitzer has published papers on the poetry and music of the East Greenlanders, on their _angekoks_ or priests, and on their dialect.

[174] So called after a patriotic brewer named Carlsberg, who left his brewery to a Trust, the profits to be expended on scientific work. As the brewery is a lucrative business, the help to exploration from this source has been very important.

[175] A Swedish expedition under Professor Nathorst in the _Antarctic_ had reached Scoresby Sound in July 1899, and afterwards explored and mapped the previously unknown and complicated system of fjords forming the inner branches of Davy Sound, proving that they were connected with Franz Josef Fjord. In September 1899 Nathorst left the coast, and his ship the _Antarctic_ was used in the following year for the Carlsbergfondet Expedition.

[176] His Royal Highness Philippe Duc D’Orléans made a voyage to that part of the coast on board the _Belgica_ with M. Gerlache as his master in 1905. He stood northwards along the land ice, and succeeded in effecting a landing to the north of Cape Bismarck in 77° 36′ N. On July 31st he was in 78° 16′, the furthest north ever attained by a ship on this coast, and he could see as far as 78° 30′. In August he again landed in 77° 36′, the place receiving the name of Cape Philippe.

[177] Freuchen, who came from Nykjøbing on the island of Falster, went on a voyage to West Greenland as a stoker in order to obtain preliminary training.

[178] The easternmost point is in 81° 24′ N. and 12° W.

[179] Peary’s point at the place he calls “Navy Cliff,” where he says he saw the sea and called it “Independence Bay,” is over a hundred miles from the sea or any bay. He may have seen the end of the long narrow fjord which Erichsen discovered. But his channel across Greenland does not exist, and there is continuous land between the position Peary gives to his Navy Cliff and his Heilprin Land to the north.

[180] _Book of the Knowledge of all the Kingdoms_, p. 35 (Hakluyt Society, Series II, vol. XXIX, 1912.)

[181] Burney II, 198.

[182] Dalrymple and Burney take it seriously. I included it among the documents in my _Voyages of Quiros_, but I now quite agree with my old friend Benjamin Vicuña Mackenna that it is a fabrication. (See Vicuña Mackenna’s _Historia de Juan Fernandez_.)

[183] Cook and Ross searched for this small island in vain, but several of Mr Enderby’s sealing vessels found and visited Bouvet Island.

[184] Elder brother of Madame D’Arblay.

[185] This chronometer is now in the museum of the United Service Institution.

[186] Mr Poynter, Master’s Mate, Mr Blake and Mr Bone, Midshipmen. Blake was eventually Admiral Patrick Blake, who did excellent service in the first China war, and was afterwards Captain of the _Juno_ in the Pacific 1845–49.

[187] The writer’s uncle, John Markham, was an acting Lieutenant on board the _Andromache_, and he made a copy of Mr Bransfield’s first chart. There are 21 names on it.

[188] Mr Fanning wrote _Voyages round the World_, containing reports of the voyages of Pendleton and Palmer.

[189] At Pendulum Cove in King George’s Island.

[190] Kendall wrote an account of Deception Island in the first volume of the _Journal of the Royal Geographical Society_.

[191] The name Australia had not then come into use.

[192] The present writer was personally acquainted with Admiral Bird, Lieutenant Phillips, Mr Tucker, Dr M^cCormick, Sir Joseph Hooker, Dr Lyall, Admiral Moore, Captain Davis, and Mr Abernethy.

[193] Rossbank Observatory was in latitude 42° 52′ 27″ S. and longitude 147° 27′ 30″ E., 205 feet above the sea.

[194] Gauss’s position was 66° S. and 146° E. Scott’s observations gave 72° 51′ S. and 156° 25′ E.

[195] On January 31st there was “an unaccountable decrease of variation from 96° E. to 77° E., and then an increase of 16°. Ross formed the opinion that they had passed one of those extraordinary magnetic points first observed during Sir Edward Parry’s second voyage, near the eastern entrance of Hecla and Fury Strait.” Sir James Ross, _Voyage to the Southern Seas_, 1, 229.

