Chapter XLIII: The Mediaeval Synthesis: Dante (2)

One may say that the _Commedia_ begins and ends with the Virgin. It was she who sent Beatrice into the gates of Hell to move Virgil--meaning human reason--to go to Dante’s aid. The prayer which obtains her benediction, and the vision following, close the _Paradiso_. So the teaching of the poem ends in mediaeval strains. For the Virgin was the mediaeval goddess, beloved and universally adored, helpful in every way, and the chief aid in bringing man to Heaven. But no more with Dante than with other mediaeval men is she the end of worship and devotion. Her eyes are turned on God. So are those of Beatrice, of Rachel, and of all the saints in Paradise. As for man on earth, he is _viator_, journeying on through discipline, in righteousness and beneficence, but above all in faith and hope and love of God, with his eyes of knowledge and desire set on God. God is the goal, even of the _vita activa_, which is also training and enlightenment. Loving his brother whom he hath seen, man may learn to love God--practising himself in love. Even Christ’s parable, “Inasmuch as ye did it unto one of the least of these,” rightly interpreted, implies that the end of human charity is God: the human charity is preparation, obedience, means of enlightenment. The brother for whom Christ died--that is he whom thou shalt love, and that is why thou shalt love him. In themselves human relationships are disciplinary, ancillary, as all the sciences are ancillary to Theology. Mediaeval religion is turned utterly toward God; the relationship of the soul to God is its whole matter. It is not humanitarian: not human, but _divina scientia, fides, et amor_, make mediaeval Christianity. Thus Dante’s doctrine is mediaeval. Toward God moves the desire of the _viatores_ in Purgatory, though they still are incidentally mindful of earth’s memories. In Paradise the eyes of all the blessed are set on Him. Because of the divine love they may for a moment turn the eyes of their knowledge and desire to aid a fellow-creature; the occasion past, they fix them again on God: thus the Virgin, thus Bernard, thus Beatrice.

As a son of the Middle Ages, Dante was possessed with the spirit of symbolism. Allegory, with him, was not merely a way of expressing that which might transcend direct statement: it embodied a principle of truth. The universally accepted allegorical interpretation of Scripture justified the view that a deeper verity lay in allegorical significance than in literal meaning. This principle applied to other writings also. “Now since the literal sense [of the first canzone] is sufficiently explained, it is time to proceed to the allegorical and true interpretation.”[741]

In the _Vita Nuova_ and somewhat more lifelessly in the _Convito_, Dante explains that it is his way to invest his poetry with a secondary or allegorical sense. He proposes in the latter work to carry out the formal notion of the four kinds of meaning contained in profound writings--literal, allegorical, moral, anagogical.[742] He never holds himself, however, to the lines of any such obsession, but is content in practice with the literal and the broadly allegorical sense.[743] Even then the great Florentine occasionally can be jejune enough. The conception of the ten heavens figuring the Seven Liberal Arts along with metaphysics, ethics, and theology, as a plan of composition for the _Convito_,[744] was on a level with the structural symbolism of the _De nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii_ of Capella. Yet the likening of Ethics to the _primum mobile_ and Theology to the Empyrean has bearing on Dante’s, and the mediaeval, scheme of the sciences, among which Theology is chief.

Allegory moulds the structure and permeates the substance of the _Commedia_. For this Dante himself vouches in the famous dedicatory letter to Can Grande, where his thoughts may be heard creaking scholastically, as he describes the nature of his poem, and explains why he entitled it _Commedia_:

“Literally, the subject is the state of souls after death taken
simply. If, however, the work be accepted allegorically, the subject
is man, according as by merit or demerit through freedom of choice
(_arbitrii libertatem_) he is subject to Justice, rewarding or
punitive.”

This is the positive statement emanating, in all probability, from the poet. Perhaps it is as well that he did not live to inaugurate the series of Commentaries upon his poem, which began within a few years of his death and show no signs of ceasing.[745] So it has been left to others to determine the metes and bounds and special features of the _Commedia’s_ allegorical intent. The task has proved hazardous, because Dante was such a great poet, so realistic in his visualizing and so masterful in forcing the different phases of his many-sided thoughts to combine in concrete creations. His drama is so living that one can hardly think it an allegory.

Evidently certain matters, like the Mystic Procession and its apocalyptic appurtenances in the last cantos of the _Purgatorio_, are sheer allegory. Such, while suited to suggest theological tenets, are formal and lifeless, a little like the hieratic allegorical mosaics of the fourth and fifth centuries, which were composed before Christian art had become imbued with Christian feeling.[746] Indeed, doffing for an instant one’s reverence for the great poet, one may say that from the point of view of art and life, Dante’s symbolism becomes jejune, or at least ceases to draw us, according as it becomes palpable allegory.[747]

Beyond such incidents one recognizes that the general course of the poem, its more pointed occurrences, together with its chief characters and the scenes amid which they move, have commonly both literal and allegorical meaning.[748] Usually it is wise not to press either side too rigorously. The poet’s mind worked in the clearly imagined setting and dramatic action of his poem, where fact and symbolism combined in that reality which is both art and life. Surely the _Commedia_ was completed and rendered real and beautiful through many a touch and incident which had no allegorical intent. Even as in a French cathedral, the main sculptured and painted subjects have doctrinal, that is to say, allegorical, significance, besides their literal truth; but there is also much lovely carving of scroll and flowered ornament and beast and bird, which beautifies the building.

For Dante’s purpose, to set out the state of disembodied spirits after death, allegory might prove prejudicial, because of the intensity of his artist’s vision. Much of the poem’s symbolism, especially in the _Paradiso_, belongs to that unavoidable imagery to which every one is driven when attempting to describe spiritual facts. Such symbolism, however, when constructed with the plastic power of a Dante, may become itself so convincing or compelling as to reduce the intended spiritual signification to the terms of its concrete embodiment in the symbol. In view of the carnality of most sin, one is not surprised to find the place of punishment a converging cavity within the earth. With Dante, as with Hildegard, the sights and torments of Hell are realistically given quite as of course. Perhaps Dante’s Mount of Purgatory begins to give us pause, and its corniced _mise en scène_ tends to enflesh the idea of spirit and materialize its purgation. But the limiting effect of symbolism is most keenly felt in the _Paradiso_, notwithstanding the beauty of that cantica; for its very concrete symbolism seems sometimes to ensphere the intended truths of spirit in a sort of crystalline translucency. It is all a marvellously imagined description of the state of blessed souls. Yet in the final pure and glorious image of a white rose (_candida rosa_) the company of the glorified spirits is so visualized as to become, surely not theatrical, but as if assembled upon the rounding tiers of seats occupied by an audience.[749] There are topics in which the sheer ratiocination of Thomas is more completely spiritual than the poetic vision of Dante.

Dante’s most admirable symbolic creation was also his dearest reality--Beatrice. And while this being in which he has immortalized his fame and hers, is eminently the creation of his genius, the elements were drawn from the many-chambered mediaeval past. Some issued out of the vast matter of chivalric love, with its high heart of service and sense of its own worth, its science, its foolish and most wise reasoning, its preciosity of temper--Dante and his literary friends were virtuosos in everything pertaining to its understanding.[750] This love was of the fine-reasoning mind. The first canzone of the _Vita Nuova_ does not begin “Donne, che sentite amore,” but: “Donne, ch’ avete intelletto d’ amore.” Through that book love is what it never ceases to be with Dante, _intelligenza_:

“Intelligenza nuova, che l’ Amore
Piangendo mette in lui....”

The _piangendo_, the tears, have likewise part; without them love is not had or even understood. The enormous sense of love’s supreme worth--that too is in Dante. It had all been with the Troubadours of Provence, with Chrétien de Troies, and with the great Minnesingers, and had been reasoned on, appreciated, felt and wept over, by ladies and knights who listened to their poems. From France and Provence love and its reasonings had come to Italy even before Dante’s eyes had opened to it and other matters.

