Chapter X: Part 10

[76] So many cattle were raised that Father Gaspar de San Agustin, when speaking of Dumangas, says: "In this convent we have a large ranch for the larger cattle, of so many cows that they have at times numbered more than thirty, thousand ... and likewise this ranch contains many fine horses."--_Rizal_.

[77] To the flesh of this fowl, called in Tagal _ulikba_, are attributed medicinal virtues.--_Rizal_.

[78] These animals now [1890] exist in the islands, but are held in small esteem.--_Rizal_.

[79] See chapter on the mammals of the islands, in _Report_ of U. S. Philippine Commission, 1900, iii, pp. 307-312. At its end is the statement that but one species of monkey is known, and one other is reported, to exist in the Philippines; and that "the various other species of monkey which have been assigned to the Philippines by different authors are myths pure and simple."

[80] _Camalote_, for _gamalote_, a plant like maize, with a leaf a yard long and an inch wide. This plant grows to a height of two yards and a half, and when green serves for food for horses (Caballero's _Dictionary_, Madrid, 1856).--_Stanley_.

At that time the name for _zacate_ (hay).--_Rizal_.

[81] In Japanese _fimbari_, larks (Medhurst's _Japanese Vocabulary_).--_Stanley_.

[82] _Pogos_, from the Tagal pugo.--_Rizal_.

Delgado (_ut supra_) describes the pogos as certain small gray birds, very similar to the sparrows in Spain. They are very greedy, and if undisturbed would totally destroy the rice-fields. Their scientific name is _Excalfactoria chinensis_ (Linn.).

[83] Stanley conjectures that this word is a misprint for _maynelas_, a diminutive of _maina_, a talking bird. Delgado (_ut supra_) describes a bird called _maya_ (_Munia jagori_--Cab.; _Ploceus baya_--Blyth.; and _Ploceus hypoxantha_--Tand.), which resembles the pogo, being smaller and of a cinnamon color, which pipes and has an agreeable song.

[84] Stanley translates this as "wild ducks." Delgado (_ut supra_) describes a bird called _lapay_ (_Dendrocygna vagans_--Eyton.), as similar to the duck in body, but with larger feet, which always lives in the water, and whose flesh is edible.

[85] For descriptions of the birds in the Philippines, see Delgado (_ut supra_) book v, part i, 1st treatise, pp. 813-853; _Report_ of U.S. Philippine Commission, 1900, iii, pp. 312-316; and _Gazetteer of the Philippine Islands_ (Washington, 1902), pp. 170, 171. There are more than five hundred and ninety species of birds in the islands, of which three hundred and twenty-five are peculiar to the archipelago, and largely land birds. There are thirty-five varieties of doves and pigeons, all edible.

[86] There are now domestic rabbits, and plenty of peacocks.--_Rizal_.

[87] Doubtless the python, which is often domesticated in the Philippines. See _Vol_. XII, p. 259, note 73.

[88] La Gironiere (_Twenty Years in the Philippines_--trans. from French, London, 1853) describes an interesting fight with a huge crocodile near his settlement of Jala-Jala. The natives begged for the flesh in order to dry it and use it as a specific against asthma, as they believed that any asthmatic person who lived on the flesh for a certain time would be infallibly cured. Another native wished the fat as an antidote for rheumatic pain. The head of this huge reptile was presented to an American, who in turn presented it to the Boston Museum. Unfortunately La Gironiere's picturesque descriptions must often be taken with a grain of salt. For some information regarding the reptiles of the islands see _Report_ of U.S. Philippine Commission, 1900, iii, pp. 317-319.

[89] Unless we are mistaken, there is a fish in the Filipinas called _Pampano_.--_Rizal_.

[90] For catalogue and scientific description of the mollusks of the Philippines, see the work of Joaquin Gonzalez Hidalgo--now (1904) in course of publication by the Real Academia de Ciencias of Madrid--_Estudios preliminares sobre la fauna malacologica de las Islas Filipinas._

[91] The Rio Grande.--_Rizal_.

[92] No fish is known answering to this description.--_Stanley_.

[93] The island of Talim.--_Rizal_.

[94] Retana thinks (Zuniga, ii, p. 545*) that this device was introduced among the Filipinos by the Borneans.

[95] A species of fishing-net. Stanley's conjecture is wrong.

[96] _Esparavel_ is a round fishing-net, which is jerked along by the fisher through rivers and shallow places. _Barredera_ is a net of which the meshes are closer and tighter than those of common nets, so that the smallest fish may not escape it.

[97] Cf. methods of fishing of North American Indians, _Jesuit Relations_, vi, pp. 309-311, liv, pp. 131, 306-307.

[98] A species of fish in the Mediterranean, about three pulgadas [inches] long. Its color is silver, lightly specked with black.

[99] The fish now called _lawlaw_ is the dry, salted sardine. The author evidently alludes to the _tawilis_ of Batangas, or to the _dilis_, which is still smaller, and is used as a staple by the natives.--_Rizal_.

For information regarding the fishes of the Philippines, see Delgado (_ut supra_), book v, part iv, pp. 909-943; _Gazetteer of the Philippine Islands_ (_ut supra_), pp. 171-172; and (with description of methods of fishing) _Report_ of U. S. Philippine Commission, 1900, iii, pp. 319-324.

[100] Paho. A species of very small mango from one and one-half to five centimeters in its longer diameter. It has a soft pit, and exhales a strong pitchy odor.--_Rizal_.

[101] A Spanish word signifying a cryptogamous plant; perhaps referring to some species of mushroom.

[102] In Tagal this is kasubha. It comes from the Sanskrit _kasumbha_, or Malay _kasumba_ (Pardo de Tavera's _El Sanscrito en la lengua tagalog_).--_Rizal_.

This plant is the safflower or bastard saffron (_Certhamus tinctorius_); its flowers are used in making a red dye.

[103] Not a tree, but a climber. The plants are cultivated by training them about some canes planted in the middle of certain little channels which serve to convey irrigation to the plant twice each day. A plantation of betel--or ikmo, as the Tagals call it--much resembles a German hop-garden.--_Rizal_.

