Chapter IX: Introduction: To the Fourth Revised Edition (6)

┌───┬───────────┬──────────────────┬──────────────┬───────────────┐ │ │ B. C. │ GREAT BRITAIN │ SCANDINAVIA │ GERMANY AND │ │ │ │ │ │ AUSTRIA │ ├───┼───────────┼──────────────────┼──────────────┼───────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Neolithic. │ │ │ │ │ │ Rough │ │ │ 1.│Before 3000│Neolithic │ pottery. │Neolithic. │ │ │ │ │ Domesticated│ │ │ │ │ │ dog. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├───┼───────────┼──────────────────┼──────────────┼───────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Copper. │ │ │ │ │ │ Great │ │ │ │ │ │ expansion of │ │ │ │ │ │ Alpines, │ │ 2.│3000–2500 │ │ │ introducing │ │ │ │ │ │ bronze into │ │ │ │ │ │ Austria and │ │ │ │ │ │ later into │ │ │ │ │ │ Germany. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├───┼───────────┼──────────────────┼──────────────┼───────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ Neolithic. │ Neolithic. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ 3.│2500–1800 │Copper. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├───┼───────────┼──────────────────┼──────────────┴───────────────┤ │ │ │ │ Transition from stone to │ │ │ │ │ bronze. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Alpine │ │ │ │ │ │ invasion │ │ │ │ │Alpine invasion │ with bronze │ │ │ │ │ with bronze │ culture │ │ │ 4.│1800–1600 │ culture. │ reaches │ │ │ │ │ Round Barrows. │ Denmark and │ │ │ │ │ Megaliths. │ southwest │ │ │ │ │ │ Norway. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├───┼───────────┼──────────────────┼──────────────┼───────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Hallstatt iron │ │ │ │ │ │ culture in │ │ │ │ │ │ Austrian │ │ 5.│1600–1400 │ │ │ Tyrol has │ │ │ │ │ │ first │ │ │ │ │ │ beginning. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├───┼───────────┼──────────────────┼──────────────┼───────────────┤ │ │ │ Full Bronze Age. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ 6.│1400–1200 │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├───┼───────────┼──────────────────┼──────────────┼───────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Hallstatt iron │ │ │ │ │ │ culture │ │ │ │ │ │ flourishes. │ │ │ │ │ │ Mixed │ │ 7.│1200–1000 │ │Beginning of │ inhumation │ │ │ │ │ cremation. │ and │ │ │ │ │ │ incineration.│ │ │ │ │ │ Goidels │ │ │ │ │ │ occupy │ │ │ │ │ │ Germany. │ ├───┼───────────┼──────────────────┼──────────────┼───────────────┤ │ │ │ │Nordic Teutons│ │ │ │ │ │ cross from │ │ │ │ │ │Scandinavia to│ │ │ │ │ │ south coasts │ │ │ │ │ │of Baltic and │ │ │ │ │ │ to Denmark. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │First invasion │ │ │ │ │ │ of Nordic │ │ │ │ │ │ Teutons from │ │ │ │ │ │ Scandinavia. │ │ │ │First │ │ Other Celtic │ │ 8.│1000–800 │ Nordics—Goidels.│ │ Nordics on │ │ │ │ │ │ Rhine and │ │ │ │ │ │ Danube, who │ │ │ │ │ │ Celticized │ │ │ │ │ │ the Alpines. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├───┼───────────┼──────────────────┼──────────────┼───────────────┤ │ │ 800 │First iron swords,│ │ │ │ │ │ 800. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │The Goidels are│ │ │ │ │ │ driven south │ │ │ │ │ │ and west by │ │ │ │ │ │ the Cymry. │ │ │ │ │ │ Expansion of │ │ │ │ │ │ the Cymry. │ │ │ │First Aryan │ │ Pressure of │ │ 9.│800–600 │ speech. │ │ Teutons in │ │ │ │ │ │ north. │ │ │ │ │ │ Last Goidels │ │ │ │ │ │ expelled from│ │ │ │ │ │ Germany. Iron│ │ │ │ │ │ swords in │ │ │ │ │ │ Central │ │ │ │ │ │ Europe. │ ├───┼───────────┼──────────────────┼──────────────┼───────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │La Tène iron │ │ │ │ │ │ culture. │ │ │ │First Goidels in │ │ Cymric Belgæ │ │10.│600–400 │ Ireland, 600. │ │ driven │ │ │ │ │ │ westward by │ │ │ │ │ │ Teutons. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├───┼───────────┼──────────────────┼──────────────┼───────────────┤ │ │ │ La Tène iron. │La Tène Iron. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │11.│400–300 │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├───┼───────────┼──────────────────┼──────────────┼───────────────┤ │ │ │ │ Great │ Expansion of │ │ │ │ │ expansion of │ Teutons and │ │ │ │ │Nordic Teutons│ expulsion of │ │ │ │ │ out of │ Cymry as far │ │ │ │ │ Scandinavia. │ west as the │ │ │ │ │ │ Weser. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │_c._ 250. First│ │ │ │Cymric │ │ Teutons in │ │12.│300–200 │ Belgæ—invasion, │ │ Austria. │ │ │ │ _c._ 300. Known │ │ Gold, silver,│ │ │ │ as Brythons. │ │ and bronze │ │ │ │ │ │ money. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├───┼───────────┼──────────────────┼──────────────┼───────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Teutons drive │ │ │ │Few Cymry or │ │ Cymry out of │ │13.│200–100 │ Brythons in │ │ Germany. │ │ │ │ Ireland. │ │ Teutons cross│ │ │ │ │ │ the Rhine. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├───┼───────────┼──────────────────┼──────────────┼───────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │55. Julius Cæsar. │ │ │ │ │100 to │ Copper and iron │ │ │ │14.