Chapter XLII: Charles Francis Hall and the Innuits (2)

We left Mr. Hall near the close of January, 1861, when he was just returning to the ship after his first overland expedition. We do not propose to follow him through the course of his personal narrative, although it abounds with striking incidents and details of hardship and peril. Thus, one day in March, John Brown, one of the ship’s crew, in company with two Innuits, started off from an igloo a few miles distant to rejoin the ship. Somehow he got separated from his companions, but the next morning he had not arrived. The night had been intensely cold, the thermometer marking 57 degrees below freezing-point. A party of a dozen set off in the attempt to find him. In two hours they came upon the tracks of the wanderer, but only Hall and four others could hold out; the others, one by one, fell back. They kept on, following the tracks, which now began to grow faint, being partly filled up with snow. For a time the tracks went straight for the ship; then they began to waver, now in one direction, and then in another, showing that the man had lost his way. They followed the tracks, in the intense cold, 60 degrees below freezing-point. They were tormented by thirst, which they attempted to allay by the use of ice. The first fragment which Hall put into his mouth froze it fast. He managed to reduce the temperature of the ice by holding the fragments in his mittened hand, so that he could place them in his mouth. After six hours, Hall’s companions said they could go no farther and must return; for they had brought along no snow-knife, with which they could build an igloo for the night; and if a storm should spring up, they must all be inevitably lost. Hall went on alone. One of the crew named Johnston soon overtook him, saying, “Brown was my shipmate, and I loved him. I will go on with you. If I were to go back now, I shall always regret it.” They followed the tracks, which now began to run in circles, interlocking one another. There were twelve of these within less than two miles. Every little while they came upon places where the wanderer had lain down to rest. At five o’clock, nine hours after setting out, they were overtaken by Captain Buddington, with two sailors and two Innuits, accompanied by a dog-team. They all pressed on with renewed vigor, and in a few minutes came upon poor Brown, frozen dead. They could not convey the corpse to the ship, fully ten miles away, and so buried him in the snow upon the spot where he was found.

It was the middle of July before the ship was released from her icy prison. The whalers went to work, and Hall made several important expeditions by land and water, living nearly all the while with the Innuits. Towards the middle of October the captain began to prepare for returning home. But he was a few days too late. The ship was beset in the ice-pack, with no hope of escape. There was nothing left but to make up their minds to spend another winter in the ice.

We must pass wholly over the incidents and adventures of this second winter. It is the old tale of suffering and privation. On the 12th of January the thermometer fell to 72 degrees below the freezing point. One of the men who had left to visit an Innuit encampment came back, saying that he thought he had frozen his toe. Upon pulling off his boots both feet were found to be frozen stiff, and as hard as ice. The usual attempts to save the members were made in vain; mortification began, and, to save the man’s life, the captain was obliged to amputate portions of both his feet.

This year, 1862, the ice held on unusually late; but on the 8th of August it was found that the pack had broken up. The way home was apparently open; and all hands were summoned on board. The vessel spread her canvas and sailed off, the Innuits surrounding her in their canoes, and shouting farewell.

Tookoolito and Ebierbing resolved to accompany Hall to the States, taking with them Tukeliketa (“Butterfly”), their infant, a year old. The child died a few months after their arrival in the States, and lies buried in the graveyard at Groton, Connecticut. “I never saw,” says Hall, “a more animated, sweet-tempered, and engaging child.” For days the mother was delirious; then she longed to die, that she might be with her lost Butterfly. Upon his grave were laid, according to the custom of his people, all his childish playthings. They were sacred to the dead. The mother went to the grave one day, and found that one article, a gayly-painted little tin pail, had been taken away. She was inconsolable. “Poor little Butterfly,” she said, “how he will miss his beautiful pail!”

The homeward voyage was speedy and prosperous. On the 13th of September the “George Henry” dropped anchor at New London, whence she had sailed two years and three and a half months before.