[104] This fruit is not that of the betel or _buyo_, but of the _bonga_ (Tagal _bunga_), or areca palm.--_Rizal_.

[105] Not quicklime, but well slaked lime.--_Rizal_.

Rizal misprints _un poco de cal viva_ for _vn poluc de cal viua_.

[106] The original word is _marcada_. Rizal is probably correct in regarding it as a misprint for _mascada_, chewed.

[107] It is not clear who call these caskets by that name. I imagine it to be the Spanish name, properly spelt _buxeta_. The king of Calicut's betel box is called _buxen_ in the Barcelona MS. of the Malabar coasts.--_Stanley_.

[108] See _Vol_. IV, p. 222, note 31; also Delgado (_ut supra_), pp. 667-669. Delgado says that _bonga_ signifies fruit.

[109] Tagal, _tuko_.--_Rizal_.

[110] This word in the original is _visitandolas_; Rizal makes it _irritandolas_ (shaking or irritating them), but there are not sufficient grounds for the change.

[111] The Indians, upon seeing that wealth excited the rapacity of the encomenderos and soldiers, abandoned the working of the mines, and the religious historians assert that they counseled them to a similar action in order to free them from annoyances. Nevertheless, according to Colin (who was "informed by well-disposed natives") more than 100,000 pesos of gold annually, conservatively stated, was taken from the mines during his time, after eighty years of abandonment. According to "a manuscript of a grave person who had lived long in these islands" the first tribute of the two provinces of Ilocos and Pangasinan alone amounted to 109,500 pesos. A single encomendero, in 1587, sent 3,000 taheles of gold in the "Santa Ana," which was captured by Cavendish.--_Rizal_.

[112] This was prohibited later.--_Rizal_.

[113] See _Vol_. XIV, pp. 301-304.

According to Hernando de los Rios the province of Pangasinan was said to contain a quantity of gold, and that Guido de Labazaris sent some soldiers to search for it; but they returned in a sickly state and suppressed all knowledge of the mines in order not to be sent back there. The Dominican monks also suppressed all knowledge of the mines on account of the tyranny of which gold had been the cause in the West Indies.--_Stanley_.

[114] Pearl-fishing is still carried on along the coasts of Mindanao and Palawan, and in the Sulu archipelago. In the latter region pearls are very abundant and often valuable; the fisheries there are under the control of the sultan of Sulu, who rents them, appropriating for himself the largest pearls.

[115] Probably the cowry (_Cypraea moneta_). Crawfurd states (_Dict. Ind. Islands_, p. 117) that in the Asiatic archipelago this shell is found only on the shores of the Sulu group, and that it "seems never to have been used for money among the Indian Islanders as it has immemorially been by the Hindus."

[116] Jagor, _Travels in the Philippines_ (Eng. trans., London, 1875), devotes a portion of his chapter xv to these jars. He mentions the great prices paid by the Japanese for these vessels. On p. 164, occurs a translation of the above paragraph, but it has been mistranslated in two places. Stanley cites the similar jars found among the Dyaks of Borneo--the best called _gusih_--which were valued at from $1,500 to $3,000, while the second grade were sold for $400. That they are very ancient is proved by one found among other remains of probably the copper age. From the fact that they have been found in Cambodia, Siam, Cochinchina, and the Philippines, Rizal conjectures that the peoples of these countries may have had a common center of civilization at one time.

[117] "Not many years ago," says Colin (1663), "a large piece [of ambergris] was found in the island of Jolo, that weighed more than eight arrobas, of the best kind, namely, the gray."--_Rizal_.

[118] This industry must now be forgotten, for it is never heard of.--_Rizal_.

[119] Perhaps Morga alludes to the _sinamay_, which was woven from abaka, or filament of the plant _Musa textilis_. The abaka is taken from the trunk and not the leaf.--_Rizal_.

[120] This name seems to be Malay, _Babu-utan_, wild swine.--_Stanley_.

[121] The men of these islands were excellent carpenters and ship-builders. "They make many very light vessels, which they take through the vicinity for sale in a very curious manner. They build a large vessel, undecked, without iron nail or any fastening. Then, according to the measure of its hull, they make another vessel that fits into it. Within that they put a second and a third. Thus a large biroco contains ten or twelve vessels, called biroco, virey, barangay, and binitan." These natives were "tattooed, and were excellent rowers and sailors; and although they are upset often, they never drown." The women are very masculine. "They do not drink from the rivers, although the water is very clear, because it gives them nausea.... The women's costumes are chaste and pretty, for they wear petticoats in the Bisayan manner, of fine medrinaque, and _lamboncillos_, which resemble close-fitting sayuelos [_i.e._, woolen shifts worn by certain classes of religious]. They wear long robes of the same fine medrinaque. They gather the hair, which is neatly combed, into a knot, on top of the head, and place a rose in it. On their forehead they wear a band of very fine wrought gold, two fingers wide. It is very neatly worked and on the side encircling the head it is covered with colored taffeta. In each ear they wear three gold earrings, one in the place where Spanish women wear them, and two higher up. On their feet they wear certain coverings of thin brass, which sound when they walk." (The citations herein are from Colin.) These islands have also retrograded.--_Rizal_.

[122] Cavite derives its name from the Tagal word _cavit_, a creek, or bend, or hook, for such is its form.--_Stanley_.

[123] This province had decreased so greatly in population and agriculture, a half century later, that Gaspar de San Agustin said: "Now it no longer has the population of the past, because of the insurrection of that province, when Don Sabiniano Manrique de Lara was governor of these islands, and because of the incessant cutting of the timber for the building of his Majesty's ships, which prevents them from cultivating their extremely fertile plain." Later, when speaking of Guagua or Wawa, he says: "This town was formerly very wealthy because of its many chiefs, and because of the abundant harvests gathered in its spacious plains, which are now submerged by the water of the sea."--_Rizal_.

[124] Now the port of Sorsogon.--_Rizal_.

[125] Now the port of Mariveles (?).--_Rizal_.