[196] Sir Joseph Hooker told me that Sir James was not only an accurate observer, but also a good collector, taking the deepest interest in the geological and biological researches.

[197] The following treat of Ross’s Third Antarctic Voyage:--

(_a_) _A Voyage of Discovery and Research in the Southern and Antarctic Regions_ 1839–43 (2 vols. 8vo.), by Sir James Clark Ross.

(_b_) _Voyages of Discovery in the Arctic and Antarctic Seas_ (2 vols., large 8vo.), by R. M^cCormick.

(_c_) Captain J. E. Davis: Letter to his sister describing events of Sir James Ross’s voyage, and especially the iceberg collision. Printed for the Royal Societies Antarctic Expedition.

(_d_) MS letter from C. J. Sullivan, armourer of H.M.S. _Erebus_, describing Antarctic scenery, the iceberg collision, and other events.

[198] A pupil of Captain Maury, the great American hydrographer.

[199] _Quinze Mois dans l’Antarctique, par le Commandant de Gerlache_ (Hachette, 1902), 106 illustrations and chart, pp. 284.

“Exploration of Antarctic Lands,” by Henryk Arçtowski, in the _Antarctic Manual_.

[200] _Antarctica, or Two Years amongst the Ice of the South Pole_, by Dr Otto Nordenskiöld and Dr Gunnar Andersson, 1905.

_On the Geology of Graham Land_, by Dr Gunnar Andersson. (Uppsala, 1906.)

[201] _Die gevidde Formation der Eisgeit_ (Berlin, 1887), and _Grönlands Gletscher und Inlandeis_.

[202] _Zum Kontinent des eisigen südens_, von Erik von Drygalski (Berlin, 1904).

[203] The Committee consisted of the following persons:--

Sir Clements Markham, Pres.
Admiral Sir Leopold M’Clintock.
Vice-Admiral Pelham Aldrich.
Captain Ettrick Creak, R.N.
Admiral Sir R. Vesey Hamilton.
Admiral Sir Anthony Hoskins.
Rear-Admiral Sir George Egerton.
Sir John Murray.
Admiral Sir George Nares.
Admiral Sir Albert Markham.
Rear-Admiral Sir William Wharton.
Captain Field (Hydrographer).

[204] The house flag of the _Discovery_ was made at Dundee:--the cross of St George at the hoist, the fly swallow-tailed, party per fesse, argent and azure (for ice and sea), and bearing the globe of the Royal Geographical Society. Bordure argent and azure.

[205] The sledge flags were of the same pattern as in the Arctic expedition of 1875–6. The cross of St George at the hoist to denote that, whatever family the bearer may belong to, he is first and foremost an Englishman. The fly is divided per fess with colours of the arms of the officer, undivided if one colour, with the crest or principal charge in the arms, swallow-tailed, with a border or fringe of the colours of the arms.

[206] The text of the Bishop’s address was “Behold how good and how pleasant it is for brethren to dwell together in unity” (Psalm cxxxiii. 1).

[207] M’Clintock’s sledges were 9 ft. and 11 ft. long, 3 ft. 2 in. wide, 11½ inches high, with 6 uprights and 6 cross bars, the runners were of ½-inch iron, 3 inches wide and slightly convex. All were lashed with strips of hide, put on warm and wet, so that they shrank and made all tight.

[208] The ration adopted by Scott was as follows in ounces per day:--Biscuit 12·0, oatmeal 1·5, pemmican 7·6, bacon and pea-flour 2·6, plasmon 2·0, cheese 2·0, chocolate 1·1, cocoa O·7, sugar 3·8. In addition, ¾ lb. of tea, ½ lb. of onion powder, ¼ lb. of pepper and ⅖ lb. of salt was allowed per week to each unit of three men.