The net results of Hall’s expedition were these: Many new discoveries were made in Arctic geography; much information was gathered in relation to the inhabitants; and experience acquired of immense value to all future Arctic explorers. Mr. Hall also made a very interesting discovery in regard to the fate of the expedition of Martin Frobisher, undertaken almost three centuries ago. He found a tradition among the natives that many years ago white men in ships had visited a place still called “White Man’s Island.” Hall compared these traditions with the accounts extant in books respecting this voyage, and was struck with their remarkable coincidence. He visited the place designated as the white man’s encampment, and found many things which had evidently been left by Europeans. Among these was a heap of coal amounting to several tons, a large fragment of iron, and some bricks. Every thing was covered over with moss whose thick growth showed that they must have remained there undisturbed for ages.

The bearing of this upon the possibility of revealing the whole mystery of the fate of Franklin is evident. If the Innuits have preserved tolerably accurate traditions of what took place three centuries ago, it is not to be doubted that they still have information of what took place within a single generation. It is now past hoping that any members of Franklin’s expedition are yet living; but there must be Innuits who can tell how and where they died.

To further this investigation Hall resolved upon a second expedition. He spent nearly two years in preparing his book for publication, and in making preparations for this enterprise. Abundant facilities were now placed at his disposal; and on the 30th of July, 1864, he again set sail. In the preface to his book, written on board the vessel, he says:

“I am persuaded that among the Innuits may be sought, by one competent, with every chance of complete success, the sad history of Sir John Franklin’s men. To make myself competent for this more interesting and important research, I patiently acquired the language and familiarized myself with the habits of the Esquimaux. I now return to their country able to speak with them, to live among them, to support my life in the same manner that they do theirs; to migrate with them from place to place, and to traverse and patiently explore all the region in which it is reasonable to suppose Franklin’s crew travelled and perished. I shall be accompanied by the two intelligent Esquimaux, Ebierbing and Tookoolito, who, having accompanied me on my return from my first expedition, and after remaining with me for two years, now go back with me on this second voyage. I enter upon this undertaking with the liveliest hope of success. I shall not, like previous explorers, set my foot on shore for a few days or weeks, or, like others, journey among men whose language to me is unintelligible. I shall live for two or three years among the Esquimaux, and gain their confidence; and I have the advantage of understanding their language, and of making all my wishes known to them.”

It is now (September, 1869) more than five years since Hall set out on this second expedition. Up to 1867 he wrote, as occasional opportunity offered, to his fast friend and warm supporter, Henry Grinnell; but his letters gave only faint indications of what he had been able to accomplish. In 1868, when he had hoped to return, no whaling-vessels came back to the States from the Arctic seas. A trace or two of him has been reported by English vessels, sufficient, however, to afford reason to believe that he still lives. An American whaler expected to pass the winter of 1868–9 in the region where Hall, if living would probably be, and it is hoped that in October of this year, 1869, before these pages will be before the reader, this vessel, bearing the brave explorer, will have reached the American shores.

FOOTNOTES

[1] See Chapter XXXII.

[2] In 1855, Iceland imported, among others, 65,712 pieces of timber, 148,038 lbs. of iron, 37,700 lbs. hemp, 15,179 fishing-lines, 20,342 lbs. salt, 6539 tons of coal.

The chief exportations of the same year were, tallow, 932,906 lbs., wool, 1,569,323 lbs., 69,305 pairs of stockings, 27,109 pairs of gloves, 12,712 salted sheepskins, 4116 lbs. eider-downs, 25,000 lbs. other feathers, 244 horses, and 24,079 ship’s pounds (the ship’s pound = 320 lbs.) salt fish.

[3] Barrow, “Visit to Iceland,” 1834.

[4] “Journal of a Tour in Iceland,” p. 110.

[5] All the clergymen are blacksmiths, for a reason that will be stated hereafter.