│ Christian│ money as │ │ │ │ │ Era │ currency. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├───┼───────────┼──────────────────┼──────────────┼───────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │Defeat of Varus│ │ │ │ │ │ and Roman │ │15.│ │ │ │ legions in │ │ │ │ │ │ old Saxony, 9│ │ │ │ │ │ A. D. │ └───┴───────────┴──────────────────┴──────────────┴───────────────┘ ┌───┬───────────┬─────────────┬───────────────┬────────────────────────┐ │ │ B. C. │ FRANCE AND │ ITALY │ RUSSIA, GREECE, AND │ │ │ │ SPAIN │ │ BALKANS │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼───────────────┼────────────────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │3000 B. C. Commencement │ │ │ │ │Terramara │ of early Minoan in │ │ 1.│Before 3000│Neolithic. │ culture. │ Crete. │ │ │ │ │ │ Copper. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼───────────────┼────────────────────────┤ │ │ │ │Copper. │ │ │ │ │ │ Great │ │ │ │ │ │ expansion of │ │ │ │ │ │ Alpines, │ │ │ │ │ │ introducing │ │ │ 2.│3000–2500 │Copper. │ bronze into │ │ │ │ │ │ north Italy. │ │ │ │ │ │ Bronze │ │ │ │ │ │ introduced in│ │ │ │ │ │ South from │ │ │ │ │ │ Crete. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼───────────────┼────────────────────────┤ │ │ │ │ Eneolithic │ Great expansion of │ │ │ │ │ culture. │ Alpines, introducing │ │ │ │ │ │ bronze from │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Asia Minor. │ │ │ │ │ │ Middle Minoan in │ │ 3.│2500–1800 │ │ │ Crete, 2000–1800. │ │ │ │ │ │ Second city of │ │ │ │ │ │ Hissarlik—2000. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼───────────────┼────────────────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Alpine │ │ │ │ │ │ invasion │ │ │ │ │ │ with bronze│ │ │ │ │ │ culture in │ │ │ │ │ │ France. │ │Early Nordic invasions. │ │ 4.│1800–1600 │ Later, same│ │ Cnossos. │ │ │ │ wave of │ │ Mycenæan culture. │ │ │ │ invasion │ │ │ │ │ │ enters │ │ │ │ │ │ Spain. │ │ │ │ │ │ Megaliths. │ │ │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼───────────────┼────────────────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Late Minoan in Crete, │ │ 5.│1600–1400 │ │ │ 1600–1450. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼───────────────┼────────────────────────┤ │ │ │ │ Last Minoan, │ │ │ │ │ │ 1450–1200. │ │ │ │ │ │ │Mycenæan culture. │ │ │ │ │ │ Bronze. │ │ │ │ │ │ Nordic Achæans from │ │ │ │ │ │ south Russia introduce│ │ 6.│1400–1200 │ │Villanova │ Aryan speech, │ │ │ │ │ culture. │ 1400–1300. Have iron │ │ │ │ │ │ swords. │ │ │ │ │ │ 1200. Transition from │ │ │ │ │ │ bronze to iron in │ │ │ │ │ │ Crete. │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼───────────────┼────────────────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │_c._ 1100. │ │ │ │ │ │ Umbrians and │Hallstatt iron. │ │ │ │Cadiz founded│ Oscans │ Trojan war, 1194–1184.│ │ │ │ in Spain, │ introduce │ Nordic │ │ 7.│1200–1000 │ _c._ 1100, │ first Aryan │ Hellenes—Dorians—enter│ │ │ │ by │ speech from │ Greece, 1100. │ │ │ │ Phœnicians.│ northeast. │ Iron in full │ │ │ │ │ Iron in │ development. │ │ │ │ │ Etruria, │ │ │ │ │ │ 1100. │ │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼───────────────┼────────────────────────┤ │ │ │1000. Nordic │ │ │ │ │ │Goidels cross│ │ │ │ │ │ Rhine and │ │ │ │ │ │ introduce │ │ │ │ │ │Aryan speech │ │ │ │ │ │ (Gaulish). │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Hallstatt │ │ │ │ │ │ iron │ │ │ │ │ │ culture. │First │ │ │ │ │ Before 950 │ settlements │ │ │ 8.│1000–800 │ Phœnicians │ on the site │Iron common in Greece. │ │ │ │ masters of │ of Rome. │ │ │ │ │ more than │ │ │ │ │ │ half of │ │ │ │ │ │ Spain. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼───────────────┼────────────────────────┤ │ │ 800 │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Expansion of │ │ │ │ │ │ Mediterranean│ │ │ │ │ │ Etruscans │ │ │ │ │ │ over Umbrians│Iron Age in Russia. │ │ │ │ │ to Alps. │ Megarian colonization,│ │ │ │Gauls in │ Legendary │ 700. │ │ 9.│800–600 │ France. │ founding of │ Greek colonies in │ │ │ │ │ Rome, 753. │ Italy and Sicily. │ │ │ │ │ First Greek │ Appearance of │ │ │ │ │ colonies in │ Cimmerians. │ │ │ │ │ south │ │ │ │ │ │ Italy—Magna │ │ │ │ │ │ Græcia. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼───────────────┼────────────────────────┤ │ │ │La Tène iron │ │ │ │ │ │ culture in │ │ │ │ │ │ France. │ │ │ │ │ │ Nordic │ │ │ │ │ │ Goidels │ │ │ │ │ │ cross │ │ │ │ │ │ Pyrenees │Nordic Gauls in│500. End of non-Aryan │ │ │ │ and │ valley of │ speech in Crete. │ │10.│600–400 │ introduce │ Po—Cisalpine │ Invasion of Scythia by│ │ │ │ Aryan │ Gaul. │ Darius, 512 B. C. │ │ │ │ speech in │ │ Persian wars, 500–449.│ │ │ │ Spain. │ │ │ │ │ │ First │ │ │ │ │ │ Gallic │ │ │ │ │ │ money of │ │ │ │ │ │ Marseilles,│ │ │ │ │ │ silver. │ │ │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼───────────────┼────────────────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │La Tène iron │ │ │ │ │ │ in Spain. │Gauls under │ │ │ │ │ Cymric │ Brennus sack │Macedon conquers Greece,│ │ │ │ Belgæ │ Rome, 382, │ 338. │ │ │ │ conquer │ and destroy │ Celto-Scyths in │ │11.