[209] Sir Douglas Mawson was born in 1882, the son of Mr. R. E. Mawson, of Otley, in Yorkshire. He was educated at Sydney University and graduated as Bachelor of Mining Engineering 1901, Bachelor of Science 1904, Doctor of Science 1909. He was Lecturer in Mineralogy at Adelaide University in 1905.

[210] These were Anton and Demetri, the two Russian dog-drivers, and seven men of the Royal Navy:--Edgar Evans, Lashly, and Crean, who had all been on the _Discovery_, and Keohane, Forde, Hooper, and Clissold, the two latter respectively steward and cook.

[211] For their courageous services in this affair Lashly and Crean received the Albert Medal.

[212] Atkinson, Wright, Cherry Garrard, Gran, Lashly, Crean, Williamson, Nelson, Archer, Hooper, Keohane, and Demetri, formed the search party.

[213] Names in italics represent first discoveries.

[214] Names in italics represent first discoveries.

INDEX

Abernethy, Thomas, 233, 251, 265, 413

Abruzzi, Duke of, attempts to reach the Pole, 351

_Active_, 431

Adam of Bremen, chronicles visit of Norsemen to Greenland, 38

Adams, Lieut. J. B., 478, 479

-- William, 390

Adelaide Island, 432, 442

Adélie Land, 407, 409, 477, 487

Admiralty Range, 415

_Advance_, 252, 298 _et seq._

_Adventure_, 394

_Aid_, 86

_Akbar_, 223

Akuli Gulf, 230 _et seq._, 235

_Alabama_, 376;
loss of, 378

Aldrich, Admiral Pelham, 258 _et seq._, 304, 307, 428, 446

_Alert_, 303 _et seq._, 312, 313

Aleutian Islands discovered, 178

_Alexander_, 198, 201, 202

Alexander Island, 434

-- Land, 397, 442

Alfland, 33

Alfred, King, translates _Orosius_, 33

Alten Fjord, 317

Altitudes, Antarctic, 473, 480, 484, 485, 500, 501

-- in Greenland, 332, 333, 335, 336, 338, 381

Ambassador, Russian, visits England, 62

Amdrup, Lieut. G., 367, 368

Ameralik Fjord, 336

America, North, coast line of, surveyed by Franklin, 222;
by Back, 228;
by Dease and Simpson, 228

American Antarctic expeditions, 400, 408

-- Arctic Coast, 18;
birds of, 18;
fauna and flora of, 18

Amsterdam Island, 360

Amundsen, Roald, undertakes N.W. Passage, 314 _et seq._;
winters in King William Land, 314;
serves in the Belgian Expedition, 434;
his Antarctic expedition, 482 _et seq._;
meets Scott’s party, 493;
reaches the South Pole, 485