[126] Subik (?).--_Rizal_.

[127] Mindoro is at present [1890] so depopulated that the minister of the Colonies, in order to remedy this result of Spanish colonization, wishes to send there the worst desperadoes of the peninsula, to see if great criminals will make good colonists and farmers. All things considered, given the condition of those who go, it is indubitable that the race that succeeds must know how to defend itself and live, so that the island may not be depopulated again.--_Rizal_.

[128] Samar. This proves contrary to the opinion of Colin, who places Tendaya in Leite.--_Rizal_.

[129] Southeastern part of Samar.--_Rizal_.

[130] Colin says, however, that they did tattoo the chins and about the eyes [_barbas y cejas_]. The same author states also that the tattooing was done little by little and not all at once. "The children were not tattooed, but the women tattooed one hand and part of the other. In this island of Manila the Ilocos also tattooed themselves, although not so much as did the Visayans." The Negritos, Igorrotes, and other independent tribes of the Filipinas still tattoo themselves. The Christians have forgotten the practice. The Filipinas used only the black color, thus differing from the Japanese, who employ different colors, as red and blue, and carry the art to a rare perfection. In other islands of the Pacific, the women tattoo themselves almost as much as the men. Dr. Wilhelm Joest's _Taetowiren Narbenzeichnen und Koerperbemahlen_ (Berlin, 1887) treats the matter very succinctly.--_Rizal_.

[131] This is a confused statement, after what just precedes it and according to the evidence of Father Chirino (see _Vol_. XII, chapter vii). Morga must mean that they wore no cloak or covering when they went outside the house, as did the Tagals (both men and women), who used a kind of cape.--_Rizal_. [This is the sense in which Stanley understood and translated this passage.]

[132] _Gubat_, grove, field, in Tagal. _Mangubat_ [so printed in the text of Rizal's edition] signifies in Tagal "to go hunting, or to the wood," or even "to fight."--_Rizal_.

[133] "At the arrival of the Spaniards at this island (Panay)" says San Agustin, "it was said to have more than 50,000 families. But they decreased greatly ... and at present it has about 14,000 tributarios--6,000 apportioned to the crown, and 8,000 to individual encomenderos." They had many gold-mines, and obtained gold by washing the sand in the Panay River; "but instigated by the outrages received from the alcaldes-mayor," says the same historian, "they have ceased to dig it, preferring to live in poverty than to endure such troubles."--_Rizal_.

[134] This entire paragraph is omitted in the Rizal edition. In the original it is as follows:

_La Lengua de todos, los Pintados y Bicayas, es vna mesma, por do se entienden, hablando y escriuiendo, en letras y caratores que tienen particulares, que semejan a los Arabigos, y su comun escribir entre los naturales, es en hojas de arboles, y en canas, sobre la corteza; que en todas las islas ay muchas, de disforme grueso los canutos, y el pie es vn arbol muy grueso y macico_.

[135] This difference is no greater than that between the Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian.--_Rizal_.

[136] See Chirino (_Relacion de las islas Filipinas_) _Vol_. XII, chapters xv-xvii. His remarks, those of Morga, and those of other historians argue a considerable amount of culture among the Filipino peoples prior to the Spanish conquest. A variety of opinions have been expressed as to the direction of the writing. Chirino, San Antonio, Zuniga, and Le Gentil, say that it was vertical, beginning at the top. Colin, Ezguerra, and Marche assert that it was vertical but in the opposite direction. Colin says that the horizontal form was adopted after the arrival of the Spaniards. Mas declares that it was horizontal and from left to right, basing his arguments upon certain documents in the Augustinian archives in Manila. The eminent Filipino scholar, Dr. T. H. Pardo de Tavera has treated the subject in a work entitled "_Contribucion para el estudio de los antiguos alfabetos filipinos_" (Losana, 1884). See Rizal's notes on p. 291 of his edition of Morga.

[137] This portion of this sentence is omitted in Stanley.

[138] Bahay is "house" in Tagal; _pamamahay_ is that which is in the interior and the house. _Bahandin_ may be a misprint for _bahayin_, an obsolete derivative.--_Rizal_.

[139] Cf. this and following sections with Loarca's relation, _Vol_. V, of this series; and with Plasencia's account, _Vol_. VII, pp. 173-196.

[140] Timawa.--_Rizal_.

[141] The condition of these slaves was not always a melancholy one. Argensola says that they ate at the same table with their masters, and married into their families. The histories fail to record the assassination for motives of vengeance of any master or chief by the natives, as they do of encomenderos. After the conquest the evil deepened. The Spaniards made slaves without these pretexts, and without those enslaved being Indians of their jurisdiction--going moreover, to take them away from their own villages and islands. Fernando de los Rios Coronel, in his memorial to the king (Madrid, 1621) pp. 24-25, speaks in scathing terms of the cruelties inflicted on the natives in the construction of ships during the governorship of Juan de Silva. A letter from Felipe II to Bishop Domingo de Salazar shows the awful tyranny exercised by the encomenderos upon the natives, whose condition was worse than that of slaves.--_Rizal_.

[142] For remarks on the customs formerly observed by the natives of Pampanga in their suits, see appendix to this volume.

[143] This fundamental agreement of laws, and this general uniformity, prove that the mutual relations of the islands were widespread, and the bonds of friendship more frequent than were wars and quarrels. There may have existed a confederation, since we know from the first Spaniards that the chief of Manila was commander-in-chief of the sultan of Borneo. In addition, documents of the twelfth century that exist testify the same thing.--_Rizal_.

[144] This word must be _sagigilid_ in its Tagal form. The root _gilid_ signifies in Tagal, "margin," "strand," or "shore." The reduplication of the first syllable, if tonic, signifies active future action. If not tonic and the suffix _an_ be added, it denotes the place where the action of the verb is frequently executed. The preposition _sa_ indicates place, time, reference. The atonic reduplication may also signify plurality, in which case the singular noun would be _sagilid_, _i.e._, "at the margin," or "the last"--that is, the slave. Timawa signifies now in Tagal, "in peace, in quietness, tranquil, free," etc. _Maginoo_, from the root _ginoo_, "dignity," is now the title of the chiefs; and the chief's reunion is styled _kaginoohan_. Colin says, nevertheless, that the Chiefs used the title _gat_ or _lakan_, and the women _dayang_. The title of _mama_ applied now to men, corresponds to "uncle," "Senor," "Monsieur," "Mr.," etc.; and the title _al_ of women to the feminine titles corresponding to these.--_Rizal_.