This was one strain that entered the Beatrice of the _Vita Nuova_, of the _Convito_, of the _Commedia_. But Beatrice is something else: she is, or becomes, Theology, the God-given science of the divine and human. Long had Theologia (_divina scientia_) been a queen; and even before her, Philosophia, as with Boëthius, had been a queenly woman gowned with as full symbolical particularity as ever the Beatrice of Dante. Indeed from the time of the _Psychomachia_ of Prudentius to the _Roman de la Rose_ of De Lorris and De Meun, every human quality, and many an aspect of human circumstance, had been personified, for the most part under the forms of gracious or seductive women. Above all of these rose, sweet, gracious, and potent, the Virgin Queen of Heaven. It came as of course to Dante to symbolize his conception of divine wisdom in a woman’s form. The achievement of his genius was the transfusing combination of elements of courtly love, didactic allegory, and _divina scientia_, in a creature before whom the whole man Dante, heart and reason and religious faith, could stand and gaze and love and worship.

Beatrice was his and of him always; but with the visions and experience of that mature and grace-illuminated manhood, which expressed itself in the _Commedia_, she comes to be much that she had not been when she lived on earth or had just left it, and Dante was a maker of exquisite verses in Florence; and much too that she had scarce become while the poet was consoling himself with philosophy for his bereavement and the dulling of his early faith. Beatrice lives and moves and has her ever more uplifted being as the reality as well as symbol of Dante’s thoughts of life. With all first love’s idealism, he loved a girl; then she, having passed from earth, becomes the inspiration and object of address of the young maker of sonnets and canzoni, who with such intellectual preciosity was intent on building these verses of fine-spun sentiment. Thereafter, when he is in darker mood, she does not altogether leave him, whatever variant attitudes his thought and temper take. And at last the yearning self-fulfilments of his renewed life draw together in the Beatrice of the _Commedia_.

It is very beautiful, and the growth, as well as work, of genius; but it is not strange. For there is no bound to the idealizing of the love which first transfuses a youth’s nature with a mortal golden flame, and awakens it to new understanding. Out of whatever of experience of life and joy and sorrow may come to the man, this first love may still vivify itself anew--often in dreams--and become again living and beautiful, in tears, and will awaken new perceptions and disclose further vistas of the _intelligenza nuova_ which love never ceases to impart to him who has loved.

Dante’s mind was always turning from the obvious sense-actuality of the fact to its symbolism; which held the truer reality. With such a man it is not strange that the beloved and adored woman, the love of whom was virtue and enlightenment, should, when dead to earth, become that divine wisdom which opens Heaven to the lover who would follow, for all eternity, whither his beloved has so surely gone. No, it was not strange, but only as wonderful as all the works of God, that she who while living had been the spring of virtue of all kinds and meanings in the poet’s breast, should after death become the emblem, even the reality, of that whereby man is taught how to win his heavenly salvation. Passage after passage in the _Purgatorio_ and _Paradiso_ show that Beatrice is this _divina scientia_, and yet has never ceased to be one whom the poet loves.[751]

Thus it is clear that mediaeval development converges at last in Dante. He, or his _Commedia_, might be the final _Summa_, were not he, or rather it, the final poem. Man and work include the emotions and the intellectual interests of the Middle Ages, embracing what had been known,--Physics, Astronomy, Politics, History, Pagan Mythology, Christian Theology,--all bent and moulded at last to the matter of the book. Not the contents of the _Commedia_ is Dante’s own, but the poem itself--that is his creation.

Yet even the poem itself was a climax long led up to. The power of its feeling had been preparing in the conceptions, even in the reasonings, which through the centuries had been gaining ardour as they became part of the entire natures of men and women. Thus had mediaeval thought become emotionalized and plastic and living in poetry and art. Otherwise, even Dante’s genius could not have fused the contents of mediaeval thought into a poem. How many passages in the _Commedia_ illustrate this--like the lovely picture of Lia moving in the flowering meadow, with her fair hands making her a garland. The twenty-third canto of the _Paradiso_, telling of the triumph of Christ and the Virgin, yields a larger illustration; and within it, as a very concrete lyric instance, floats that flower of angelic love, the song of Gabriel circling the Lady of Heaven with its melody, and giving quintessential utterance to the love and adoration which the Middle Ages had intoned to the Virgin. Yes, if it be Dante’s genius, it is also the gathering emotion of the centuries, which lifts the last cantos of the _Paradiso_ from glory to glory, and makes this closing singing of the _Commedia_ such supreme poetry. Nor is it the emotional element alone that reaches its final voice in Dante. Passage after passage of the _Paradiso_ is the apotheosis of scholastic thought and ways of stating it, the very apotheosis, for example, of those harnessed phrases in which the line of great scholastics had endeavoured to put in words the universalities of substance and accident and the absolute qualities of God.

Yet one more feature of Dante’s typifying inclusiveness of the past. Its elements exist in him at first without conscious opposition and yet not subordinated one to another, the less worthy to those of eternal validity. Then conflict arises; the mediaeval Psychomachia awakes in Dante. Evidently he who wrote the _Convito_ after the _Vita Nuova_, had not continued spiritually undisturbed. Had there come dullings of his early faith? Did his mind seek too exclusive satisfaction in knowledge? Had he possibly swerved a little from some high intention? The facts are veiled. Dante wears neither his mind nor his heart upon his sleeve. Yet a reconcilement was attained by him, though perhaps he had to fetch it out of Hell. He achieved it in his great poem, which in its long making made the poet into the likeness of itself. Fitness for salvation is the ultimate criterion with Dante respecting the elements of mortal life, as it had been through the Middle Ages. And the _Commedia_--truly the _Divina Commedia_--while it presents the scheme of salvation for universal man, is the achieved salvation of the poet.

INDEX

_NOTE.--Of several references to the same matter the more important are shown by heavy type._

Abaelard, Peter, career of, ii. 342-5;
at Paris, ii. 343, 344, 383;
popularity there, ii. 119;
love for Heloïse, ii. 4-=5=, 344;
love-songs, ii. =13=, 207;
Heloïse’s love for, i. 585; ii. =3=, =5=, 8, 9, =15-16=;
early relations with Heloïse, ii. 4-5;
suggestion of marriage opposed by her, ii. 6-9;
marriage, ii. 9;
suffers vengeance of Fulbert, ii. 9;
becomes a monk at St. Denis, ii. 10;
at the Paraclete, ii. 10, 344;
at Breton monastery, ii. 10;
St. Bernard’s denunciations of, i. 229, 401; ii. =344-5=, =355=;
letters to, from Heloïse quoted, ii. 11-15, 17-20, 23, 24;
letters from, to Heloïse quoted, ii. 16-17, 21-3, 24-5;
closing years at Cluny, ii. 25, =26=, 345;
death of, ii. =27=, 345;
estimate of, ii. 4, 342;
rationalizing temper, i. 229; ii. =298-9=;
skill in dialectic, ii. 303, =345-6=, 353;
not an Aristotelian, ii. 369;
works on theology, ii. 352-5;
_De Unitate et Trinitate divina_, ii. 10, =298-9=, 352 _and_ _n. 3_;
_Theologia_, ii. =303-4=, 395;
_Scito te ipsum_, ii. 350-1;
_Sic et non_, i. 17; ii. =304-6=, =352=, 357;
_Dialectica_, ii. 346 _and_ _nn._, 349-50;
_Dialogue_ between Philosopher, Jew, and Christian, ii. 350, =351=;
_Historia calamitatum_, ii. =4-11=, 298-9, =343=;
_Carmen ad Astralabium filium_, ii. 192;
hymns, ii. 207-9;
otherwise mentioned, ii. 134, 283 _and_ _n._

Abbo, Abbot, i. =294 and n.=, 324

Abbots:
Armed forces, with, i. 473
Cistercian, position of, i. 362-3 _and_ _n._
Investiture of, lay, i. 244
Social class of, i. 473