Andersson, Gunnar, 436, 439

Andrée, 344

_Andromache_, 398, 400

_Angekoks_, 23;
Greenland, 366

Angmagsalik, 365 _et seq._, 381

_Angrim_ stones, 53

Anian, Strait of, 82

Anjou, Admiral, surveys Liakhovs, 180

_Ann Frances_, 86

_Anne Royal_, 146

_Annula_, 124

Anoatok, 353, 355

_Antarctic_, 368, 436;
founders, 437

Antarctic Circle first crossed, 395

-- exploration, story of, 430 _et seq._

-- explorations, Amundsen’s, 482 _et seq._;
Balleny’s, 405, 414; Belgian, 433 _et seq._;
Bellingshausen’s, 396, 397;
Biscoe’s, 403 _et seq._;
Borchgrevink’s, 433;
Bruce’s, 439, 440;
Charcot’s, 441;
Capt. Cook’s, 394 _et seq._;
D’Urville’s, 407, 408;
Drygalski’s, 440;
Filchner’s, 442;
Foster’s, 400 _et seq._;
French, 407, 441;
Gerlache’s, 433 _et seq._;
German, 440, 442;
Kempe’s, 405;
Mawson’s, 486 _et seq._;
Nordenskiöld’s, 435 _et seq._;
Norwegian, 433, 482 _et seq._;
Ross’s, 410, 418, 422 _et seq._;
Russian, 396;
Scott’s first expedition, 447 _et seq._;
Scott’s last expedition, 489 _et seq._;
Shackleton’s, 478 _et seq._;
Swedish, 435 _et seq._, 506;
The Societies’, 444 _et seq._, 455 _et seq._, 466 _et seq._, 471
_et seq._;
Weddell’s, 401, 402;
Wilkes’s, 408, 409

-- ice, 11;
icebergs, 11;
regions, 389 _et seq._

_Antarctic Manual_, 453

Araucaria, 438

Archer, 503

-- Colin, 347;
constructs the _Fram_, 340

_Arctic_, 302, 303

Arctic currents, 23

-- discoveries, by Norsemen, 32 _et seq._, 38 _et seq._, 49 _et
seq._;
under Elizabeth, 157

“Arctic Highlanders,” 24, 203, 253, 299, 301, 313, 338, 339, 352 _et
seq._, 379;
dress of, 24;
physical characteristics of, 24

Arctic quadrants, 4, 6, 13

Arctic regions, geology of, 384 _et seq._

Arçtowski, Henryk, 434, 435, 453

Ardencaple Inlet surveyed, 375

Area of Greenland, 9

Areas, Polar, 3

_Arenaria sulcata_, 295

_Arethusa_, 223

Arias, Juan Luis, his memorial, 392

Armitage, Lieut. Albert, 292, 448, 463 _et seq._, 480

Arnold, Bishop, 48

Art, Tchuktche, 17

_Arte de Navegar_, 151;
translated by Eden, 65

_Assistance_, 251 _et seq._, 261, 264 _et seq._, 349

_Astrolabe_, 407

Astrolabe, 53;
description of, 56, 57;
Drake’s, 57

Astrup, Eivind, 337, 338

Atalayas, 125

Atkinson, Dr, 490, 491, 498, 499, 503, 504

Atlantic current, 30

Auks, Little, 199

_Aurora_, 486 _et seq._

Austin, Capt. H. T., 216, 252, 255, 273, 401;
death of, 262

Axel Heiberg Island, 348, 349, 354

Back, Sir George, 223 _et seq._, 276;
serves with Buchan, 199;
reaches Repulse Bay, 230

_Baffin_, 196

Baffin, William, 124, 125, 138;
patronised by Wolstenholme, 108;
sails with Hall, 113;
magnetic observations by, 115;
visits Spitsbergen, 116;
enters service of the East India Co., 146;
his Arctic voyages, 146;
his letter to Wolstenholme, 145;
his magnetic observations, 126;
explores Spitsbergen, 127;
his map of Hudson Strait, 139;
lunar observations of, 140;
visits Eskimo settlement, 140;
his third voyage, 142;
map of his discoveries, 144;
surveys Persian coast, 147;
captain of the _London_, 147;
death of, 147;
qualities of, 148

Baffin’s Bay, 145, 305;
birds of, 99;
currents of, 6;
entered by the Norsemen, 50;
its existence doubted, 145;
lost, 146;
existence reestablished, 201

Baffin Island, 141

_Baidor_, 171

Balaclava helmets, 462

_Balaena_, 296, 431, 439

-- _Biscayensis_, 125

Balleny, Capt. John, his Antarctic expedition, 405, 414

-- Islands, 406, 408, 417, 477

Ballestilla, 89

Balloon, captive, 450, 457

Bardsen, Ivar, report on Greenland, 51;
his sailing directions translated by Barentsz, 70