[6] Their number in 1860 was 991. During his voyage to Iceland in 1850 Prince Napoleon was named honorary president, a distinction he shares with the Bishop of Reykjavik. Among the 46 honorary members I find the name of Lord Dufferin.

[7] In 1866 the total catch of cod was 21,000,000, about 12,000,000 of which were salted (clip fish), and the remainder dried (stock-fish); each fish making on an average 2 lbs. of clip-fish, and one-fourth less of stock-fish.

[8] Within the last few years, no less than three scientific expeditions have been sent out to Spitzbergen at the expense of the Swedish Government. During the summer of 1858, Messrs. Otto Torell, Guennerstedt, and Nordenskjold visited the western parts of the archipelago. In 1861 the whole coast, from Ice Sound to Dove Bay in North-east Land was accurately investigated by Messrs. Torell, Malmgren, Chydenius, etc., and in 1864 Messrs. Nordenskjold, Duner, and Malmgren visited the southern shores and Wjde Jan’s Water. A fourth expedition has just left the port of Gothenburg (June, 1868).

[9] _Reisen in Lappland, etc._

[10] The verst is about three-fifths of a mile.

[11] The poud is equal to 40 pounds. The poud is divided into 96 solotniks.

[12] A species of sturgeon highly esteemed by epicures.

[13] Humboldt likewise mentions an artisan of Breslau whose sight was so sharp as to enable him to point out the position of Jupiter’s satellites.

[14] Since last year [1867] the Russian Government has sold her American possessions to the United States, but as it is not yet known how far the interests of the Russian Fur Company have been affected by the change, I may be allowed to speak of her in the present tense.

[15] Captain Hall, who in his search after the remains of the Franklin expedition has now spent several years among the Esquimaux, has so far acquired their appetite that he is able to consume 9 lbs. of meat a day without any inconvenience.

[16]

1850–1854. “Investigator,” Captain M’Clure, } Bering’s Straits.
1850–1855. “Enterprise,” Captain Collinson, }

1850, 1851. “Resolute,” Captain Austin, } Lancaster Strait and
1850, 1851. “Assistance,” Captain Ommaney, } Cornwallis Island.
Accompanied by two steam tenders, officered by
Lieutenant Sherard Osborne and Lieutenant
F. L. M’Clintock.

1850, 1851. “Lady Franklin,” Master Penny, accompanied by the
“Sophia,” Master A. Stewart, under Admiralty
Orders, to Lancaster Strait and Wellington Channel.

1850. “Prince Albert,” Captain Forsyth, belonging to Lady
Franklin, to Regent’s Inlet and Beechey Island.

1850, 1851. “Advance,” Lieutenant De Haven, U.S.N.}
1850, 1851. “Rescue,” S. P. Griffin, Esq., U.S.N. }
Fitted at the expense of H. Grinnell, Esq., of New
York, to Lancaster Strait and Wellington Channel.

[17]

1852. “Isabel,” Captain E. Inglefield. Lady Franklin’s vessel.

1852–1854. “Assistance,” Sir Edward Belcher, to Lancaster Sound,
Wellington Channel.

1852–1854. “Resolute,” Captain Kellett, Lancaster Strait, Melville,
and Banks’s Island.

1852–1854. “Pioneer,” Lieutenant Sherard Osborne.

1852–1854. “Intrepid,” Captain M’Clintock.

1852–1854. “North Star,” Captain Pullen.

[18] These two vessels had been sent in the year 1847 to the Polar Sea beyond Bering’s Straits, when they discovered the “Herald” and “Plover” Islands.

[19] Rensselaer Harbor is situated 1° 46´ higher than Sir E. Belcher’s winter-quarters in Northumberland Sound, 76° 52´.

[20] “Athenæum,” Dec. 3, 1853.

[21] For an account of the similar phenomena of the “Buffadero,” on the Mexican coast, and of the “Souffleur,” Mauritius, see “The Sea and its Living Wonders,” 3d ed. p. 52.