│400–300 │ northern │ Etruria. New │ Crimea, 4th century B.│ │ │ │ France. │ invasion of │ C. │ │ │ │ Bronze │ Nordics into │ Alexander the Great, │ │ │ │ money in │ Cisalpine │ 356–323. │ │ │ │ western │ Gaul. │ │ │ │ │ France. │ │ │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼───────────────┼────────────────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Gold coinage │ │ │ │ │ │ in │ │Decline of Scythians in │ │ │ │ northeast │ │ Russia, and appearance│ │ │ │ France. │ │ in Russia of Alpine │ │ │ │ Bronze │ │ Sarmatians. │ │12.│300–200 │ coinage in │Expansion of │ Nordic Galatians enter│ │ │ │ the │ Rome. │ Thrace and │ │ │ │ southwest. │ │ Greece—Delphi, 279; │ │ │ │ Gaul │ │ cross into Asia Minor │ │ │ │ fertile and│ │ and found Galatia. │ │ │ │ well │ │ │ │ │ │ cultivated.│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼───────────────┼────────────────────────┤ │ │ │ │ Punic Wars, │ │ │ │ │ │ 264–146. │ │ │ │ │Teutons enter│ │ │ │ │ │ France. │Slaves imported│ │ │ │ │ Marius │ in Rome to │ │ │13.│200–100 │ destroys │ work the │ │ │ │ │ Teutones │ latifundia. │ │ │ │ │ and Cimbri,│ │ │ │ │ │ 100 B. C. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼───────────────┼────────────────────────┤ │ │ │ │Augustus and │ │ │ │ │Cæsar │ the │ │ │ │100 to │ conquers │ organization │ │ │14.│ Christian│ Gaul, │ of the Roman │ │ │ │ Era │ 59–51. │ Empire. │ │ │ │ │ │ Extinction of│ │ │ │ │ │ old Romans. │ │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼───────────────┼────────────────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Sarmatians appear in │ │15.│ │ │ │ Danube valley, 50 A. │ │ │ │ │ │ D. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ └───┴───────────┴─────────────┴───────────────┴────────────────────────┘ ┌───┬───────────┬─────────────────────┬────────────────┐ │ │ B. C. │ ASIA MINOR │NORTH AFRICA AND│ │ │ │ │ EGYPT │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────────────┼────────────────┤ │ │ │ │Copper for │ │ │ │ │ ornaments, │ │ │ │ │ 4000. │ │ │ │Alpines (Hissarlik). │ Copper │ │ │ │ Founding of Troy. │ systematically│ │ 1.│Before 3000│ Copper in Cyprus. │ mined, 3400. │ │ │ │ Introduction of │ Pieces of iron│ │ │ │ bronze from Egypt. │ from interior │ │ │ │ │ of Great │ │ │ │ │ Pyramid of │ │ │ │ │ Gizeh, 3733. │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────────────┼────────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Gizeh skulls; │ │ │ │ │ Alpine. │ │ │ │ │ First │ │ 2.│3000–2500 │Bronze smelting. │ illustration │ │ │ │ │ of ship in │ │ │ │ │ Egypt, 2800. │ │ │ │ │ Pyramids, │ │ │ │ │ Memphis. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────────────┼────────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Period of │ │ │ │ │ agricultural │ │ │ │ │ depression │ │ │ │Destruction of │ with invasions│ │ 3.│2500–1800 │ Hissarlik II. │ from the │ │ │ │ │ desert. │ │ │ │ │ Feudal Age in │ │ │ │ │ Egypt. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────────────┼────────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Beginnings of Hittite│Hyksos in Egypt,│ │ 4.│1800–1600 │ Empire. │ 1700. │ │ │ │ │ First horses. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────────────┼────────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Egyptian Empire │ │ │ │First Aryan names of │ at Thebes, │ │ │ │ deities—Cappadocia.│ 1600–1150. │ │ 5.│1600–1400 │ Hittite Empire with│ Egyptian │ │ │ │ iron. │ campaigns in │ │ │ │ │ Asia. Conquest│ │ │ │ │ of Syria. │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────────────┼────────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Hittites invade │ │ │ │ │ Syria. │ │ │ │ │ Rameses II. │ │ 6.│1400–1200 │Nordic Phrygians. │ 1230. Sea │ │ │ │ (Trojan leaders.) │ peoples │ │ │ │ │ (Achæans) │ │ │ │ │ attack Egypt. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────────────┼────────────────┤ │ │ │ Hittites Alpines │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ 7.│1200–1000 │Armenians acquire │Phœnicia supreme│ │ │ │ Aryan tongue. │ at sea. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────────────┼────────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Greek colonies in │Carthage │ │ 8.│1000–800 │ Asia Minor. │ founded, 813. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────────────┼────────────────┤ │ │ 800 │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Early Nordic raids. │ │ │ 9.│800–600 │ Cimmerians, 650. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────────────┼────────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Persian │ │ │ │Tyre under Babylonian│ conquest, 525.│ │10.│600–400 │ yoke. │ The last of │ │ │ │ │ the native │ │ │ │ │ Pharaohs. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────────────┼────────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Alexander │ │11.