Accursius, _Glossa ordinaria_ of, ii. 262, =263=

Adalberon, Abp. of Rheims, i. 240, =282-3=, 287

Adam of Marsh, ii. 389, 400, 487

Adam of St. Victor, editions of hymns of, ii. 87 _n. 1_;
examples of the hymns, ii. 87 _seqq._;
Latin originals, ii. 206, 209-15

Adamnan cited, i. 134 _n. 2_, 137

Adelard of Bath, ii. 370

Aedh, i. 132

Agobard, Abp. of Lyons, i. 215, =232-3=;
cited, ii. 247

Aidan, St., i. 174

Aimoin, _Vita Abbonis_ by, i. 294 _and_ _n._

Aix, Synod of, i. 359

Aix-la-Chapelle:
Chapel at, i. 212 _n._
School at, _see_ Carolingian period--Palace school

Alans, i. 113, 116, 119

Alanus de Insulis, career of, ii. 92-4;
estimate of, ii. 375-6;
works of, ii. 48 _n. 1_, =94=, 375 _n. 5_, 376;
_Anticlaudianus_, ii. =94-103=, 192, 377, 539;
_De planctu naturae_, ii. =192-3 and n. 1=, 376

Alaric, i. 112

Alaric II., i. =117=; ii. 243

Alberic, Card., i. 252 _n. 2_

Alberic, Markgrave of Camerino, i. 242

Alberic, son of Marozia, i. 242-3

Albertus Magnus, career of, ii. 421;
estimate of, ii. 298, 301, =421=;
estimate of work of, ii. 393, 395;
attitude toward Gilbert de la Porrée, ii. 372;
compared with Bacon, ii. 422;
with Aquinas, ii. 433, =438=;
relations with Aquinas, ii. 434;
on logic, ii. 314-15;
method of, ii. 315 _n._;
edition of works, ii. 424 _n. 1_;
_De praedicabilibus_, ii. 314 and _n._, 315, 424-5;
work on the rest of Aristotle, ii. 420-1;
analysis of this work, ii. 424 _seqq._;
attitude toward the original, ii. 422;
_Summa theologiae_, ii. 430, 431;
_Summa de creaturis_, ii. 430-1;
_De adhaerendo Deo_, ii. 432;
otherwise mentioned, i. 17; ii. 82 _n. 2_, 283, 312, 402, 541 _n. 2_

Albigenses, i. 49;
persecution of, i. 366-7, 461, 481, 572; ii. 168

Alboin the Lombard, i. 115

Alchemy, ii. 496-7

Alcuin of York, career of, i. 214;
works of, i. 216-21 _and_ _n. 2_;
extracts from letters of, ii. 159;
stylelessness of, ii. =159=, 174;
verses by, quoted, ii. 136-7;
on _urbanitas_, ii. 136;
otherwise mentioned, i. 212, 240, 343; ii. 112, 312, 332

Aldhelm, i. 185

Alemanni, i. 9, 121, 122, 145 _n. 2_, 174, 192

Alemannia, Boniface’s work in, i. 199

Alexander the Great, Pseudo-Callisthenes’ Life of, ii. 224, 225,
=229-230=;
Walter of Lille’s work on, ii. 230 _n. 1_

Alexander II., Pope, i. 262 _n._, 263 _and_ _n. 1_

Alexander de Villa-Dei, _Doctrinale_ of, ii. =125-7=, 163

Alexander of Hales--at Paris, i. 476; ii. =399=;
Bacon’s attack on, ii. 494, 497;
estimate of work of, ii. 393, 395, 399;
Augustinianism of, ii. 403-4

Alfred, King of England, i. 144 _and_ _n. 2_, =187-90=

Allegory (_See also_ Symbolism):
Dictionaries of, ii. 47-8 _and_ _n. 1_, 49
Greek examples of, ii. 42, 364
Metaphor distinguished from, ii. 41 _n._
Politics, in, ii. 60-1, 275-=6=, =280=
_Roman de la rose_ as exemplifying, ii. 103
Scripture, _see under_ Scriptures
Two uses of, ii. 365

Almsgiving, i. 268

Alphanus, i. 253-4

_Amadas_, i. 565

Ambrose, St., Abp. of Milan, on miracles, i. 85-6;
attitude toward secular studies, i. 300; ii. 288;
_Hexaëmeron_ of, i. 72-4;
_De officiis_, i. 96;
hymns, i. 347-8;
otherwise mentioned, i. 70, 75, 76, 104, 186, 354; ii. 45 _n._, 272

Anacletus II., Pope, i. 394

Anchorites, _see_ Hermits

Andrew the Chaplain, _Flos amoris_ of, i. 575-6

Angels:
Aquinas’ discussion of, ii. 324-5, 435, =457 seqq.=, =469=, =473-5=
Dante’s views on, ii. 551
Emotionalizing of conception of, i. 348 _n. 4_
Hugo of St. Victor on, ii. 68, 69
Symbols, regarded as, ii. 457
Vincent’s _Speculum_ as concerning, ii. 319
Writings regarding, summary of, ii. 457

Angilbert, i. 234-5

Angles, i. 140

Anglo-Saxons:
Britain conquered by, i. 141
Characteristics of, i. 142, =196=
Christian missions by, i. 196, 197
Christian missions to, i. 172, 174, =180 seqq.=
Customs of, i. 141
Poetry of, i. 142-4
Roman influence slight on, i. 32

Aniane monastery, i. 358-9

Annals, i. 234 and _n. 1_

Anselm (at Laon), ii. 343-4

Anselm, St., Abp. of Canterbury, dream of, i. 269-70;
early career, i. 270;
at Bec, i. 271-2;
relations with Rufus, i. 273, 275;
journey to Italy, i. 275;
estimate of, i. 274, =276-7=; ii. =303=, 330, =338=;
style of, i. 276; ii. =166-7=;
influence of, on Duns Scotus, ii. 511;
works of, i. 275 _seqq._;
_Cur Deus homo_, i. 275, 277 _n. 1_, =279=; ii. 395;
_Monologion_, i. 275-7;
_Proslogion_, i. 276-8; ii. =166=, 395;
_Meditationes_, i. 276, =279=;
_De grammatico_, i. 277 _n. 2_;
otherwise mentioned, i. 16, 19, 301-2; ii. 139, 283, 297, 340

Anselm of Besate, i. 259

Anthony, St., i. 365-6;
Life of, by Athanasius, i. 47, =52 and n.=

Antique literature, _see_ Greek thought _and_ Latin classics

Antique stories, themes of, in vernacular poetry, ii. 223 _seqq._

Apollinaris Sidonius, ii. 107

Apollonius of Tyana, i. 44

_Apollonius of Tyre_, ii. 224 _and_ _n._

Aquinas, Thomas, family of, ii. 433-4;
career, ii. 434-5;
relations with Albertus Magnus, ii. 434;
translations of Aristotle obtained by, ii. 391;
_Vita_ of, by Guilielmus de Thoco, ii. 435 _n._;
works of, ii. 435;
estimate of, and of his work, i. 17, 18; ii. 301, =436-8=, 484;
completeness of his philosophy, ii. 393-5;
pivot of his attitude, ii. 440;
present position of, ii. 501;
style, ii. 180;
mastery of dialectic, ii. 352;
compared with Eriugena, i. 231 _n. 1_;
with Albertus Magnus, ii. 433, =438=;
with Bonaventura, ii. 437;
with Duns, ii. 517;
Dante compared with and influenced by, ii. 541 _n. 2_, =547=, 549,
551, 555;
on monarchy, ii. 277;
on faith, ii. 288;
on difference between philosophy and theology, ii. 290;
on logic, ii. 313;
_Summa theologiae_, i. 17, 18; ii. =290 seqq.=;
style of the work, ii. 180-1;
Bacon’s charge against it, ii. 300;
Peter Lombard’s work contrasted with it, ii. 307-10;
its method, ii. 307;
its classification scheme, ii. 324-9;
analysis of the work, ii. 438 _seqq._, 447 _seqq._;
_Summa philosophica contra Gentiles_, ii. 290, 438, =445-6=;
otherwise mentioned, i. 69 _n. 2_; ii. 283, 298, 300, 312, 402