[22] “Excursions in Newfoundland.”

[23] “The Sea and its Living Wonders,” p. 403.

[24] Voyage of the Swedish ship “Eugénie.”

[25] _Arctic Researches, and Life among the Esquimaux._ By CHARLES FRANCIS HALL. New York, 1866.

INDEX.

A.

Adélie, Terre, discovery of, 402.

Agouti, the, of Patagonia, 419.

Agriculture, state of, in Iceland, 79.

Aigun, treaty of, 196.

Air, remarkable moisture of the, in Taimurland, 225.

----, its perpetual motion in the Arctic zones, 225.

Akurig, eider-ducks of, 81.

Alaska, discovery of, 202.

----, climate of the, 269.

----, mountains and forests of, 269.

----, purchase of, by the Americans, 277.

----, telegraph through, 278.

----, travelling in, 278–289.

----, natives of, 278–289.

----, climate of, 284.

----, food in, 287.

Albasin, the Russian fort of, built, 195.

----, destroyed by the Chinese, but rebuilt, 196.

Albatross, wandering, of the Antarctic seas, 395.

Alcyonians on the coasts of Greenland, 59.

Aleutian Islands, causes which led to the discovery of the, 201.

----, extent of the, 270.

Aleuts, their wretched condition under their masters, 273.

----, their skill and intrepidity in hunting, 273–276.

Alexander, Cape, discovery of, 365.

---- Island, discovery of, 401.

Algerine pirates, ravages of, in Iceland, 95;
and in the Westman Islands, 119.

Almannagja, description of the, 73.

Altai Mountains, crossed by the Cossacks, 195.

Alten, copper mines of, 128.

Altenfjord, vegetation of the borders of the, 128.

America, North, treeless zone of, 18–22.

----, character of the Coniferæ of, 23, 24.

----, range of the caribou, or reindeer, of, 36–39.

----, the musk-ox of, 41.

----, the white dolphin in the rivers of, 61.

----, the black dolphin of, 61.

----, walruses of the shores of, 64.

----, history of the fur-trade of, 307 _et seq._

----, first discoverers and settlers of, 335.

America, North, destruction of the Greenland colonies, 335.

----, subsequent discoveries, 335 _et seq._

----, attempts to discover the north-western passage to India,
342 _et seq._

America, Russian, its transfer to the United States, 272, _note_.

Amoor, river, discovery of the, by the Russians, who relinquish it to
the Chinese, 195, 196.

----, the country annexed by Russia, 196.

Anakerdluk, in North Greenland, buried forest of, 29.

Angekoks, or priests of the Esquimaux, 301.

Animals, comparatively small number of, in the Arctic regions, 25.

----, the forests the head-quarters of many, 41.

---- of the Arctic Seas, 59.

---- of the coasts of Spitzbergen, 134.

----, fur-bearing, of Siberia, 209.

----, the, of Taimurland, 227.

---- of Nishne-Kolymsk, 235.

---- of Newfoundland, 378.

----, no land, in the Antarctic region, 394.

---- of Patagonia, 418.

Aniuj, vegetation of the valley of the, 235.

----, chief resource of the people of the, 237.

Anjou, Lieut., his Arctic explorations, 233.

Archangel, foundation of, 192.

----, New, site of the town of, 272.

----, fur-trade of, 273.

----, medium of exchange at, 276.

Archers, the Ostiaks as, 187.

Arctic regions, rivers of the, 17.

----, limits of the, 18.

----, the forests of the, 18–23.

----, their treeless wastes, or Tundra, 18.

----, in summer and winter, 19.

----, their extent and boundaries, 21.

----, animal life in the, 25.

----, influence of the sea and winds on the severity of the
winter of the, 27.

----, the lowest temperatures felt by man, 27, 28.

----, how man becomes accustomed to the rigors of the winter of the, 28.

----, proofs of a former milder climate in the northern regions of
the globe, 29.

----, beauties of Nature in the, 31–33.