[145] _Namamahay_ (from _bahay_, "house"), "he who lives in his own house." This class of slaves, if they may be so called, exists even yet. They are called _kasama_ (because of being now the laborers of a capitalist or farmer), _bataan_ ("servant," or "domestic"), _kampon, tao_, etc.

[146] This class of slavery still exists [1890] in many districts, especially in the province of Batangas; but it must be admitted that their condition is quite different from that of the slave in Greece or Rome, or that of the negro, and even of those made slaves formerly by the Spaniards. Thanks to their social condition and to their number in that time, the Spanish domination met very little resistance, while the Filipino chiefs easily lost their independence and liberty. The people, accustomed to the yoke, did not defend the chiefs from the invader, nor attempt to struggle for liberties that they never enjoyed. For the people, it was only a change of masters. The nobles, accustomed to tyrannize by force, had to accept the foreign tyranny, when it showed itself stronger than their own. Not encountering love or elevated feelings in the enslaved mass, they found themselves without force or power.--_Rizal_.

[147] _Inasawa_, or more correctly _asawa_ (consort).--_Rizal_.

[148] This dowry, if one may call it so, represented to the parents an indemnity for the care and vigilance that they had exercised in their daughter's education. The Filipina woman, never being a burden to any one (either to her parents or to her husband), but quite the contrary, represents a value, whose loss to the possessor must be substituted.... The Tagal wife is free, and treated with consideration; she trades and contracts, almost always with the approbation of her husband, who consults her in all his acts. She takes care of the money, and educates the children, half of whom belong to her...--_Rizal_.

[149] _Bigay-kaya_, "to give what one can," "a voluntary offering, a present of good will" ... This _bigay-kaya_ devolved entire to the married couple, according to Colin, if the son-in-law was obedient to his parents-in-law; if not, it was divided among all the heirs. "Besides the dowry, the chiefs used to give certain gifts to the parents and relatives, and even to the slaves, which were great or less according to the rank of the one married." (Colin).--_Rizal_.

[150] This good custom still exists, ... although it is gradually passing away.--_Rizal_.

[151] Such is the law throughout most parts of Asia; in Siam the woman becomes free without having children. It is only in America that fathers could and did sell their own children into slavery.--_Stanley_.

[152] This condition of affairs and the collection of usury is true still [1890]. Morga's words prove true not only of the Indian, but also of the mestizos, the Spaniards, and even of various religious. So far has it gone that the government itself not only permits it, but also exacts the capital and even the person to pay the debts of others, as happens with the _cabeza de barangay_ [head of a barangay].--_Rizal_.

[153] The _tam-tam_ and the _pum-piang_ are still used.--_Rizal_.

[154] The early Filipinos had a great horror of theft, and even the most anti-Filipino historian could not accuse them of being a thievish race. Today, however, they have lost their horror of that crime. One of the old Filipino methods of investigating theft was as follows: "If the crime was proved, but not the criminal, if more than one was suspected ... each suspect was first obliged to place a bundle of cloth, leaves, or whatever he wished on a pile, in which the thing stolen might be hidden. Upon the completion of this investigation if the stolen property was found in the pile, the suit ceased." The Filipinos also practiced customs very similar to the "judgments of God" of the middle ages, such as putting suspected persons, by pairs, under the water and adjudging guilty him who first emerged.--_Rizal_.

[155] The Filipino today prefers a beating to scoldings or insults.--_Rizal_.

[156] From _bago_, new, and _tao_, man: he who has become a man.--_Rizal_.

[157] In speaking of a similar custom in Australia, Eyre (_Central Australia_, i, p. 213), says: "This extraordinary and inexplicable custom must have a great tendency to prevent the rapid increase of the population."--_Stanley_. [Stanley does not translate this paragraph of the text.]

[158] It appears that the natives called _anito_ a tutelary genius, either of the family, or extraneous to it. Now, with their new religious ideas, the Tagals apply the term _anito_ to any superstition, false worship, idol, etc.--_Rizal_.

[159] Others besides Morga mention oratories in caves, where the idols were kept, and where aromatics were burned in small brasiers. Chirino found small temples in Taitay adjoining the principal houses. [See _Vol_. XII. of this series, chapter xxi.] It appears that temples were never dedicated to _bathala maykapal_, nor was sacrifice ever offered him. The temples dedicated to the _anito_ were called ulango.--_Rizal_.

[160] San Agustin says that hell was called _solad_, and paradise, _kalualhatian_ (a name still in existence), and in poetical language, _ulugan_. The blest abodes of the inhabitants of Panay were in the mountain of Madias.--_Rizal_.

[161] Cf. the "wake" of the Celtic and Gaelic peasants. Cf. also the North-American Indian burial ceremonies, and reverence paid to the dead, in _Jesuit Relations_, i, p. 215; ii, pp. 21, 149; viii, p. 21; x, pp. 169, 247, 283-285, 293; xiii, 259; xxi, 199; xxiii, 31; lxv, 141; etc.