│400–300 │ │ conquers │ │ │ │ │ Egypt, 332. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────────────┼────────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │12.│300–200 │Nordic Galatians, │ │ │ │ │ 279. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────────────┼────────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │13.│200–100 │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────────────┼────────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │100 to │ │ │ │14.│ Christian│ │ │ │ │ Era │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────────────┼────────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │15.│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ └───┴───────────┴─────────────────────┴────────────────┘ ┌───┬───────────┬─────────────┬────────────┐ │ │ B. C. │ MESOPOTAMIA │ INDIA AND │ │ │ │ AND PERSIA │ CHINA │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼────────────┤ │ │ │Copper for │ │ │ │ │ ornaments. │ │ │ │ │ Early │Mongolian │ │ │ │ Babylonian │ bands come│ │ │ │ graves. │ from west │ │ 1.│Before 3000│ Cylinder │ into the │ │ │ │ seals at │ Yellow │ │ │ │ Fara about │ River │ │ │ │ 3400. │ Valley. │ │ │ │ Cuneiform │ │ │ │ │ writing. │ │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼────────────┤ │ │ │Ur in Sumer. │ │ │ │ │ Nippur, │ │ │ │ │ 3000–2500. │ │ │ │ │ Beginning │Chinese │ │ │ │ of │ claim │ │ 2.│3000–2500 │ greatness │ first │ │ │ │ of │ empire, │ │ │ │ Babylonia. │ 2850–2730.│ │ │ │ Sargon of │ │ │ │ │ Accad │ │ │ │ │ (Semitic), │ │ │ │ │ 2750. │ │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Sumer and │ │ │ │ │ Accad │ │ │ │ │ unite, │ │ │ │ │ 2500. │Phonetic │ │ │ │ Babylon │ writing in│ │ │ │ under │ China, │ │ 3.│2500–1800 │ Hammurapi │ probably │ │ │ │ supreme, │ at 2000 B.│ │ │ │ 2100. │ C. │ │ │ │ First │ │ │ │ │ horses from│ │ │ │ │ Kassites in│ │ │ │ │ Elam. │ │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Kassite │ │ │ │ │ dynasty of │ │ │ 4.│1800–1600 │ Babylon │ │ │ │ │ begins. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼────────────┤ │ │ │ Kassitites │ │ │ │ │and Mitanni, │ │ │ │ │ 1700–1400. │ │ │ │ │ │First │ │ │ │ │ Nordics │ │ │ │First Nordics│ enter │ │ 5.│1600–1400 │ in Persia. │ India. │ │ │ │ │ Nordic │ │ │ │ │ states in │ │ │ │ │ Punjab. │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼────────────┤ │ │ │ Nordic │ │ │ │ │ invasions. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Semitic │ │ │ 6.│1400–1200 │ Babylonians│ │ │ │ │ overrun │ │ │ │ │ Sumer. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Nordic Sacæ │ │ │ │ │ introduce │ │ 7.│1200–1000 │ │ Sanskrit │ │ │ │ │ into │ │ │ │ │ India. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Zoroaster. │ │ │ │ │ Nordic │ │ │ │ │ Persians │ │ │ │ │ recorded at│ │ │ │ │ Lake Urmia,│ │ │ │ │ 900. │ │ │ 8.│1000–800 │ Iron mines │ │ │ │ │ at │ │ │ │ │ Carchemish.│ │ │ │ │ Assyrian │ │ │ │ │ chronology │ │ │ │ │ begins, 911│ │ │ │ │ B. C. │ │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼────────────┤ │ │ 800 │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Invasion of │ │ │ │ │ Scythians. │ │ │ │ │ Assyrian │ │ │ │ │ Empire, │ │ │ │ │ 750–606, │Nordic │ │ │ │ with armies│ Hiung-nu │ │ │ │ equipped │ in western│ │ 9.│800–600 │ with iron │ China │ │ │ │ borrowed │ become │ │ │ │ from the │ restless. │ │ │ │ Hittites. │ │ │ │ │ Semitic │ │ │ │ │ Chaldeans │ │ │ │ │ rebuild │ │ │ │ │ Babylon. │ │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Nordic │ │ │ │ │ Persians │Confucius, │ │ │ │ overthrow │ 551–479. │ │10.│600–400 │ Medes, 550.│ Buddha, │ │ │ │ Reign of │ _c._ │ │ │ │ Darius, │ 557–477. │ │ │ │ 525–485. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Conquests of│ │ │ │Conquests of │ Alexander │ │11.│400–300 │ Alexander. │ in India, │ │ │ │ │ 327. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Nordic │ │ │ │ │ Wu-Suns in│ │ │ │ │ Chinese │ │ │ │ │ Turkestan │ │ │ │ │ and │ │ │ │ │ Ting-Ling │ │ │ │ │ in │ │ │ │ │ Siberia. │ │ │ │ │ Ts’in │ │12.│300–200 │ │ dynasty │ │ │ │ │ (255–209) │ │ │ │ │ resist │ │ │ │ │ Nomads and│ │ │ │ │ secure │ │ │ │ │ China │ │ │ │ │ against │ │ │ │ │ them by │ │ │ │ │ building │ │ │ │ │ the Great │ │ │ │ │ Wall. │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │13.│200–100 │Nordic Alans in Sogdiana. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │Kian-Kuan in│ │ │ │ │ Turkestan.│ │ │ │ │ Hiung-nu, │ │ │ │ │ turned │ │ │ │ │ westward, │ │ │ │ │ drove the │ │ │ │ │ Wu-sun │ │ │ │ │ into the │ │ │ │ │ mountains │ │ │ │ │ about Ili │ │ │ │ │ and the │ │ │ │ │ great │ │ │ │ │ Yue-chih │ │ │ │ │ into the │ │ │ │ │ Tarim │ │ │ │ │ basin. │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │100 to │ │ │ │14.│ Christian│ │ │ │ │ Era │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ ├───┼───────────┼─────────────┼────────────┤ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │15.│ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ └───┴───────────┴─────────────┴────────────┘