----, land quadrupeds and birds of the, 34.

----, the seas of the, 49.

---- compared with the Antarctic regions, 391.

Arctic voyages of discovery, history of, 335 _et seq._

Are Thorgilson, his Icelandic works, 94.

Argali (_Ovis argali_) of Siberia, 41.

Arrows of the Ostiaks, 187, 188.

Ascidians on the coasts of Greenland, 59.

Ash, the, in the Arctic regions, 24.

Asia, treeless zone of, 18–22.

Athabascan Indians, hunting-grounds of the, 327.

Atlassoff, the Cossack, his treatment of the natives of Kamchatka, 198.

Atmosphere, transparency of the, in the Polar regions, 54, 55.

----, phenomena of, reflection and refraction, and their probable
causes, 55.

Auk, the giant, its rarity at present in Iceland. 85.

Aurora borealis, 33.

----, splendor of the, in the Arctic regions, 33.

Aurora borealis, terror of the Lapps at the, 157.

----, at Nulato, 281.

Austin, Captain, his search for Franklin, 357.

Avalanches of ice in Spitzbergen, 135.

Awaklok and Myouk, their imprisonment on an iceberg, 298.

Awatscha Bay, sea-birds of, 255.

----, its magnificence and extent, 256.

B.

Baaty Khan, his subjection of Russia, 191.

Bachelor river, the, 412.

Back (Mr., afterwards Sir George), his Arctic voyages, 346, 347, 349.

----, his search for Captain Ross, 354.

----, his discovery of Great Fish River, 355.

----, voyage in 1835, 355.

Back’s river, discovery of, 355.

Badarany, desert of swamps, the, 234.

Baer, Herr von, his scientific journey to Nova Zembla, 151.

Baffin, his voyages of discovery, 343.

Baffin’s Bay, probable influence of the northerly winds on the
depression of the temperature of, 27.

Baffin’s Bay, walruses of the coasts of, 64.

----, discovery of, 343.

Balleny, his discoveries in the Antarctic ocean, 401.

---- Islands, discovery of, 401.

Banks’s Land, proofs of a former milder temperature in, 29.

Bards, or Scalds, of Iceland, 94.

Barentz, William, visit of, to Spitzbergen, 138.

----, his voyages of discovery, 339.

----, his winter in Nova Zembla, 340.

----, his death, 342.

Barley, cultivation of, in Norway, 124.

Barren grounds, barrens, or tundri, Arctic belt of the, 18.

----, causes of their barrenness, 18.

----, their appearance in winter and in summer, 19.

----, indistinct and irregular boundaries of the, 21.

----, those of Newfoundland, 377.

Barrow Point, traffic of, 302.

Barter Reef, traffic of, 302.

Bear, black, muskwa (_Ursus americanus_), value of the fur
of the, 315.

----, description of him, 315, 318.

----, brown, of North America, 315.

----, value of the skins of the young brown bear, 211.

----, grizzly, of the Rocky Mountains (_Ursus ferox_), 315.

----, his skin, 315.

----, the polar, his mode of hunting, 65, 446, 448.

----, his favorite food and mode of seizing it, 65, 447, 450, 451.

----, anecdote of one, 65.

----, instances of his sagacity, 65.

----, parental care of the she-bear, 65.

----, her winter nursery, 65, 66.

----, her internal store of food for her hibernation, 66.

----, immense strength of claws and teeth, 66, 67.

----, his unwelcome visits to Iceland, 81.

----, of Spitzbergen, 137.

----, of Nova Zembla, 149.

----, Lapp mode of hunting the, 164–166.

----, Esquimaux methods of hunting the, 163.

Bear of Newfoundland, 378.

----, abundance of, in Kamchatka, 258.

----, sea-, value of the skins of the, in China, 374.

----, chase of the, in the Pribilow Islands, 274.

---- families and battles, 274, 275.

----, the Austral sea-, 399.