In the Filipino burials, there were mourners who composed panegyrics in honor of the dead, like those made today. "To the sound of this sad music the corpse was washed, and perfumed with storax, gum-resin, or other perfumes made from tree gums, which are found in all these woods. Then the corpse was shrouded, being wrapped in more or less cloth according to the rank of the deceased. The bodies of the more wealthy were anointed and embalmed in the manner of the Hebrews, with aromatic liquors, which preserved them from decay.... The burial-place of the poor was in pits dug in the ground under their own houses. After the bodies of the rich and powerful were kept and bewailed for three days, they were placed in a chest or coffin of incorruptible wood, adorned with rich jewels, and with small sheets of gold in the mouth and over the eyes. The coffin was all in one piece, and the lid was so adjusted that no air could enter. Because of these precautions the bodies have been found after many years, still uncorrupted. These coffins were deposited in one of three places, according to the inclination and arrangement of the deceased, either on top of the house among the treasures ... or underneath it, but raised from the ground; or in the ground itself, in an open hole surrounded with a small railing ... nearby they were wont to place another box filled with the best clothes of the deceased; and at meal-time they set various articles of food there in dishes. Beside the men were laid their weapons, and beside the women their looms or other implements of work" (Colin).--_Rizal_.

[162] _Kasis._ This is another instance of the misapplication of this Arabic term, which means exclusively a Christian priest.--_Stanley_.

[163] This custom has not fallen into disuse among the Filipinos, even among the Catholics.--_Rizal_.

Lieutenant Charles Norton Barney, of the medical department of the U. S. Army, has an article in _Journal_ of the Association of Military Surgeons for September, 1903, on "Circumcision and Flagellation among the Filipinos." In regard to circumcision he states that it "is a very ancient custom among the Philippine _indios_, and so generalized that at least seventy or eighty per cent of males in the Tagal country have undergone the operation." Those uncircumcised at the age of puberty are taunted by their fellows, and such are called "_suput_," a word formerly meaning "constricted" or "tight," but now being extended to mean "one who cannot easily gain entrance in sexual intercourse." The "operation has no religious significance," nor is it done for cleanliness, "but from custom and disinclination to be ridiculed," probably [as Morga proves] having been learned from the Moros. The friars were unable to check the custom. Among the Tagals the operation is called "_tuli_," and the method of circumcising is described at length. The author derives his information from a mestizo and a full-blooded native. The custom is mentioned by Foreman.

[164] Appellation given to their ecclesiastical sages by Mahometans.

[165] See the king's decree granting this coat-of-arms, in _Vol_. IX, pp. 211-215, with two representations of the coat-of-arms.

[166] Convents occupy almost one-third part of the walled city.--_Rizal_.

[167] The walls did not even have any moats then; these were dug after the English invasion of 1762. The walls were also rearranged at that time, and perfected with the lapse of time and the needs that arose in the city.--_Rizal_.

[168] Rizal misprints _al cabo del lienco_ as _al campo del lienzo_.

[169] Now [1890] the gates of the city are open all night, and in certain periods, passage along the streets and through the walls is allowed at all hours.--_Rizal_.

[170] This powder-mill has several times changed its site. It was afterward near Maalat on the seashore, and then was moved to Nagtaha, on the bank of the Pasig.--_Rizal_.

[171] Probably on the same site where the great Tagal cannon-foundry had formerly stood, which was burned and destroyed by the Spaniards at their first arrival in Manila. San Agustin declares the Tagal foundry to have been as large as that at Malaga.--_Rizal_.

[172] The Rizal edition omits the words, _muy grande y autorizada, capilla aparte, camara del sello real_.

[173] The treasury building. The governor's palace was destroyed in 1863.--_Rizal_.

[174] The Audiencia and cabildo buildings were also destroyed, but the latter has been rebuilt.--_Rizal_.

[175] The Rizal edition misprints _sacristan_ as _sacristias_.

[176] This is the largest convent in Manila.--_Rizal_.

[177] Among the Jesuits, that part of a college where the pensioners or boarders live and receive their instruction.

[178] This college of San Jose was founded in 1601, although the royal decree for it had been conceded in 1585. The number of collegiates to enter was thirteen, among whom was a nephew of Francisco Tello and a son of Dr. Morga. From its inception Latin was taught there. In a suit with the College of Santo Tomas, the Jesuits obtained a favorable decision; and it was recognized as the older institution, and given the preference in public acts. The historians say that at its inauguration the students wore bonnets covered with diamonds and pearls. At present [1890] this college, after having moved from house to house, has become a school of pharmacy attached to Santo Tomas, and directed by the Dominican rector.--_Rizal_.

[179] After many varying fortunes, this institution has wholly disappeared.--_Rizal_.

[180] The Confraternity of Mercy [_Hermandad de la Misericordia_] was founded in 1594, by an ecclesiastic named Juan Fernandez de Leon.--_Rizal_.

[181] San Juan de Dios [St. John of God].--_Rizal_.

[182] Better, Maalat. The Spaniards pronounced this later Malate. There lived the chief Tagals after they were deprived of their houses in Manila, among whom were the families of Raja Matanda and Raja Soliman. San Augustin says that even in his day many of the ancient nobility dwelt there, and that they where very urbane and cultured. "The Men hold various positions in Manila, and certain occupations in some of the local public functions. The women make excellent lace, in which they are so skilfull that the Dutch women cannot surpass them." This is still true of the women.--_Rizal_.

[183] Now the town of Paco.--_Rizal_.

[184] _Recopilacion de leyes_, lib. ii, tit. xv, ley xi, defines the district of the Audiencia and states certain perogatives of the governor and auditors as follows: "In the city of Manila, in the island of Luzon, capital of the Felipinas, shall reside our royal Audiencia and Chancilleria, with a president who shall be governor and captain-general, four auditors, who shall also be alcaldes of criminal cases, one fiscal, one alguacil-mayor, one lieutenant of the grand chancillor, and the other ministers and officials necessary. It shall have as its district the said island of Luzon, and all the rest of the Filipinas, the archipelago of China and its mainland as yet discovered and to be discovered. We order the governor and captain-general of the said islands and provinces and president of the royal Audiencia in them, to hold personal charge in peace and war of the superior government of all the district of the said Audiencia, and to make the provisions and concessions in our royal name, which in accordance with the laws of this _Recopilacion_ and of these kingdoms of Castilla, and with the instructions and powers that he shall get from us, he should and can make. In things and matters of importance that arise in the government, the said president governor shall discuss them with the auditors of the said Audiencia, so that they, after consulting, may give him their opinion. He, after hearing them, shall take what course is most advisable to the service of God and to ours, and the peace and quiet of that province and community." Felipe II, Aranjuez, May 5, 1583; Toledo, May 25, 1596, in ordinance of the Audiencia; Felipe IV in this _Recopilacion._

[185] The original is _canongias, raciones, y medias raciones_, which literally refers to the office or prebend instead of the individual. We retain the above terms as expressing the persons who held these prebends.