These incoming Nordics intermarried with the native populations and were gradually bred out and the resurgence of the old native stock, chiefly Alpine, has proceeded steadily since the Frankish Charlemagne destroyed the Lombard kingdom and is proceeding with unabated vigor to-day. This process was greatly accelerated in western Europe by the Crusades, which were extremely destructive to the Nordic feudal lords, especially the Frankish and Norman nobility and was continued by the wars of the Reformation and by those of the Revolution. The world war now in full swing with its toll of millions will leave Europe much poorer in Nordic blood. One of its most certain results will be the partial destruction of the aristocratic classes everywhere in northern Europe. In England the nobility has already suffered in battle more than in any century since the Wars of the Roses. This will tend to realize the standardization of type so dear to democratic ideals. If equality cannot be obtained by lengthening and uplifting the stunted of body and of mind, it can be at least realized by the destruction of the exalted of stature and of soul. The bed of Procrustes operates with the same fatal exactness when it shortens the long as when it stretches the undersized.

The first Nordics in Spain were the Gauls who crossed the western Pyrenees about the end of the sixth century before our era and introduced Aryan speech into the Iberian Peninsula. They quickly mixed with Mediterranean natives and the composite Spaniards were called Celtiberians by the Romans.

In Portugal and Spain there are in the physical structure of the population few traces of these early Celtic-speaking Nordic invaders but the Suevi, who a thousand years later occupied parts of Portugal, and the Vandals and Visigoths, who conquered and held Spain for 300 years, have left some small evidence of their blood. In the provinces of northern Spain a considerable percentage of light colored eyes reveals these Nordic elements in the population.