Aquitaine, i. 29, 240, =573=

Arabian philosophy, ii. =389-90=, 400-1

Arabs, Spanish conquest by, i. 9, 118

Archimedes, i. 40

Architecture, Gothic:
Evolution of, i. 305; ii. =539=
Great period of, i. 346

Argenteuil convent, ii. 9, 10

Arianism:
Teutonic acceptance of, i. =120=, 192, 194
Visigothic abandonment of, i. 118 _nn._

Aristotle, estimate of, i. 37-8;
works of, i. 37-8;
unliterary character of writings of, ii. 118, 119;
philosophy as classified by, ii. 312;
attitude of, to discussions of final cause, ii. 336;
the _Organon_, i. =37=, 71;
progressive character of its treatises, ii. 333-4;
Boëthius’ translation of the work, i. 71, =91-2=;
advanced treatises “lost” till 12th cent., ii. 248 _n._, 334;
Porphyry’s _Introduction_ to the _Categories_, i. 45, 92, 102; ii.
312, =314 n.=, 333, =339=;
Arabian translations of works, ii. 389-90;
introduction of complete works, i. 17;
Latin translations made in 13th cent., ii. 391;
three stages in scholastic appropriation of the Natural Philosophy and
Metaphysics, ii. 393;
Paris University study of, ii. 391-2 _and_ _n._;
Albertus Magnus’ work on, ii. 420-1, 424 _seqq._;
Aquinas’ mastery of, i. 17, 18;
Dominican acceptance of system of, ii. 404;
Dante’s reverence for, ii. 542

Arithmetic:
Abacus, the, i. 299
Boëthius’ work on, i. 72, =90=
Music in relation to, ii. 291
Patristic treatment of, i. 72
Scholastic classification of, ii. 313

Arnold of Brescia, i. 401; ii. 171

Arnulf, Abp. of Rheims, i. 283-4

Art, Christian (_For particular arts, see their names_):
Demons as depicted in, ii. 540 _n. 2_
Early, i. 345 _n._
Emotionalizing of, i. 345-7
Evolution of, i. 19-20
Germany, in (11th cent.), i. 312
Symbolism the inspiration of, i. 21; ii. 82-6

Arthur, King, story of youth of, i. 568-569;
relations with Lancelot and Guinevere, i. 584;
with Parzival, i. 592, 599-600, 612

Arthurian romances:
Comparison of, with _Chansons de geste_, i. 564-5
German culture influenced by, ii. 28
Origin and authorship of, question as to, i. 565-7
Universal vogue of, i. =565=, 573, 577
otherwise mentioned, i. 531, 538

Arts, the (_See also_ Latin classics):
Classifications of, ii. 312 _seqq._
Course of, shortening of, ii. =132=, 384
_Dictamen_, ii. =121=, =129=, 381
Grammar, _see that heading_
Masters in, at Paris and Oxford, ii. 384-5;
course for, ii. 388
Seven Liberal, _see that heading_

Asceticism:
Christian:
Carthusian, i. 384
Early growth of, i. 333-5
Manichean, i. 49
Women’s practice of, i. 444, 462-3
Neo-Platonic, i. 43, 44, 46, 50, =331=, 334

Astralabius, ii. 6, 9, 27;
Abaelard’s poem to, ii. 191-2 _and_ _n. 1_

Astrology, i. =44 and n.=; ii. 374:
Bacon’s views on, ii. 499-500

Astronomy:
Chartres study of, i. 299
Gerbert’s teaching of, i. 288-9
Patristic attitude toward, i. 72

Ataulf, i. 112, 116

Athanasius, St., estimate of work of, i. =54=, 68;
Life of St. Anthony by, i. 47, =52 and n.=, 84;
_Orationes_, i. 68

Atlantis, i. 36

Attila the Hun, i. 112-13;
in legend, i. 145-7

Augustine, Abp. of Canterbury, i. 6, 171, =180-2=;
Gregory’s letters to, cited, i. 102

Augustine, St., Bp. of Hippo, Platonism of, i. 55;
personal affinity of, with Plotinus, i. 55-7;
barbarization of, by Gregory the Great, i. 98, 102;
compared with Gregory the Great, i. 98-9;
with Anselm, i. 279;
with Guigo, i. 385, 390;
overwhelming influence of, in Middle Ages, ii. 403;
on numbers, i. 72 _and_ _n. 2_, 105;
attitude toward physical science, i. 300;
on love of God, i. 342, 344;
allegorizing of Scripture by, ii. 44-5;
modification by, of classical Latin, ii. 152;
_Confessions_, i. =63=; ii. 531;
_De Trinitate_, i. =64=, =68=, 74, 96;
_Civitas Dei_, i. 64-65, 69 _n. 2_, =81-82=;
_De moribus Ecclesiae_, i. 65, 67-8;
_De doctrina Christiana_, i. 66-7;
classification scheme based on the _Doctrina_, ii. 322;
_De spiritu et littera_, i. 69;
_De cura pro mortuis_, i. 86;
_De genesi ad litteram_, ii. 324;
Alcuin’s compends of works of, i. 220;
otherwise mentioned, i. 5, 53, 71, 75, 82, 87, 89, 104, 186, 225, 340,
354, 366, 370; ii. 107, 269, 297, 312

Augustus, Emp., i. 26, 29

Aurillac monastery, i. 281

Ausonius, i. 126 _n. 2_; ii. 107

Austrasia:
Church organization in, i. 199
Feudal disintegration of, i. 240
Irish monasteries founded in, i. 174
Rise of, under Pippin, i. 209

Authority _v._ reason, _see_ Reason

Auxerre, i. 506-7

Averroes, ii. 390

Averroism, ii. 400-1

Averroists, ii. =284 n.=, 296 _n. 1_

Avicenna, ii. 390

Avitus, Bp. of Vienne, i. 126 _n. 2_

Azo, ii. 262-3

Bacon, Roger, career of, ii. 486-7
tragedy of career, ii. 486;
relations with Franciscan Order, ii. 299, 486, =488=, 490-1;
encouragement to, from Clement IV., ii. 489-90 _and_ _n. 1_;
estimate of, ii. 484-6;
estimate of work of, ii. 402;
style of, ii. 179-80;
attitude toward the classics, ii. 120;
predilection for physical science, ii. 289, 486-7;
Albertus Magnus compared with, ii. 422;
on four causes of ignorance, ii. 494-5;
on seven errors in theological study, ii. 495-8;
on experimental science, ii. 502-8;
on logic, ii. 505;
on faith, ii. 507;
editions of works of, ii. 484 _n._;
Greek Grammar by, ii. =128= _and_ _n. 5_, 484 _n._, 487, 498;
_Multiplicatio specierum_, ii. 484 _n._, 500;
_Opus tertium_, ii. =488=, 490 _and_ _nn._, 491, 492, 498, 499;
_Opus majus_, ii. 490-1, 492, =494-5=, 498, =499-500=, =506-8=;
_Optics_, ii. 500;
_Opus minus_, ii. 490-1, =495-8=;
_Vatican fragment_, ii. 490 _and_ _n. 2_, =505 n. 1=;
_Compendium studii philosophiae_, ii. 491, 493-4, 507-8;
_Compendium theologiae_, ii. 491;
otherwise mentioned, ii. 284 _n._, 335 _n._, =389=, 531-2

Bartolomaeus, _De proprietatibus rerum_ of, ii. 316 _n. 2_

Bartolus, ii. 264

Baudri, Abbot of Bourgueil, ii. 192 _n. 1_

Bavaria:
Irish monasteries founded in, i. 174
Merovingian rule in, i. 121
Otto’s relations with, i. 241
Reorganization of Church in, 198-9

Bavarians, i. 145 _n. 2_, 209, 210

Beauty, love of, i. 340

Bec monastery, i. 262 _n._, 270-2

Bede, estimate of, i. 185-6;
allegorizing of Scripture by, ii. 47 _n. 1_;
_Church History of the English People_, i. 172, =186=, 234 _n. 2_;
_De arte metrica_, i. 187, =298=;
_Liber de temporibus_, 300;
otherwise mentioned, i. 184, 212