[186] Literaly, the original translates "in the islands of Sebu, Cagayan, and Camerines."

[187] This is so changed now [1890] and the employees so increased in number, that the annual expenses amount to more than 2,000,000 pesos, while the intendant's salary is 12,000 pesos.--_Rizal_.

[188] This city has disapeared from the map and from the earth. An inconsiderable town named Lal-lo occupies its site. It is still [1890], however, named as the appointment of the bishopric of Bigan, the actual residence of the bishop.--_Rizal_.

[189] An attempt was made to supply the lack of prebends in the cathedral cities of the Philippines by the following law: "Inasmuch as the bishops of the churches of Nueva Caceres, Nueva Segovia, and of the Name of Jesus of the Filipinas Islands should have men to assist them in the pontifical acts, and the bishops should have all the propriety possible in their churches, and divine worship more reverence; and inasmuch as there are no tithes with which a few prebendaries can be sustained in the churches: therefore our governor of those islands shall appoint to each of the said churches two ecclesiastics of good life and example, who shall aid and assist the bishop in the pontifical acts, and in all else relating to divine worship. He shall assign them a certain modest sum for their support from our royal treasury, so that with that they may for the present serve the churches, until there be more opportunity for endowing them with prebendaries and providing other necessary things." Felipe III, San Lorenzo, October 5, 1606. _Recopilacion de leyes_, lib. i, tit. vi, ley xviii.

[190] The Rizal edition omits a considerable portion of this paragraph. The omission is as follows: _para guarda del puerto, y defensa de la ciudad, con bastante guarnicion de soldados de paga, a orden del alcalde mayor, capitan a guerra de la prouincia que reside en la ciudad. Sera la poblazon, de dozientos vezinos Espanoles, con casas de madera, tiene Cabildo, de dos alcaldes ordinarios, ocho rejidores, alguazil mayor y sus oficiales_.

[191] Now [1890] of slight importance. Of its former grandeur there remain only 1,000 inhabitants, with a parochial house, a justice's house, a prison, and a primary school.--_Rizal_.

[192] Vigan or Bigan.--_Rizal_.

[193] Legazpi also had two secular priests, Juan de Vivero and Juan de Villanueva, who had part in the first conversions.--_Rizal_.

[194] The Jesuits preceded the Dominicans seven years as missionaries to the Filipinas. The first Jesuits came over with Domingo de Salazar, the first bishop, and his Dominican associate.--_Rizal_.

[195] _Visita_: here meaning a district which has no resident missionary, but is visited by religious from some mission station, on which the visita is therefore dependent.

[196] Cf. with the musical ability of the Filipinos that displayed by the North American Indians, as described in _The Jesuit Relations_, vols. vi, p. 183; xviii, p. 161; xxiii, p. 213; xxvii, p. 117; xxxi, p. 219; xxxviii, pp. 259, 263; etc.

[197] Chirino (chapter vii) mentions the apportionment, by the king, of distinct districts to the different orders. The Augustinian authorities in Mexico granted permission to those of their order going to the Philippines to establish themselves wherever they wished in the islands (see _Vol_. II, pp. 161-168), and the latter exercised the omnimodo [i.e., entire] ecclesiastical authority, as conceded by the popes, until the arrival of the Franciscans in 1577. Papal concessions probably marked out the districts as apportioned by the king.

[198] Morga refers, with his characteristic prudence, to the great question of diocesan visits, which commenced with Fray Domingo de Salazar, and which could not be ended until 1775, in the time of Anda--thanks to the energy of the latter and the courage of Archbishop Don Basilio Sancho de Santa Justa y Rufina, when after great disturbances they succeeded in subjecting the regular curas to the inspection of the bishops. Morga, however, shows that he did not approve the claims of the religious to independence, but does not dare to state so distinctly.--_Rizal_.

[199] The Augustinians received also one-fourth part of the tribute from the villages while they were building churches; and 200 pesos fuertes [_i.e._, ten-real pieces] and 200 cavans [the cavan equals 25 gantas, or 137 Spanish libras] of cleaned rice for four religious who heard confessions during Lent. Fifty cavans of cleaned rice per person seems to us too much. It results that each friar consumes 12 1/2 libras of rice or 27 chupas [the chupa is 1/8 ganta or 3 litros] daily, thirteen times as much as any Indian.--_Rizal_.

[200] _Recopilacion de leyes_, lib. vi, tit. vii, ley xvi, contains the following in regard to the native chiefs: "It is not right that the Indian chiefs of Filipinas be in a worse condition after conversion; rather should they have such treatment that would gain their affection and keep them loyal, so that with the spiritual blessings that God has communicated to them by calling them to His true knowledge, the temporal blessings may be joined, and they may live contentedly and comfortably. Therefore, we order the governors of those islands to show them good treatment and entrust them, in our name, with the government of the Indians, of whom they were formerly the lords. In all else the governors shall see that the chiefs are benefited justly, and the Indians shall pay them something as a recognition, as they did during the period of their paganism, provided it be without prejudice to the tributes that are to be paid us, or prejudicial to that which pertains to their encomenderos." Felipe II, Madrid, June 11, 1594.

[201] The _gobernadorcillo_ ["little or petty governor"].

[202] _Bilango_ signifies today in Tagal "the act of imprisoning," and _bilanguan_ "the prison."--_Rizal_.

[203] For good expositions of local government in modern times, see Bowring, _Visit to the Philippine Isles_ (London, 1859), pp. 87-93; and Montero y Vidal, _Archipielago Filipino_ (Madrid, 1886), pp. 162-168.

[204] These are now [1890] made in Spanish.--_Rizal_.