Barentsz, Willem, 69;
his voyage to Novaya Zemlya, 70;
discovers Spitsbergen, 74;
crews attacked by scurvy, 75;
winters in Novaya Zemlya, 75;
dies, 76;
discoveries of, 77;
character of, 78;
winter quarters revisited, 78;
hut of, 79;
relics of, 79

-- Sea, 297, 360

Barker, Andrew, 114, 115, 116

Barne, Michael, 449, 463, 471, 475

“Barren lands,” 18

Barrier, The Great, 11, 416, 419, 433, 453, 456;
altered limit of, 457, 475;
height of, 457

Barrington, Hon. Daines, 172

Basaltic pillars, 324;
rocks, 295

Basques, the first whalers, 125

Bathurst Island explored, 268

Battye, A. Trevor, 361

Bay ice, 7

-- of Whales, 483

Beach Province, 391

Beagle Channel, 436

_Bear_, 86

Bear, Nelson’s adventure with, 173;
Bears, 296

Bear Island (or Cherrie Island), 73, 121

-- Islands, 324

Beardmore Glacier, 498

Beaufort Island, 416

-- Sea unexplored, 383

Beaufoy, 402

Beaumont, Lieut., 308

Bedford, 223

Beechey, Capt. F. W., 226 _et seq._;
serves with Buchan, 198;
sails with Parry, 206

-- Island, 241, 265, 311, 314, 349

Behaim, Martin, figures polar islands, 54

Belcher, Sir Edward, 264, 269, 349

Belgian Antarctic expedition, 433 _et seq._

_Belgica_, 368, 434

Bertelsen, 370 _et seq._

Bell, Richard, 108, 113

-- Sound, 119, 187, 188, 285 _et seq._

_Bellerophon_, 223

Bellingshausen, Capt., his Antarctic expedition, 396, 397

Bellot, Lieut., 262;
death of, 268

-- Strait, 262

Bennet, Stephen, visits Bear Island, 73

Bennett, Gordon, 327

-- Island, 179, 180, 329

Bering, Vitus, his voyages, 177;
death of, 178

-- Island, 324

-- Strait, 170

Bernacchi, Louis C., 433, 449, 475

Bernier, Capt., 362

Berry, Lieut., 329

Best, George, writes narrative of Frobisher’s second expedition, 90

Bethell, Lieut., 428

Beynen, Koolemans, 311, 358;
death of, 360

Bird, Capt., 213, 216, 218, 411, 420, 424;
death of, 251

Birds, 314;
Antarctic, 423, 437, 455;
of American Arctic coast, 18;
of Baffin’s Bay, 99;
of Cape Digges, 141;
of Cape York, 24;
of Davis Strait, 97;
of Franz Josef Land, 296;
of Fury Beach, 236;
of Novaya Zemlya, 185;
of Spitsbergen, 121;
of Waigatz Island, 64

Biscoe, Capt. John, his Antarctic expedition, 403 _et seq._

Bishop Arnold, 48

-- Eric, 48

-- Olaf, 49

Bishops of Greenland, 47 _et seq._, 51

Bjaaland, 484

Björling, 325

_Black Dog_, 101

Blake, Admiral, 398

Blessing, Dr, 341

_Blijde Boodschap_, 390

Blink Ice, 163

_Blossom_, 216, 226, 227, 234

Blubber, 193

Boats of Chukchis, 17;
of Eskimos, 20, 115

-- used on Franklin’s land expedition, 222;
used by Back on Great Fish River, 228;
used by Dease on the Mackenzie, 229;
of Franklin’s retreat, 245