Beghards of Liége, i. 365

Belgae, i. 126

Belgica, i. 29, 32

Benedict, Prior, i. 258

Benedict, St., of Nursia, i. =85 and n. 2=, 94, 100 _n. 4_;
_Regula_ of, _see under_ Monasticism

Benedictus, _Chronicon_ of, ii. 160-1

Benedictus Levita, Deacon, ii. 270

Benoit de St. More, _Roman de Troie_ by, ii. 225, =227-9=

Beowulf, i. 141, =143-4= _and_ _n. 1_

Berengar, King, i. 256

Berengar of Tours, i. 297, 299, =302-3=; ii. 137

Bernard, Bro., of Quintavalle, i. 502

Bernard, disciple of St. Francis, i. 425-6

Bernard of Chartres, ii. 130-2, 370

Bernard, St., Abbot of Clairvaux, at Citeaux, i. 360, 393;
inspires Templars’ _regula_, i. 531;
denounces and crushes Abaelard, i. 229, 401; ii. =344-5=, =355=;
denounces Arnold of Brescia, i. 401; ii. 171;
relations with Gilbert de la Porrée, ii. 372;
Lives of, i. 392 _n._, 393 _n. 1_;
appearance and characteristics of, i. 392-3;
estimate of, i. 394; ii. 367-8;
love and tenderness of, i. 344, 345, =394 seqq.=; ii. 365;
severity of, i. 400-1;
his love of Clairvaux, i. 401-2;
of his brother, i. 402-4;
Latin style of, ii. 169-71;
on church corruption, i. 474;
on faith, ii. 298;
unconcerned with physics, ii. 356;
St. Francis compared with, i. 415-16;
extracts from letters of, i. 395 _seqq._; ii. 170-1;
_Sermons on Canticles_--cited, 337 _n._;
quoted, i. =409-13=; ii. =169=, 368-9;
_De consideratione_, ii. 368;
otherwise mentioned, i. 17, 20, 279, 302, 472, 501; ii. 34, 168

Bernard Morlanensis, _De contemptu mundi_ by, ii. 199 _n. 3_

Bernard Silvestris, _Commentum ..._ of, ii. 116-17 _and_ _n. 2_;
_De mundi universitate_, ii. 119, =371 and n.=

Bernardone, Peter, i. 419, 423-4

Bernward, Bp. of Hildesheim, i. 312 _and_ _n. 1_

Bible, _see_ Scriptures

Biscop, Benedict, i. 184

Bishops:
Armed forces, with, i. 473
Francis of Assisi’s attitude toward, i. 430
Gallo-Roman and Frankish, position of, i. 191-2, 194 _and_ _nn._, 198,
=201 n.=
Investiture of, lay, i. 244-5 _and_ _n. 4_; ii. 140
Jurisdiction and privileges of, ii. 266
Papacy’s ascendancy over, i. 304
Reluctance to be consecrated, i. 472
Social class of, i. 473
Vestments of, symbolism of, ii. 77 _n. 2_

_Blancandrin_, i. 565

Bobbio monastery, i. 178, =282-3=

Boëthius, death of, i. =89=, 93;
estimate of, i. 89, 92, =102=;
Albertus Magnus compared with, ii. 420;
works of, i. 90-3;
Gerbert’s familiarity with works of, i. 289;
works of, studied at Chartres, i. 298-9;
their importance, i. 298;
_De arithmetica_, i. 72, =90=;
_De geometria_, i. 90;
commentary on Porphyry’s _Isagoge_, i. =92=; ii. 312;
translation of the _Organon_, i. 71, =91-2=;
“loss” of advanced works, ii. 248 _n._, 334;
_De consolatione philosophiae_, i. =89=, 188, =189-90=, 299;
mediaeval study of the work, i. 89; ii. 135-6

Bologna:
Clubs and guilds in, ii. 382
Fight of, against Parma, i. 497
Law school at, ii. =121=, 251, =259-62=, 378
Medical school at, ii. 121, 383 _n._
University, Law, inception and character of, ii. 121, =381-3=;
affiliated universities, ii. 383 _n._

Bonaventura, St. (John of Fidanza), career of, ii. 403;
at Paris, ii. 399, 403;
estimate of, ii. 301;
style of, ii. 181-2;
contrasted with Albertus, ii. 405;
compared with Aquinas, ii. 405, 437;
with Dante, ii. 547;
on faith, ii. 298;
on Minorites and Preachers, ii. 396;
attitude toward Plato and Aristotle, ii. 404-5;
toward Scriptures, ii. 405 _seqq._;
_De reductione artium ad theologiam_, ii. 406-8;
_Breviloquium_, ii. 408-13;
_Itinerarium mentis in Deum_, ii. 413-18;
otherwise mentioned, ii. 283, 288

Boniface, _see_ Winifried-Boniface

Boniface VIII., Pope, _Sextus_ of, ii. 272;
_Unam sanctam_ bull of, ii. 509

_Books of Sentences_, method of, ii. 307
(_See also under_ Lombard)

Botany, ii. 427-8

Bretons, i. 113

_Breviarium_, i. 117, 239, =243-4=

Britain:
Anglo-Saxon conquest of, i. 141
Antique culture in relation to, before Middle Ages, i. 10-11
Celts in, i. 127 _n._
Christianity of, i. 171-2
Romanization of, i. 32

Brude (Bridius), King of Picts, i. 173

Brunhilde, i. 176, 178

Bruno, Abp. of Cologne, i. 309-10, 383-4;
Ruotger’s Life of, i. 310; ii. 162 _and_ _n. 1_

Burgundians:
Christianizing of, i. 193
Church’s attitude toward, i. 120
Roman law code promulgated by (_Papianus_), ii. 239, =242=
Roman subjects of, i. 121
otherwise mentioned, i. 9-10, 113, 145

Burgundy, i. =175=, 243 _n. 1_

Byzantine architecture, 212 _n._

Byzantine Empire, _see_ Eastern Empire

Cædmon, i. 183, 343

Caesar, C. Julius, cited, i. =27-9=, 138, 296

Caesar of Heisterbach, Life of Engelbert by, i. 482-6 _and_ _n._;
_Dialogi miraculorum_, cited, i. 488 _n._, 491.

Canon law:
Authority of, ii. 274
Basis of, ii. 267-9
Bulk of, ii. 269
Conciliar decrees, collections of, ii. =269=
Decretals:
Collections of, ii. 269, =271-2=, =275= =n.=
False, ii. 270, 273
Gratian’s _Decretum_, ii. 268-9, =270-1=, 306
_Jus naturale_ in, ii. 268-9
_Lex romana canonice compta_, ii. 252
Scope of, ii. 267
Sources of, ii. 269
Supremacy of, ii. 277

Canossa, i. 244

Cantafables, i. 157 _n. 1_

Canticles, i. 350;
Origen’s interpretation of, 333;
St. Bernard’s Sermons on, i. 337 _n._, =409-13=; ii. =169=, 368-9

Capella, Martianus, _De nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii_ of, i. =71 and
n. 3=; ii. 553

_Caritas_, ii. 476-8;
in relation to faith, ii. 479-81;
to wisdom, ii. 481

Carloman, King of Austrasia, i. =199-200 and n.=, 209

Carloman (son of Pippin), i. 209-10

Carnuti, i. 296

Carolingian period:
_Breviarium_ epitomes current during, ii. 244, =249=
Continuity of, with Merovingian, i. 210-12
Criticism of records non-existent in, i. 234
Definiteness of statement a characteristic of, i. 225, =227=
Educational revival in, 218-19, 222, =236=; ii. 122, =158=;
palace school, i. =214=, 218, 229, 235
First stage of mediaeval learning represented by, ii. 330, 332
History as compiled in, i. 234-5
King’s law in, ii. 247
Latin poetry of, ii. 188, 194, 197
Latin prose of, ii. 158
Originality in, circumstances evoking, i. 232-3
Restatement of antique and patristic matter in, i. =237=, 342-3