[205] Names of petty officers: the former the name of an officer in oriental countries; the second signifying one who commands. Dr. T. H. Pardo de Tavera (_Costumbres de los Tagalos_, Madrid, 1892, p. 10, note 1) says the word dato is now unused by the Tagals. _Datu_ or _datuls_ primitively signified "grandfather," or "head of the family," which was equivalent to the head of the barangay. This name is used in Mindanao and Jolo to designate certain chiefs.

[206] A later law in _Recopilacion de leyes_ (lib. vi, tit. viii, ley xi) regulates the encomienda--giving power as follows: "The governor and captain-general of Filipinas shall apportion the encomiendas, in accordance with the regulations to worthy persons, without having other respect than to the service of God our Lord, and our service, the welfare of the public cause, and the remuneration of the most deserving. Within sixty days, reckoned from the time that he shall have heard of the vacancy, he shall be obliged to apportion them. If he does not do so, the right to apportion them shall devolve upon and pertain to our royal Audiencia of those islands, and we order the Audiencia to apportion them, paying heed to the laws, within six days, and to avail itself of the edicts and diligences issued by the governor without other new ones. In case the governor shall not have issued edicts and diligences, the Audiencia shall issue them and make the provision within twenty days." Felipe III, Madrid, June 4, 1620.

[207] The rapidity with which many of these encomenderos amassed great wealth in a few years is known, and that they left colossal fortunes at their death. Some were not satisfied with the tributes and with what they demanded, but made false measures, and balances that weighed twice as much as was indicated. They often exacted the tributes in certain products only, and appraised the same at what value they wished.--_Rizal_.

[208] A law in _Recopilacion de leyes_ (lib. vi, tit. v, ley lxv) cites the above provision and confirms it anew: "In order to provide instruction for certain villages of the Filipinas Islands, which did not enjoy it, or if they had it, it was not sufficient, it was resolved to increase the tribute, which was formerly eight reals, or its value, per peso, to the proportion of ten Castilian reals apiece. It was ordered that the increased amount be placed in our royal treasury, and one-half real of it be applied to paying the obligations which had to be met in regard to the tithes, while the one and one-half reals would remain to pay those soldiers there and for other purposes; in consideration of the fact that the funds necessary to send out religious, who are employed in the preaching of the holy gospel, are supplied from our royal treasury, and that the encomenderos were obliged to pay for the ordinary instruction from the eight reals, and the part of the building of churches that fell to their share, while the Indians had the choice of paying all the tribute in money or in products, or in both. Thus was it enacted and voted. We order no innovation to be made in this regard, in consideration of the welfare and conservation of those provinces and their natives, and so that the choice of paying in money shall not occasion any lack of products and cause sterility." Felipe II, San Lorenzo, August 1589; Felipe III, Zamora, February 16, 1602.

[209] The following law regulates supervision of the accounts of this fund: "Inasmuch as, when any encomienda of the Filipinas Islands happens to be without instruction, the fourth part of the tribute collected by the encomendero is deposited in a box with three keys, in order that it may be converted into benefices for the Indians; and as it is advisable that that ordinance be executed sensibly and properly, and that we should know the amount of it and how it is apportioned: therefore, we order our presidents, the governors of the Filipinas Islands, that whenever they deem it advisable to examine the account, they shall appoint for that purpose one of the officials of our royal treasury of those islands--the one most suitable for it--who shall examine them. The fiscal of our royal Audiencia shall investigate them before they are finished; and shall ask and see that they are executed with the care that the matter requires in regard to their items, charges, articles, and balances, and whatever else is advisable. He shall advise our president and governor of it all, so that he may assist him in what may be necessary, and advise us of the result." Felipe III, Madrid, June 4, 1620, in _Recopilacion de leyes_, lib. i, tit. xiii, ley xiv.

[210] The bull here referred to was issued by Gregory XIV, and dated April 18, 1591. The seventh section reads as follows: "Finally, since, as we have learned, our very dear son in Christ, Philip, Catholic King of the Spains, on account of the many deceits wont to be practised therein, has forbidden any Spaniard in the aforesaid Philippine Islands to dare to take, or have, or hold any slaves, or servants, even by right of just and unjust war, or of purchase, or by whatsoever other title, or pretext; although some, despite the edict, or mandate, of King Philip himself, still keep the same slaves in their power: therefore in order that, as is befitting to reason and equity, the Indians themselves may freely and safely without any fear of bondage come and go to their Christian doctrinas, and to their own homes and possessions, we order and command all and singular the persons living in the same islands, of whatsoever state, degree, condition, order, and rank they may be, in virtue of holy obedience and under pain of excommunication, on the publication of these presents, in accordance with the edict, or mandate of the said King Philip, to release wholly free, without deceit and guile, whatsoever Indian slaves and servants they may have, or hold; nor ever for the future in any manner to take or keep captives, or servants."--[Translated from the original by _Rev. T. C. Middleton_, O.S.A.]

[211] This [1890] has disappeared from legislation, although the personal services for Espana are still continued, and are fifteen days.--_Rizal_.

[212] _Recopilacion de leyes_, lib. vi, tit. xii, ley xii, treating of personal services, reads as follows: "The religious and the ministers of the instruction, and the alcaldes-mayor of the Filipinas Islands have a weekly repartimiento of Indians which they call _tanores_, so that the Indians may serve them without pay; and besides the villages contribute to them the fish necessary to them on Fridays, which is against reason and justice. We order the governor and captain-general, the Audiencia, and any other of our justices, to stop and not allow this personal service and contribution, so that the villages shall in no manner perform it, and we declare the villages free from any obligation that they have or may have." This law is dated Madrid, March 17, 1608.

[213] Taal was one of the villages where the most rigging was made for the royal ships.--_Rizal_.

[214] This word _reales_ is omitted in the Rizal edition.

[215] A comparatively early law (_Recopilacion de leyes_, lib. vi, tit. i, ley xv), prohibits the forcible removal of the natives for expeditions of conquest from one island to another. It is as follows: "We order that the Indians in the Filipinas Islands be not taken from one island to another forcibly in order to make incursions, and against their will, unless it be under very necessary circumstances, and paying them for their work and trouble. They shall be well treated and receive no injury." Felipe II, Madrid, November 7, 1574.