----, hunted by dogs, 453.

Bear Island, or Cherie Island, account of, 143.

----, climate of, 144.

----, walruses of, 144.

----, boat-voyages of Norwegian sailors from, 145.

----, discovery of, 340.

----, surveyed by the Russians, 200.

Beaver (_Castor fiber_), its skin the standard of exchange with the
Canadian Indians, 313.

----, former enormous trade in the fur of the, 317.

---- of Newfoundland, 378.

Beaver Indians, their hunting-grounds, 327.

Bee, sand (_Andrena_), of Nova Zembla, 154.

Beech, Antarctic (_Fagus betuloides_), 410.

Beechey, Captain, his voyage to Bering’s Straits, 350.

Beerenberg mountain, 146.

Bering, Titus, never passed through the straits bearing his name, 197.

----, his second voyage, 201.

----, his second voyage of discovery, 248, 249.

----, his bad conduct, 250.

----, his death, 252.

Bering Island, Bering and Steller on, 251.

---- Sea, description of the, 268.

----, barren lands at, 22.

----, seals and walruses of, 63, 64.

----, its climate, 269.

----, character of the shores of the, 270.

----, animals of the, 271.

Bering’s Straits, view of the Old and New worlds in the, 271.

----, Captain Beechey’s voyage to, 350.

Belcher, Sir Edward, his search for Franklin, 359.

Bellinghausen, his discovery of the islands Paul the First and
Alexander, 401.

Bellot, Lieut., his gallant search for Franklin, 359.

----, his death and monument, 362.

Beluga, or white dolphin (_Delphinus leucas_), description of the, 61.

----, domain of the, 61.

Beluga Bay, visit of Von Baer’s party to, 151.

Bennet, Stephen, his visit to Bear Island, 143, 144.

Berry-gathering in Nishne-Kolymsk, 238.

Bilberries of the Arctic regions, 24.

Billings, voyage of, on the coast of Siberia, 201.

Birch, paper, value of the, in North America, 304.

Birch-trees in the Arctic regions, 24.

Birds, flights of wild, in summer months, in the Tundra, 19.

----, their migrations to and from high latitudes, 43, 44, 67.

----, the polar singing-bird, the snow-bunting, 43.

----, raptorial, of the Arctic regions, 43.

----, enormous numbers of, along the Arctic shores, 67.

----, Icelandic, 81.

---- of the coast of Norway, 124.

---- of Spitzbergen, 133, 134, 137.

---- of Nova Zembla, 154.

----, a bird bazar, 154.

----, abundance of sea-fowl on the coast of Kamchatka, 255.

----, Esquimaux mode of bird-catching, 295.

----, abundance of, on the coast of Greenland, 388.

Birds of the coasts of the Antarctic sea, 394.

---- of Patagonia, 419.

Birkarls, their final subjugation of the Lapps, 156.

Biscoe, his discovery of Enderby Land, and of Graham Land, 401.

Black death, ravages of the, in the North, 383.

Blackfeet Indians, their wars with the Tinné and Crees, 319, 320.

Bloody Falls, on the Coppermine river, 294.

Boats of the Esquimaux, 293.

----, the birch-bark canoes of North America, 304.

Bogberries of the Arctic regions, 24.

Booth, Sir Felix, his Arctic expedition, 251.

Bougainville, his voyage through the Strait of Magellan, 414.

Brandt, the Danish forester, his journey with Von Middendorff, 220.

Brandy, fondness of the Samoïedes for, 171–173.

---- drunk at Kolymsk, 238.

Brant Ysbrantzoon, his voyages of discovery, 339.

Bread of the poor Icelanders, 79.

Bredal, Eric, his education of Lapps in Christianity, 156.

Bridges, swing, of Iceland, 111.

Browne, T. Ross, 74, 95, 104, 115.

Buchan, Captain, his Arctic voyage, 344.

Bunting, its migrations to and from the north, 43.