Deep seated Castilian traditions associate aristocracy with blondness and the _sangre azul_, or blue blood of Spain, probably refers to the blue eye of the Goth, whose traditional claim to lordship is also shown in the Spanish name for gentleman, “hidalgo,” said to mean “the son of the Goth.” The fact that the blood shows as “blue” through the fair Nordic skin is also to be taken into account.

As long as this Gothic nobility controlled the Spanish states during the endless crusades against the Moors, Spain belonged to the Nordic kingdoms, but when their blood became impaired by losses in wars waged outside of Spain and in the conquest of the Americas, the sceptre fell from this noble race into the hands of the native Iberian, who had not the physical vigor or the intellectual strength to maintain the world empire built up by the stronger race. For 200 years the Spanish infantry had no equal in Europe but this distinction disappeared with the opening decades of the seventeenth century.

The splendid conquistadores of the New World were of Nordic type, but their pure stock did not long survive their new surroundings and to-day they have vanished utterly, leaving behind them only their language and their religion. After considering well these facts we shall not have to search further for the causes of the collapse of Spain.

Gaul at the time of Cæsar’s conquest was under the rule of the Nordic race, which furnished the bulk of the population of the north as well as the military classes elsewhere and, while the Romans killed off an undue proportion of this fighting element, the power and vigor of the French nation have been based on this blood and its later reinforcements. In fact, in the Europe of to-day the amount of Nordic blood in each nation is a very fair measure of its strength in war and standing in civilization. The proportion of men of pure type of each constituent race to the mixed type is also a powerful factor.

When, about 1000 B. C., the first Nordics crossed the lower Rhine they found the Mediterranean race in France everywhere overwhelmed by an Alpine population except in the south. Long before the time of Cæsar the Celtic language of these invaders had been imposed upon the entire population and the country had been saturated with Nordic blood, except in Aquitaine which seems to have retained until at least that date its Anaryan Iberian speech. These earliest Nordics in the west were known to the ancient world as Gauls. These Gauls, or “Celts,” as they were called by Cæsar, occupied in his day the centre of France. The actual racial complexion of this part of France was overwhelmingly Alpine then and is so now, but this population had been Celticized thoroughly by the Gauls, just as it was Latinized as completely at a later date by the Romans.

The northern third of France, that is above Paris, was inhabited in Cæsar’s time by the Belgæ, a Nordic people of the Cymric division of Celtic speech. They were largely of Teutonic blood and in fact should be regarded as the immediate forerunners of the Germans. They probably represent the early Teutons who had crossed from Sweden and adopted the Celtic speech of their Nordic kindred whom they found on the mainland. These Belgæ had followed the earlier Goidels across Germany into Britain and Gaul and were rapidly displacing their Nordic predecessors, who by this time were much weakened by mixture with the autochthones, when Rome appeared upon the scene and set a limit to their conquests by the Pax Romana.

The Belgæ of the north of France and the Low Countries were the bravest of the peoples of Gaul, according to Cæsar’s oft-quoted remark, but the claim of the modern Belgians to descent from this race is without basis and rests solely on the fact that the present kingdom of Belgium, which only became independent and assumed its proud name in 1831, occupies a small and relatively unimportant corner of the land of the Belgæ. The Flemings of Belgium are Nordic Franks speaking a Low German tongue and the Walloons are Alpines whose language is an archaic French.

The Belgæ and the Goidelic remnants of Nordic blood in the centre of Gaul taken together probably constituted only a small minority in blood of the population, but were everywhere the military and ruling classes. These Nordic elements were later reinforced by powerful Teutonic tribes, namely, Vandals, Visigoths, Alans, Saxons, Burgundians and, most important of all, the Franks of the lower Rhine, who founded modern France and made it for long centuries “_la grande nation_” of Christendom.

The Frankish dynasties long after Charlemagne were of purely Teutonic blood and the aristocratic land owning and military classes down to the great Revolution were very largely of this type, which by the time of the creation of the Frankish kingdom had incorporated all the other Nordic elements of old Roman Gaul, both Gaulish and Belgic.

The last invasion of Teutonic-speaking barbarians was that of the Danish Northmen, who were, of course, of unmixed Nordic blood and who conquered and settled Normandy in 911 A. D. No sooner had the barbarian invasions ceased than the ancient aboriginal blood strains, Mediterranean, Alpine and elements derived from Paleolithic times, began a slow and steady recovery. Step by step with the reappearance of these primitive and deep rooted stocks the Nordic element in France declined and with it the vigor of the nation. Even in Normandy the Alpines now tend to predominate and the French blonds are becoming more and more limited to the northeastern and eastern provinces.