[216] In Java also the Dutch restrict Europeans from roaming about the country; this is a good regulation for the protection of the inhabitants.--_Stanley_.

[217] Stanley praises these regulations; Rizal deplores them, as keeping the men in authority out of touch with the people.

[218] _Recopilacion de leyes_, lib. iv, tit. x, ley vii, has the following law, dated Madrid, March 17, 1608: "The governor and captain-general of Filipinas shall for the present appoint the magistracy [_regimiento_] of the city of Manila, choosing persons who shall prove to be suitable for the office and zealous for the service of God our Lord, and for ours; and he shall not remove them without our special order."

[219] Many royal decrees related to playing cards. The monopoly ceased to exist perhaps before the government monopoly on betel was initiated.--_Rizal_ (in part).

[220] In 1890 he received 12,000 pesos.--_Rizal_.

[221] The prebend, in Spanish cathedrals, superior to a canonry.

The following laws (xvi and xvii, respectively) as to the appointments of vacant prebends, are found in _Recopilacion de leyes_, lib. i, tit. vi.

"Because of the great distance from these kingdoms to the Filipinas Islands and the inconvenience that might result from the prebends falling vacant without any provision being made until we present those who shall take them, we order the governor and captain-general of the said islands that, when dignidades, canonries, and other prebends in the metropolitan church become vacant, he shall present other persons of the sufficiency and characteristics required, so that they may serve in place of their predecessors, until we provide persons for them. They shall receive the stipend that their predecessors shall have received. The governor shall observe the rules made by the laws of this titulo in his presentations." Felipe II, Guadalupe, March 26, 1580.

"We order our governors of the Filipinas Islands, and charge the archbishops of Manila, that when any prebends of that church become vacant, they send us three nominations for each one, instead of one only, with very minute advice of their sufficiency, learning, degrees, and all other qualities that are found in those proposed, so that after examination, we may appoint the one most suitable." Felipe III, Lerma, June 28, 1608.

[222] In 1890 the Filipinas were paying 36,670 pesos annually for one dean, four dignitarios, five canons, four racioneros, four medio-racioneros, and other inferior helpers, including the choir, a total of twenty-six individuals; 3,330 pesos annually is to be added for sacristans, singers, and orchestra.--_Rizal_.

[223] Their salary amounted to from 750 to 1,000 pesos. Now [1890] the salary of each bishop is 6,000 pesos, with two father assistants at 100 to 150 pesos per month.--_Rizal_.

[224] Thus in original, but it is carelessly worded; for the Society of Jesus is not one of the mendicant orders.

[225] All of the orders held property and had regular means of revenue, later; while the Dominicans held enormous property in both the islands and at Hong Kong.--_Rizal_.

[226] The following law is from _Recopilacion de leyes_ (lib. iii, tit. x, ley xiv): "The governor and captain-general of the Filipinas Islands shall be careful to reward the soldiers who shall have served us there, and their sons, with the posts and emoluments at his disposal, in accordance with the ordinances, and [he shall do it] with all fairness, so that they may have some remuneration. He shall keep in toto the laws relating to this." Felipe III, Lerma, July 23, 1605; Madrid, December 19, 1618.

[227] _Consejeles_: men sent to service by order of a municipal council.

[228] The pay of various of the above officers and men in 1890 was as follows: Filipino infantrymen, 4 pesos per month; Spanish artillerymen, 13-15 pesos, plus some centimos, per month; Filipino artillerymen, 4 pesos, plus some centimos, per month; captains, 1,500-1,800 pesos per year; alfereces, 975-1,050 pesos per year; first sergeants, European, 318-360 pesos per year--native, 180 pesos per year; second sergeants, European, 248.06-307.50 pesos per year--native, 156 pesos per year; first corporals, European, 189.56-202 pesos per year--native, 84 pesos per year; second corporals, European, 174-192 pesos per year--native corporals, 72 pesos per year; the _segundo cabo_ [lieutenant-commander], 12,000 pesos per year; sargento-mayor _de plaza_ (now lieutenant-colonel), 225 pesos per month; vice-admiral [_contra-almirante, general de galeras_], 16,392 pesos per year; frigate and ship captains, 2,700-5,760 pesos per year, according to their duties and grades.--_Rizal_.

The following laws from _Recopilacion de leyes_ regulate the pay of the soldiers and some of the officers, and impose certain restrictions on the soldiers, and provide for certain appointments: "Each soldier established in the Filipinas Islands shall be paid eight pesos per month, each captain, fifty, each alferez, twenty, and each sergeant, ten. The governor and captain-general of the said islands shall give all the men of the companies thirty ducados to each company of additional pay, as is done in other districts, providing the additional pay of each one does not exceed ten pesos per year. We order that all be well paid. When the governor shall provide any of the captains, officers, or soldiers with an encomienda, or other post, he shall not allow him to draw pay. While they draw pay they shall not be allowed to trade or traffic, so that that occupation may not divert or distract them from their proper exercise and employment of war. For the same reason, no pay shall be granted to any soldier who serves any other person, whomsoever he be." Felipe II, Anover, August 9, 1589, clause 34 of his instructions; Felipe III, Ventosilla, November 4, 1606; lib. iii, tit. x, ley xiii.

"We order that when the post of general of artillery of the Filipinas Islands becomes vacant, either by the death or promotion of its occupant, or for any other cause, the governor and captain-general shall not fill it without first notifying us and without our special order for it. We permit him to appoint a captain of artillery and a sargento-mayor, and he may assign each of them thirty pesos' pay. We approve the increase of two pesos in the pay of the musketeers. It is our will that the pay of the governor's captain of the guard be increased five pesos, in addition to his fifteen pesos, and that a like sum be granted to the commandants of forts when they have a captain of infantry." Felipe II, clause of letter, Madrid, June 11, 1594; Felipe IV, Madrid, January 30, 1631; lib. iii, tit. v, ley iii.