Carthaginians, i. 25

Carthusian Order, origin of, i. 383-4

Cassian’s _Institutes_ and _Conlocations_, i. 335

Cassiodorus, life and works of, i. 93-7;
_Chronicon_, i. 94;
_Variae epistolae_, i. 94;
_De anima_, 94-5;
_Institutiones divinarum et saecularium litterarum_, i. =95-6=; ii.
357 _n. 2_;
otherwise mentioned, i. 6, 88-9, 115; ii. 312

Cathari, i. 49; ii. 283 _n._

Catullus, i. 25

Cavallini, i. 347

Celsus cited, ii. 235, 237

Celtic language, date of disuse of, i. 31 _and_ _n._

Celts:
Gaul, in, i. =125 and n.=, =126-7=, 129 _n. 1_
Goidelic and Brythonic, i. 127 _n._
Ireland, in, _see_ Irish
Italy invaded by (3rd cent. B.C.), i. 24
Latinized, i. 124
Teutons compared with, i. 125

Champagne, i. 240, =573=

Chandos, Sir John, i. 554-5

_Chanson de Roland_, i. 12 _n._, 528 _and_ _n. 2_, =559-62=

_Chansons de geste_, i. =558 seqq.=; ii. 222

Charlemagne, age of, _see_ Carolingian period;
estimate of, i. 213;
relations of, with the Church, i. =201=, 239; ii. 273;
relations with Angilbert, i. 234-5;
educational revival by, i. =213-14=; ii. 110, 122, =158=, 332;
book of Germanic poems compiled by order of, ii. 220;
Capitularies of, ii. 110, =248=;
open letters of, i. 213 _n._;
Einhard’s Life of, ii. 158-9;
poetic fame of, i. 210;
false Capitularies ascribed to, ii. 270;
empire of, non-enduring, i. 238;
otherwise mentioned, i. 9, 115, 153, 562; ii. 8

Charles Martel, i. 197, =198=, =209=; ii. 273

Charles II. (the Bald), King of France, i. 228, 235

Charles III. (the Simple), King of France, i. 239-40

Charles IV., King of France, i. 551

Chartres Cathedral, sculpture of, i. =20=, 297; ii. =82-5=

Chartres Schools:
Classics the study of, i. 298; ii. 119
Fulbert’s work at, i. 296-7, 299
Grammar as studied at, ii. 129-30
Medicine studied at, ii. 372
Orleans the rival of, ii. 119 _n. 2_
Trivium and quadrivium at, i. =298-9=; ii. 163
mentioned, i. 287, 293

Chartreuse, La Grande, founding of, i. 384 (_See also_ Carthusian)

Chaucer, ii. 95

Childeric, King, i. 119, 122

Chivalry:
Literature of:
Arthurian romances, _see that heading_
Aube (alba) poetry, i. =571=; ii. 30
_Chansons de geste_, i. 558 _seqq._
Nature of, i. 20
_Pastorelle_, i. 571
Pietistic ideal recognized in, ii. 288, 533
Poems of various nations cited, i. 570 =n.=
Religious phraseology in love poems, i. 350 _n. 2_
_Romans d’aventure_, i. =564-5=, 571 _n. 2_
Three branches of, i. 558
Nature of, i. 522, =570 n.=
Order of, evolution of, i. 524 _seqq._
(_See also_ Knighthood)

Chrétien de Troies, romances by, i. 566-=7=;
_Tristan_, i. 567;
_Perceval_, i. 567, =588-9=;
_Erec_ (Geraint), i. 567, 586; ii. 29 _n._;
_Lancelot_ or _Le Conte de la charrette_, i. 567, 569-70, =582-5=;
_Cligés_, i. 567, =586 n. 2=;
_Ivain_, i. =571 n. 2=, 586 _n. 3_; ii. 29 _n._;
translation of Ovid’s _Ars amatoria_, i. 574

Christianity:
Appropriation of, by mediaeval peoples, stages in, i. 17-18
Aquinas’ _Summa_ as concerning, ii. 324
Art, in, _see_ Art
Atonement doctrine, Anselm’s views on, i. 279
Basis of, ii. 268
Britain, in, i. 171-2
Buddhism contrasted with, i. 390
Catholic Church, _see_ Church
Completeness of scheme of, ii. 394-5
Dualistic element in, i. 59
Eleventh century, position in, i. 16
Emotional elements in:
Fear, i. 103, 339, 342, 383
Hate, i. 332, 339
Love, i. 331, =345=
Synthetic treatment of, i. 333
Emotionalizing of, angels as regarded in, i. 348 _n. 4_
Eternal punishment doctrine of, i. =65=, =339=, 486
Faith of, _see_ Faith
Feudalism in relation to, i. 524, 527-=9 and n. 2=, =530=
Fifth century, position in, i. 15
Gallo-Roman, i. 191-2
German language affected by, i. 202
Greek Fathers’ contribution to, i. 5
Greek philosophic admixture in, i. 33-4
Hell-fear in, i. 103, =339=, 342, =383=
Hymns, _see that heading_
Ideal _v._ actual, i. 354-5
Incarnation doctrine of, ii. 369
Irish missionaries of, _see under_ Irish
Latin as modified for expression of, ii. 152, =154=, 156, 164, 171
Marriage as regarded by, ii. 8, 529
Martyrs for, _see_ Martyrs
Mediaeval development in relation to, i. 11, 170
Mediation doctrine of, i. 54, 59-60
Militant character of, in early centuries, i. =69-70=, 75
Miracles, attitude toward, i. 50-1
Monasticism, _see that heading_
Neo-Platonism compared with, i. 51
Pagan ethics inconsistent with, i. 66
Pessimism of, toward mortal life, i. 64
Saints, _see that heading_
Salvation:
Master motive, as, i. 59, =61=, 79, 89
Scholasticism’s main interest, as, ii. =296-7=, 300, 311
Standard of discrimination, as, ii. =530=, =533=, 559
Scriptures, _see that heading_
Teutonic acceptance of, _see under_ Teutons
Trinity doctrine of:
Abaelard’s works on, ii. 10, =298-9=, 352-3, 355
Aquinas on, ii. 449-50, 456
Bonaventura on, ii. 416-17
Dante’s vision, ii. 551
Peter Lombard’s Book on, ii. 323
Roscellin on, ii. 340
Vernacular presentation of, ii. 221
Visions, _see that heading_