The chief historic events of the last thousand years have hastened this process and the fact that the Nordic element everywhere forms the fighting section of the community caused the loss in war to fall disproportionately as among the three races in France. The religious wars greatly weakened the Nordic provincial nobility, which was before the Massacre of St. Bartholomew largely Protestant and the extermination of the upper classes was hastened by the Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars. These last wars are said to have shortened the stature of the French by four inches; in other words, the tall Nordic strain was killed off in greater proportions than the little brunet.

When by universal suffrage the transfer of power was completed from a Nordic aristocracy to lower classes predominantly of Alpine and Mediterranean extraction, the decline of France in international power set in. In the country as a whole, the long skulled Mediterraneans are also yielding rapidly to the round skulled Alpines and the average of the cephalic index in France has steadily risen since the Middle Ages and is still rising.

The survivors of the aristocracy, being stripped of political power and to a large extent of wealth, quickly lost their caste pride and committed class suicide by mixing their blood with inferior breeds. One of the most conspicuous features of some of the French nobility of to-day is the strength of Oriental and Mediterranean strains in them. Being for political reasons ardently clerical the nobility welcomes recruits of any racial origin as long as they bring with them money and devotion to the Church.

The loss in war of the best stock through death, wounds or absence from home has been clearly shown in France. The conscripts who were examined for military duty in 1890–2 were those descended in a large measure from the military rejects and other stay-at-homes during the Franco-Prussian War. In Dordogne this contingent showed seven per cent more deficient statures than the normal rate. In some cantons this unfortunate generation was in height an inch below the recruits of preceding years and in it the exemptions for defective physique rose from the normal six per cent to sixteen per cent.

When each generation is decimated or destroyed in turn a race can be injured beyond recovery but it more frequently happens that the result is the annihilation of an entire class, as in the case of the German gentry in the Thirty Years’ War. Desolation of wide districts often resulted from the plagues and famines which followed the armies in old days but deaths from these causes fall most heavily on the weaker part of the population. The loss of valuable breeding stock is far more serious when wars are fought with volunteer armies of picked men than with conscript armies, because in the latter cases the loss is more evenly spread over the whole nation. Before England resorted in the present war to universal conscription the injury to her more desirable and patriotic classes was much more pronounced than in Germany where all types and ranks were called to arms.

In the British Isles we find, before the appearance of the Nordic race, a Mediterranean population and no important element of Alpine blood, so that at the present day we have to deal with only two of the main races instead of all three as in France. In Britain there were, as elsewhere, representatives of earlier races but the preponderant strain of blood was Mediterranean before the first arrival of the Aryan-speaking Nordics.

Ireland was connected with Britain and Britain with the continent until times very recent in a geological sense. The depression of the Channel coasts is progressing rapidly to-day and is known to have been substantial during historic times. The close parallel in blood and culture between England and the opposite coasts of France also indicates a very recent land connection, possibly in early Neolithic times. Men either walked from the continent to England and from England to Ireland, or they paddled across in primitive boats or coracles. The art of ship-building or even archaic navigation cannot go much further back than late Neolithic times.

The Nordic tribes of Celtic speech came to the British Isles in two distinct waves. The earlier invasion of the Goidels, who were still in the Bronze culture, arrived in England about 800 B. C. and in Ireland two centuries later. It was part of the same movement which brought the Gauls into France. The later conquest was by the Cymric-speaking Belgæ who were equipped with iron weapons. It began in the third century B. C. and was still going on in Cæsar’s time. These Cymric Brythons found the early Goidels, with the exception of the aristocracy, much weakened by intermixture with the Mediterranean natives and would probably have destroyed all trace of Goidelic speech in Ireland and Scotland, as they actually did in England, if the Romans had not intervened. The Brythons reached Ireland in small numbers only in the second century B. C.

These Nordic elements in Britain, both Goidelic and Brythonic, were in a minority during Roman times and the ethnic complexion of the island was not much affected by the Roman occupation, as the legions stationed there represented the varied racial stocks of the Empire.

After the Romans abandoned Britain and about 400 A. D., floods of pure Nordics poured into the islands for nearly six centuries, arriving in the north as the Norse pirates, who made Scotland Scandinavian, and in the east as Saxons and Angles, who founded England.

The Angles came from somewhere in central Jutland and the Saxons came from coast lands immediately at the base of the Danish Peninsula. All these districts were then and are now almost purely Teutonic; in fact, this is part of old Saxony and is to-day the core of Teutonic Germany.

These Saxon districts sent out at that time swarms of invaders not only into England but into France and over the Alps into Italy, just as at a much later period the same land sent swarming colonies into Hungary and Russia.