_Bona Confidentia_, 60

-- _Esperanza_, 60

_Book of the Knowledge of all the Kingdoms_, 389

Booth, Sir Felix, 233, 237, 251

Boothia Felix, 234

Borchgrevink, Carstens, his Antarctic expedition, 433

Bourne’s _Inventions or Devices_, 152

Bouvet, Capt. L., 393

-- Island, 393

Bowers, Lieut., 490, 492, 495 _et seq._, 500, 502;
death of, 503

Bransfield, Mr, 398, 400

Brattahlid, 41, 44

_Breadalbane_, 268

_Briefe and True Relation_, Purchas’s, 145

Briggs, Henry, 151

“Briggs-his-Mathematics,” 154

_Briseis_, 201

Britain, discovery of, by Pytheas, 27

British expeditions to Spitsbergen, 287

Brocklehurst, Sir Philip, 478, 480

Bromley, Lieut., 428

Brönlund, 370;
death of, 373, 374;
diary of, 373

Brooke Place, 105

Brooke’s sounding apparatus, 426

Bruce, Mr, his Antarctic expedition, 439, 440

-- Commander Wilfrid, 489, 491, 494

-- Miss Kathleen, 489

Brunel, Oliver, 130;
reaches the Obi, 68

Buchan, 198;
death of, 200

Buchanan, J. Y., 428

_Bulldog_, 427

Burney, Capt. James, 169, 394

Burrough, Stephen, 63, 83;
dies, 65

-- William, 63;
commands fleet, 65;
his _Discourse of the Compass and Magnetic Needle_, 65, 100;
dies, 65

Burrough’s Strait, 64, 184

Bushnan, J., 201, 212

-- Cove, 260

-- Island, Meteoric boulders at, 24

Button, Sir Thomas, 136;
reaches Hudson’s Bay, 136;
winters, 136, 137;
dies, 137

Bygd, East, _v._ East Bygd;
West, _v._ West Bygd

Bylot, Robert, 131, 134, 138, 142

Byron, Commodore, 394

Cagni, Capt., 293;
attempts to reach Pole, 352

“Calving” of icebergs, 10

_California_, 166

Campbell, Lieut., 490, 492;
his party winters in ice cave, 49

Canada, Arctic lands transferred to, 362

Canadian Arctic expeditions, 362 _et seq._

Canynge, William, sends ships to the Arctic, 58

Capes
Adare, 415, 417, 433, 456, 470, 477
Armitage, 458, 496
Bernacchi, 480
Bird, 470
Bismarck, 370
Bridgman, 371
Chelagskoi, 182, 183
Chelyuskin, 15, 323, 341
Chidley, 100
Colombia, 355 _et seq._
Crozier, 456, 470, 471, 476, 492, 496
Elizabeth, 390
Evans, 492 _et seq._
Farewell, named by Davis, 96;
sighted by Baffin, 114;
sighted by Munk, 150
Fligely, 290, 294
Horn, 390, 420
Jakan, 183, 324
North, 417, 477, 493
Riley, relics at, 253, 254
Royds, 479
Sparbo, 355
Taimyr, 323
York, 202;
birds of, 24

_Carcass_, 172 _et seq._

_Cardamine bellidifolia_, 295

Cardigan Strait, 349

_Carex arenaria_, 342

-- _vesicaria_, 334

Carlsbergfondet expedition, 367

Carlsen, Capt., circumnavigates Spitsbergen, 286

Carpenter, Dr, 427

Cary, Allwyn, 138, 142, 144

-- Islands, 144, 261, 312, 313, 325

_Castor_, 431 _et seq._

Cathay, passage to, 105, 106, 118

-- Company, 85

Cavendish expedition, 101

_Cerastium alpinum_, 295

_Challenger_, 428

Challenger Expedition, 428

“Challenger Gap,” 508

Chancellor, Nicholas, sails with Pet, 66

-- Richard, sails with Willoughby, 60;
visits Moscow, 62;
narrative of his voyage, 63