Chronicles, mediaeval, ii. 175

Chrysostom, i. 53

Church, Roman Catholic:
Authority of, Duns’ views on, ii. 516
Bishops, _see that heading_
British Church’s divergencies from, 171-2
Canon Law, _see that heading_
Charlemagne’s relations with, i. =201=, 239; ii. 273
Classical study as regarded by, i. 260; ii. =110 seqq.=, 396-7
Clergy, _see that heading_
Confession doctrine of, i. 489
Constantine’s relations with, ii. 266
Creation of, i. 11, 68, =86-7=
Decretals, etc., _see under_ Canon Law
Denunciations of, i. 474-5; ii. 34-5
Diocesan organization of, among Germans, i. 196
Doctrinal literature of, i. 68-70
Duns’ attitude towards, ii. 513
East and West, solidarity of development of, i. 55
Empire’s relations with, _see under_ Papacy
Eternal punishment doctrine of, i. =65=, =339=, 486; ii. 550
Eucharistic controversy, _see that heading_
Fathers of the, _see_ Greek thought, patristic; Latin Fathers; _and
chiefly_ Patristic thought
Feudalism as affected by, i. 524, 527-=9 and n. 2=, =530=
Feudalism as affecting, i. 244, 473
Frankish, _see under_ Franks
Gallo-Roman, i. 191-2, 194
Hildegard’s visions regarding, i. 457
Intolerance of, _see subheading_ Persecutions
Investiture controversy, _see under_ Bishops
Irish Church’s relations with, i. 172-4 _and_ =n. 1=
Isidore’s treatise on liturgical practices of, i. 106
Knights’ vow of obedience to, i. 530
Mass, the:
Alleluia chant and Sequence-hymn, ii. 196, =201 seqq.=
Symbolism of, ii. 77-8
Nicene Creed, i. 69
Papacy, Popes, _see those headings_
Paschal controversy, _see_ Eucharistic
Penance doctrine of, i. =101=, 195
Persecutions by, i. 339;
of Albigenses, i. 366-7, 461, 481, 572; ii. 168;
of Jews, i. 118, 332;
of Montanists, i. 332
Popes, _see that heading_
Predestination, attitude toward, i. 228
Property of, enactments regarding, ii. 266
Rationalists in, i. 305
Reforms in (11th cent.), i. 304
Roman law for, ii. 265 _and_ _n. 2_
Sacraments:
Definition of the word, ii. 72 _and_ _n. 1_
Hugo of St. Victor on, ii. 64, 66, 68-9, 71, =72-4=, 90 _n. 2_
Origin of, Bonaventura on, ii. 411-13
Pagan analogy with, i. 53, 59-60
Secularization of dignities of, i. 472
Simony in, i. =244=, 475
Spain, in, _see under_ Spain
Standards set by, ii. 528-9
Suspects to, estimate of, ii. 532
Synod of Aix (817), i. 359
Theodosian Code as concerning, ii. 266-7 _and_ _n. 1_
Transubstantiation doctrine of, i. 226-227
“Truce of God” promulgated by, i. 529 _n. 2_

Churches:
Building of, symbolism in, ii. 78-82
Dedication of, sequence designed for, ii. 210-11

Cicero, i. 26 _n. 3_, 39, 78, =219=

Cino, ii. 264

Cistercian Order:
_Charta charitatis_, i. 361-3
Clairvaux founded, i. 393
Cluniac controversies with, i. 360

Citeaux monastery:
Bernard at, i. 360, 393
Foundation and rise of, i. 360-3

Cities and towns:
Growth of, in 12th cent., i. 305; ii. =379-80=
Italian, _see under_ Italy

Cities (_civitates_) of Roman provinces, i. 29-30

Clairvaux (Clara Vallis):
Founding of, i. 360, 393
Position of, i. 362
St. Bernard’s love of, i. 401-2

Classics, _see_ Latin classics

Claudius, Bp. of Turin, i. 215, 231-2 _and_ _n. 1_

Claudius, Emp., i. 30

Clement II., Pope, i. 243

Clement IV., Pope, ii. 489-91

Clement V., Pope, _Decretales Clementinae_ of, ii. 272

Clement of Alexandria, ii. 64

Clergy:
Accusations against, false, penalty for, ii. 266
Legal status of, ii. 382
Regular, _see_ Monasticism
Secular:
Concubinage of, i. 244
Francis of Assisi’s attitude toward, i. 430, 440
Marriage of, i. 472 _n. 1_
Reforms of, i. 359
Standard of conduct for, i. 471; ii. 529
Term, scope of, i. 356

Clerval, Abbé, cited, i. 300 _n. 1_

Clopinel, Jean, _see_ De Meun

Clovis (Chlodoweg), i. 114, 117, =119-21=, 122, 138, =193-4=; ii. 245

Cluny monastery:
Abaelard at, ii. 25, =26=, 345
Characteristics of, i. 359-60
Monastic reforms accomplished by, i. =293=, 304

Cologne, i. 29, 31

Columba, St., of Iona, i. =133-7=, 173

Columbanus, St., of Luxeuil and Bobbio, i. 6, 133, =174-9=, 196;
Life and works of, 174 _n. 2_

Combat, trial by, i. 232

Commentaries, mediaeval:
Boëthius’, i. 93
Excerpts as characteristic of, i. 104
General addiction to, ii. 390, 553 _n. 4_
Originals supplanted by, ii. 390
Raban’s, i. 222-3

Compends:
Fourteenth century use of, ii. 523
Mediaeval preference for, i. 94
Medical, in Italy, i. 251
Saints’ lives, of (_Legenda aurea_), ii. 184

Conrad, Duke of Franconia, i. 241

Conrad II., Emp., i. 243

Constantine, Emp., ii. 266;
“Donation” of, ii. =35=, 265, 270

Constantinus Africanus, i. =251= _and_ _n._; ii. 372

Cordova, i. 25

Cornelius Nepos, i. 25

_Cornificiani_, ii. =132=, 373

Cosmogony:
Aquinas’ theory of, ii. 456
Mediaeval allegorizing of, ii. 65 _seqq._
Patristic attitude toward, i. 72-4

Cosmology, Alan’s, in _Anticlaudianus_, ii. 377

Cremona, i. 24

Cross, Christian:
Magic safeguard, as, i. 294-5
Mediaeval feeling for, ii. 197

Crusades:
Constantinople, capture of, as affecting Western learning, ii. 391
First:
_Chansons_ concerning, i. 537-8
Character of, i. 535-7
Guibert’s account of, ii. 175
Hymn concerning, quoted, i. 349 _and_ _n._
Italians little concerned in, ii. 189
Joinville’s account of, quoted, i. 546-9
Language of, i. 531
Results of, i. 305
Second, i. 394
Spirit of, i. 535-7

Cuchulain, i. 129 _and_ _nn. 2, 3_

Cynewulf’s _Christ_, i. 183

Cyprian quoted, i. 337 _n._

Cyril of Alexandria, i. 227

Cyril of Jerusalem, i. 53

Da Romano, Alberic, i. 515-16

Da Romano, Eccelino, i. =505-6=, 516

Dacia, Visigoths in, i. 112

Damiani, St. Peter, Card. Bp. of Ostia, career of, i. 262-4;
attitude of, to the classics, i. 260; ii. 112, 165;
on the hermit life, i. 369-70;
on tears, i. 371 _and_ _n._;
extract illustrating Latin style of, ii. 165 _and_ _n. 3_;
works of, i. 263 _n. 1_;
writings quoted, i. 263-7;
_Liber Gomorrhianus_, i. 265, 474;
_Vita Romualdi_, i. 372 _seqq._;
biography of Dominicus Loricatus, i. 381-2;
_De parentelae gradibus_, ii. 252;
otherwise mentioned, i. 17, 19, 20, 260, 343, 345, 391; ii. 34

Damianus, i. 262, 265

Danes, i. 142, =153=

Dante, estimate of, ii. 534-5;
scholarship of, ii. 541 _n. 2_;
possessed by spirit of allegory, ii. 552-5;
compared with Aquinas and influenced by him, ii. 541 _n. 2_, 547, 549,
551, 555;
compared with Bonaventura, ii. 547;
attitude to Beatrice, ii. 555-8;
on love, ii. 555-6;
on monarchy, ii. 278;
_De monarchia_, ii. 535;
_De vulgari eloquentia_, ii. 219, =536=;
_Vita nuova_, ii. =556=, 559;
_Convito_, ii. =537-8=, 553;
_Divina Commedia_, i. 12 _n._; ii. 86, 99 _n. 1_, =103=, 219;
commentaries on this work, ii. 553-4;
estimate of it, ii. 538, 540-1, 544, 553-4;
_Inferno_ cited, ii. 42, 541-3, =545-7=;
_Purgatorio_ cited, ii. 535, 542-3, =548-9=, 554, 558;
_Paradiso_ cited, i. 395; ii. 542-3, =549-51=, 558

Dares the Phrygian, ii. 116 _and_ _n. 3_, 224-=5 and nn.=, 226-7

_De bello et excidio urbis Comensis_, ii. 189-90

De Boron, Robert, i. 567

_De casu Diaboli_, i. 279

_De consolatione philosophiae_, _see under_ Boëthius

De Lorris, Guillaume, _Roman de la rose_ by, i. =586-7=; ii. 103 _and_
_n. 1_, 104

De Meun, Jean (Clopinel), _Roman de la rose_ by, ii. 103 _and_ _n. 1_,
104, =223=