The same Saxon invaders passed down the Channel coasts and traces of their settlement on the mainland remain to this day in the Cotentin district around Cherbourg. Scandinavian sea peoples called Danes or Northmen swarmed over as late as 900 A. D. and conquered all eastern England. This Danish invasion of England was the same that brought the Northmen or Normans into France. In fact the occupation of Normandy was probably by Danes and the conquest of England was largely the work of Norsemen, as Norway at that time was under Danish kings.

Both of these invasions, especially the later, swept around the greater island and inundated Ireland, driving both the Neolithic aborigines and their Celtic-speaking masters into the bogs and islands of the west.

The blond Nordic element to-day is very marked in Ireland as in England. It is derived, to some extent, from the early invaders of Celtic speech, but the Goidelic element has been very largely absorbed in Ireland as in western England and in Scotland by the Iberian substratum of the population and is found to-day rather in the form of Nordic characters in brunets than in the entirely blond individuals who represent later and purer Nordic strains.

The figures for recruits taken some decades ago in the two countries would indicate that the Irish as a whole are considerably lighter in eye and darker in hair color than are the English. The combination of black Iberian hair with blue or gray Nordic eyes is frequently found in Ireland and also in Spain and in both these countries is justly admired for its beauty, but it is by no means an exclusively Irish type.

The tall, blond Irishmen are to-day chiefly Danish with the addition of English, Norman and Scotch elements, which have poured into the lesser island for a thousand years and have imposed the English speech upon it. The more primitive and ancient elements in Ireland have always shown great ability to absorb newcomers and during the Middle Ages it was notorious that the Norman and English colonists quickly sank to the cultural level of the natives.

In spite of the fact that Paleoliths have not been found there some indications of Paleolithic man appear in Ireland both as single characters and as individuals. Being, like Brittany, situated on the extreme western outposts of Eurasia, it has more than its share of generalized and low types surviving in the living populations and these types, the Firbolgs, have imparted a distinct and very undesirable aspect to a large portion of the inhabitants of the west and south and have greatly lowered the intellectual status of the population as a whole. The cross between these elements and the Nordics appears to be a bad one and the mental and cultural traits of the aborigines have proved to be exceedingly persistent and appear especially in the unstable temperament and the lack of coordinating and reasoning power, so often found among the Irish. To the dominance of the Mediterraneans mixed with Pre-Neolithic survivals in the south and west are to be attributed the aloofness of the island from the general trend of European civilization and its long adherence to ancient forms of religion and even to Pre-Christian superstitions.

In England, the same two ethnic elements are present, namely the Nordic and the Mediterranean. There is, especially in Wales and in the west central counties of England, a large substratum of ancient Mediterranean blood but the later Nordic elements are everywhere superimposed upon it.

Scotland is by race Anglian in the Lowlands and Norse in the Highlands with underlying Goidelic and Brythonic elements, which are exceedingly hard to identify. The Mediterranean strain is marked in the Highlands and is frequently associated with tall stature.

This brunetness in Scotland is, of course, derived from the same underlying Mediterranean stock which we have found elsewhere in the British Islands.

The inhabitants of Scotland before the arrival of the Celtic-speaking Nordics seem to have been the Picts, whose language was almost surely Non-Aryan. Judging from the remnants of Anaryan syntax in the Goidelic and to a lesser degree in the Cymric languages, Pictish was related to the Anaryan Berber tongues still spoken in North Africa. No trace of this Pre-Aryan syntax is found in English.

Where one race imposes a new language on another, the change is most marked in the vocabulary while the ancient usage in syntax or the construction of sentences is the more apt to survive and these ancient forms often give us a valuable clew to the aboriginal speech. This same Anaryan syntax is particularly marked in the Irish language, a condition which fits in with the other Pre-Aryan usages and types found there.

This divergence between the new vocabulary and the ancient habits of syntax is probably one of the causes of the extreme splitting up of the various branches of the Aryan mother tongue.

Wales, like western Ireland, is a museum of racial antiquities and being an unattractive and poor country has exported men rather than received immigration, while such invasions as did arrive came with spent force.

The mass of the population of Wales especially in the upland or moorland districts is Mediterranean, with a considerable addition of Paleolithic remnants. With changing social and industrial conditions these Neolithic Mediterraneans are pushing into the valleys or towns with a resultant replacement of the Nordic types.

Recent and intensive investigations reveal everywhere in Wales distinct physical types living side by side or in adjoining villages unchanged and unchangeable throughout the centuries. Extensive blending has not taken place though much crossing has occurred and the persistence of the skull shape has been particularly marked. Such individuals as are of pure Nordic type are generally members of the old county families and land owning class.

As to language in Wales, the Cymric is everywhere spoken in various dialects, but there are indications of the ancient underlying Goidelic. In fact, Brythonic or Cymric may not have reached Wales much before the Roman conquest of Britain. The earlier Goidelic survived in parts of Wales as late as the seventh century but by the eleventh century all consciousness of race and linguistic distinctions had disappeared in the common name of Cymry. This name should perhaps be limited to the Brythons of England and not used for their kindred on the Continent.