_Chanticleer_, 401, 423

Charcot, his Antarctic expedition, 441

-- Land, 442

_Charles_, 152 _et seq._

Charles Darwin Island, 422

Chatham Island, 418

Chelyuskin, 176, 177

-- Cape, 15, 323, 341

Cherrie Island _v._ Cherry Island

Cherry Island (Bear Island), 73, 121

Chesterfield Inlet, 166

Chidley Cape, 100

Chilham, 107, 108

Christian IV sends expedition to Greenland, 112;
claims Spitsbergen, 124

Christianity reaches Iceland, 42;
introduced into Greenland, 43

Christianshaab, 162, 164

Chukchis, _v._ Tchuktches

Churches, at East Bygd, 47, 48;
in Greenland, 51;
ruins of Greenland, 52

_Churchill_, 167

Churchward, John, 98, 99

Circum-polar coast, 18;
trees, 13;
tribes, 13

Clavering, Douglas, 279;
death of, 281

Clavus, Claudius, maps of, 54

Clements Markham Glacier, 380

Clerke, Capt., 171, 394

_Clio_, 238, 240

Clothing, Arctic, 292, 352;
M’Clintock’s, 257;
Nansen’s, 334, 342;
Peary’s, 337

-- Antarctic, Amundsen’s, 482;
Scott’s, 462;
Shackleton’s, 478

Coal at Kudlisit, 312;
in Ellesmere Island, 350;
in Finmarken, 73;
in Spitsbergen, 361;
near Lady Franklin Bay, 309

Coats Land, 440

_Cochlearia fenestrata_, 295

Cockayne, Sir William, 106, 108, 113, 135

Cockburn Island, 423

Cod, 98

Codex Flateyensis, 38

Colbeck, Capt. William, 433, 467 _et seq._, 476

Cole, Humphrey, inventor of the Log, 152

Collins, Grenville, 156

Collinson, Capt., 263

Collision of _Erebus_ and _Terror_, 419

Commonwealth Bay, 487

Continental shelf, 340, 356;
Antarctic, 397, 435

Conway, Sir Martin, crosses Spitsbergen, 361 _et seq._;
his books on Spitsbergen, 362

Cook, Capt. James, 169 _et seq._;
explores neighbourhood of Bering Strait, 170;
his Antarctic expedition, 394 _et seq._

-- Dr Frederick, 337, 338, 434;
attempts to reach Pole, 353 _et seq._;
winters in Jones Sound, 355

Copper, 167, 169

Coppermine River, 168, 169, 229

_Cornwallis_, 238, 240

Côte Clarie, 408, 487

_Cove_, 237

Crab-eating seal, 483

Creak, Capt. Ettrick, 446, 451

Crean, 490, 495, 498, 499, 503

Cresswell, Lieut., 263, 268

Crevasse, Scott falls into, 474

Crevasses, Antarctic, 474, 475, 479, 480, 481, 494, 498

Cross-staff, 56, 89, 102

Crow’s nest, 189

Crozier, Commander, 213, 216, 239, 410, 414, 420, 424

Crozon, Frobisher besieges, 92

Cryolite, 164, 311

Cumberland Gulf, 95, 96, 98, 100

Cunningham, John, 112

Currents, Atlantic, 30;
Arctic, 23;
Baffin’s Bay, 6;
Greenland, 5, 41;
Oceanic, in arctic, 5

Dailey, Mr, 471

Dalager, Lars, 331

Dalbyo, 325

_Dame Europa’s School_, author of, 306

Dance, Commodore, 222

Danes Island, 344

Danish Arctic expeditions, 364 _et seq._, 376 _et seq._

_Danmark_, 369

Danmark Fjord, 372, 378;
Havn, 370

Dannebrog Islands, 365

David, Professor T. W. E., 478

Davidson, Dr, 468

Davis, John, 93;
sails on his first voyage, 94;
his provisions, 96;
his second expedition, 96;
names Cape Farewell, 96;
re-enters his strait, 96;
meets Eskimos, 95, 96, 97;
compiles Eskimo vocabulary, 97;
map of voyages of, 97;
his third expedition, 98;
magnetic observations of, 99;
commands _Black Dog_, 101;
commands _Desire_, 101;
commands _Drake_, 101;
joins Cavendish expedition, 101;
visits the Azores, 101;
death of, 102;
life of, 100, 102;
character of, 101;
narrative of his voyages, 100;
his quadrant, 102;
his _Seaman’s Secrets_, 102;
his _World’s Hydrographical Description_, 102;
place-names given by, 103