Denis, St., i. 230

Dermot (Diarmaid, Diarmuid), High-King of Ireland, i. =132=-3, 135, =136=

Desiderius, Bp. of Vienne, i. 99

Desiderius, Pope, i. =253=, 263

Devil, the:
Mediaeval beliefs and stories as to, i. 487 _seqq._
Romuald’s conflicts with, i. =374=, 379-80

Dialectic (_See also_ Logic):
Abaelard’s skill in, ii. 118, 119, =345-6=, 353;
his subjection of dogma to, ii. 304;
his _Dialectica_, ii. 346 _and_ _nn._, 349-50
Chartres study of, i. 298
Duns Scotus’ mastery of, ii. 510, 514
Grammar penetrated by, ii. 127 _seqq._
Hugo of St. Victor on, ii. 67
Raban’s view of, i. 222
Thirteenth century study of, ii. 118-20

Diarmaid (Diarmuid), _see_ Dermot

_Dictamen_, ii. =121=, =129=, 381

Dictys the Cretan, ii. 224, 225 _and_ _n. 1_

_Dies irae_, i. 348

Dionysius the Areopagite, ii. 10, 102, =344=

_Divina Commedia_, _see under_ Dante

Divination, ii. 374

Dominic, St., i. =366-7=, 497; ii. 396

Dominican Order:
Aristotelianism of, ii. 404
Founding of, i. =366=; ii. 396
Growth of, i. 498; ii. =398=
Object of, ii. 396
Oxford University, at, ii. 387
Papacy, relations with, ii. =398=, 509
Paris University, position in, ii. =386=, 399

Dominicus Loricatus, i. 263, =381-3=

Donatus, i. 71, 297;
_Ars minor_ and _Barbarismus_ of, ii. 123-=4=

Donizo of Canossa, ii. 189 _and_ _n. 2_

Druids:
Gallic, i. =28=, 296
Irish, i. 133

Du Guesclin, Bertrand, Constable of France, i. 554-6, 557 _n._

Duns Scotus, education of, ii. 511;
career of, ii. 513;
estimate of, ii. 513;
intricacy of style of, ii. 510, 514, =516 n. 2=;
on logic, ii. 504 _n. 2_;
Occam’s attitude toward, ii. 518 _seqq._;
editions of works of, ii. 511 _n. 1_;
estimate of his work, ii. 509-10, 514

Dunstan, St., Abp. of Canterbury, i. 323-4

Durandus, Guilelmus, _Rationale divinorum officiorum_ of, ii. 76 _seqq._

Eadmer, i. 269, 273, 277

Eastern Empire:
Frankish relations with, i. 123
Huns’ relations with, i. 112-13
Norse mercenaries of, i. 153
Ostrogoths’ relations with, i. 114
Roman restoration by, i. 115

Ebroin, i. 209

Eckbert, Abbot of Schönau, i. 444

Ecstasy:
Bernard’s views on, ii. 368
Examples of, i. 444, 446

Eddas, ii. 220

Education:
Carolingian period, in, i. =213-14=, 218-19, 222, =236=; ii. 110, 122,
=158=, 332
Chartres method of, ii. 130-1
Grammar a chief study in, ii. 122 _seqq._, 331-2
Italy, in, _see under_ Italy
Latin culture the means and method of, i. 12; ii. =109=
Schools, clerical and monastic, i. =250 n. 2=, 293
Schools, lay, i. 249-51
Seven Liberal Arts, _see that heading_
Shortening of academic course, advocates of, ii. =132=, 373

Edward II., King of England, i. 551

Edward III., King of England, i. 550-1

Edward the Black Prince, i. 554-6

Einhard the Frank, i. 234 _n. 1_;
_Life of Charlemagne_ by, i. 215; ii. 158-9

Ekkehart family, i. 309

Ekkehart of St. Gall, _Waltarius_ (_Waltharilied_) by, ii. 188

El-Farabi, ii. 390

Eleventh century:
Characteristics of, i. 301;
in France, i. 301, 304, 328;
in Germany, i. 307-9;
in England, i. 324;
in Italy, i. 327
Christianity in, position of, i. 16

Elias, Minister-General of the Minorites, i. 499

Elizabeth, St., of Hungary, i. 391, =465 n. 1=

Elizabeth, St., of Schönau, visions of, i. 444-6

Emotional development, secular, i. 349-50 _and_ _n. 2_

Empire, the, _see_ Holy Roman Empire

Encyclopaedias, mediaeval, ii. 316 _n. 2_;
Vincent’s _Speculum majus_, ii. 315-22

_Eneas_, ii. 225, =226=

Engelbert, Abp. of Cologne, i. 481-6;
estimate of, i. 482

England (_See also_ Britain):
Danish Viking invasion of, i. 153
Eleventh century conditions in, i. 324
Law in, principles of, i. 141-2;
Roman law almost non-existent in Middle Ages, ii. 248
Norman conquest of, linguistic result of, i. 324

English language, character of, i. 324

Epicureanism, i. =41=, 70; ii. 296, 312

Eriugena, John Scotus, estimate of, i. 215, =228-9=, =231=; ii. 330;
on reason _v._ authority, ii. 298, 302;
works of, studied at Chartres, i. 299;
_De divisione naturae_, i. =230-1=; ii. 302;
otherwise mentioned, i. 16; ii. 282 _n._, 312

Essenes, i. 334

Ethelbert, King of Kent, i. 180-1

_Etymologies_ of Isidore, i. 33, 105 _and_ _n. 1_, =107-9=; ii. 318;
law codes glossed from, ii. 250

Eucharistic (Paschal) controversy:
Berengar’s contribution to, i. 302-3
Paschasius’ contribution to, i. 225-7

Eucherius, Bp. of Lyons, ii. 48 _n. 1_

Euclid, i. 40

Eudemus of Rhodes, i. 38

Eunapius, i. 47, 52

Euric, King of the Visigoths, i. 117 _and_ _n. 1_

Eusebius, i. 81 _n. 2_

Evil or sin:
Abaelard’s views concerning, ii. 350
Eriugena’s views concerning, i. 228
Original sin, realism in relation to, ii. 340 _n._
Peter Lombard and Aquinas contrasted as to, ii. 308-10

Experimental science, Bacon on, ii. 502-8

_Fabliaux_, i. =521 n. 2=; ii. 222

Facts, unlimited actuality of, i. 79-80

Faith:
Abaelard’s definition of, ii. 354
Bacon’s views on, ii. 507
Bernard of Clairvaux’s attitude toward, ii. 355
_Caritas_ in relation to, ii. 479-81
Cognition through, Aquinas’ views on, ii. 446
Occam’s views on, ii. 519
Proof of matters of, Aquinas on, ii. 450
Will as functioning in, ii. 479

_False Decretals_, i. 104 _n._, =118 n. 1=

Fathers of the Church (_See also_ Patristic thought):
Greek, _see_ Greek thought, patristic
Latin, _see_ Latin Fathers

Faustus, ii. 44

Felix, St., i. 86

Feudalism (_See also_ Knighthood):
Anarchy of, modification of, i. 304
Austrasian disintegration by, i. 240
_Chansons_ regarding, i. 559 _seqq._, 569
Christianity in relation to, i. 524, 527-=9 and n. 2=, =530=
Church affected by, i. 244, 473
Italy not greatly under, i. 241
Marriage as affected by, i. 571, 586
Obligations of, i. 533-4
Origin of, 522-3
Principle and practice of, at variance, i. 522

Fibonacci, Leonardo, ii. 501

Finnian, i. 136

_Flamenca_, i. 565

_Flore et Blanchefleur_, i. 565

Florus, Deacon, of Lyons, i. 229 _and_ _n._

Fonte Avellana hermitage, i. =262-3=, 381

Forms, new, creation of, _see_ Mediaeval thought--Restatement

Fortunatus, Hymns by, ii. 196-7

Fourteenth century:
Academic decadence in, ii. 523
Papal position in, ii. 509-10