Davis, Capt. J. E. (Master of the _Terror_), 412, 425, 430

Davis Strait, 97

Day, Mr, 491

Dayman, Lieut., 426, 427

Dease, Peter Warren, 228

Debenham, F., 491

de Bruyne, Lieut. A., 359 _et seq._

Deception Island, 400, 401

Dee, Dr, 83, 94

De Hozes, Francisco, 389

Del Cano, Sebastian, 389

Dellbridge, J. H., 464 _et seq._

De Long, Lieut., his expedition, 327 _et seq._;
retreat of, 329;
fate of, 329;
character of, 329, 330

Demetri, 495, 503

_Dennis_, 86;
founders, 88

_Den Röd Löve_, 112

d’Orléans, Duc, 368, 435

Deshneff, Simon, 175

_Desire_, 101

Des Voeux, 240

D’Urville, Dumont, 440;
his Antarctic expedition, 407, 408

_Diana_, 287, 288, 326, 431

Diary of Brönland, 373

Dickson, Baron Oscar, 322, 332, 431

-- Dr, 425

Digges, Sir Dudley, 106, 107, 108, 135, 142

-- Leonard, 106, 107

-- Thomas, 107

Dinner to Scott’s expedition, 453

Dirk Gerritsz Archipelago, 390

“Discharging glaciers,” 9

Disco Bay, 48, 161, 162, 163, 164, 333

Disco Island, fossils in, 350

_Discourse of the Compass and Magnetic Needle_, 100

_Discovery_, Baffin’s, 138 _et seq._, 142 _et seq._

-- Button’s, 236

-- Clerke’s, 169 _et seq._

-- Hudson’s, 129, 131

-- Moore’s, 165

-- Nares’s, 304, 312

-- Scott’s, 451 _et seq._;
plans of, 446, 447;
flag of, 447;
relieved by _Morning_, 470;
freed from the ice, 476;
ashore, 476;
damage to rudder, 477;
returns home, 477

_Divers Voyages_ (Hakluyt), 110

_Dobbs_, 166

Dogs, 17, 337, 338, 354, 355;
in Antarctic, 462, 472, 482, 483;
Greenland, 23

_Dorothea_, 198 _et seq._

_Draba alpina_, 295

_Drake_, 101

Drake, Sir Thomas, 389;
his astrolabe, 57

-- R. N., Mr, 489

Dress of Arctic Highlanders, 24;
of Eskimos, 19

Drift, Antarctic, 435

-- westerly polar, 5, 297, 310, 340, 342, 343;
_Jeannette’s_, 328

Driftwood, 23

Dronning Luisa Land, 373, 378, 381

Drygalski, Erik von, his Antarctic expedition, 440

-- Glacier, 481

Duse, Lieut., 436

Dutch, the, open trade with Russia, 68;
renew voyages to the North, 72, 73;
first visit to Spitsbergen by, 124;
despatch second fleet to Spitsbergen, 126

Dutch Arctic explorations, 358 _et seq._

Dysentery attacks Shackleton’s party, 480

_Earl Camden_, 222

East Bygd, 51, 159, 160;
settlement of, 40;
Augustinian monastery at, 47;
churches at, 47;
fate of, 51

East India Company, founded, 105;
undertake North-West Passage, 129;
Baffin enters service of, 146

Easter Island, visited by Cook, 396

Edward VI encourages Frobisher, 81;
patronises Arctic exploration, 59, 60

_Edward Bonaventure_, 60

_Eendracht_, 390

_Eenhiörningen_, 150