----, the Lapland (_Centrophanes Lapponicus_), latitudes inhabited by
the, 43, 44.

Bunting, the snow, the polar singing-bird, 44.

Bunting, its nest and food, 44.

---- of Iceland, 81.

---- of Spitzbergen, 137.

Burglars, treatment of, in Russia, 206.

Burrough, Stephen, his voyage to discover the north-eastern
passage, 336.

Busa, Jelissei, his ascent of the rivers Lena and Olekma, 195.

----, his discovery of the Tana, 195.

----, his residence among the Jukahirs, 195.

Butter made from the reindeer milk, 36.

Butterflies in Taimurland, 227.

Byron, Commodore, his voyage through the Strait of Magellan, 414.

C.

Cabot, John and Sebastian, their re-discovery of parts of North
America, 335.

----, their re-discovery of Newfoundland, 379.

Canada, enterprise of the French settlers in, 306.

----, results of the English conquest of, 306.

----, history of the fur-trade of, 307.

Cano, Sebastian el, his voyage round the globe, 413.

Canoes, birch-bark, of North America, 304, 305.

Cape, North, description of the, 129, 130.

Caribou, or reindeer of North America, range of the, 36.

Carrancha, the, of Patagonia, 419, 420.

Cartier, Jacques, his voyages, 335.

Caryophyllæ, the, of the treeless zone, 21.

Cascades of Iceland, 78.

Castor and Pollux river, discovery of, 356.

Castrén, Matthias Alexander, account of him and of his journeys, 168–178.

Catherine’s Foreland, Queen, 409.

Cattle, value of, to the Icelands, 80.

Cavendish, his voyages, 414.

Chancellor, his discovery of the passage from England to the
White Sea, 192.

Chancellor, his voyage to discover the north-eastern route
to China, 336.

----, his visit to Moscow, and subsequent fate, 336.

Charles IX., King of Sweden, his kindness to the Lapps, 156.

Chatanga river, scanty population of the, 220.

----, Middendorff’s journey to the, 220, 221.

Chatangsk, Middendorff’s journey to, 221

Cheese made from reindeer milk, 36.

Cherie Island, account of, 144.

Chess-players of the Tungusi, 246.

Chickweed, the, on the Mary Minturn river, 20.

Chimengo, the, of Patagonia, 419.

China, Castrén’s journey over the mountains into, 177.

Chinese take the Russian fort of Albasin, 195;
and make the treaty of Nertschinsk with the Russians, 196.

----, the treaty broken by the Russians, who compel the Chinese to
give them the Amoor, 196.

Chinga (_Mephitis chinga_), its fœtid secretion, 316.

Christian IV., King of Denmark, his treatment of the Lapp priests and
sorcerers, 156.

----, his expedition to Greenland, 383.

Christianity, introduction of, into Iceland, 92.

Churches of the Icelanders, 104.

Clavering, his voyage to Greenland, 386.

Clergy of the Lapps, their poverty and self-denial, 157.

----, their sermons, 157.

----, those of Iceland all blacksmiths, 101, _note_, 106.

----, their poverty, 106.

Coal, does not exist in Iceland, 88.

---- of Spitzbergen, 137.

---- in Coal Bay, 145.

Coal Bay, 145.

Cochlearia fenestrata, the only esculent plant in Spitzbergen, 136, 142.

Cod and cod-fishing of the coast of Iceland, 86, 87.

----, the, called stockfish, 87.

----, the cod-fishery of Norway, 125–130.

----, wretched state of the fishermen, 127.

----, exports of, to various countries, 129.

----, cod-fishery of Greenland, 388.

----, value of the cod-fishery of Newfoundland, 379, 380.

----, mode of fishing and curing the cod, 380.

----, dangers of the fishery, 381.

----, immense numbers of, 381.

Cod-liver oil of Tromsö, 128.

Collinson, Captain, his search for Franklin, 359, 361.

Commodore Islands, chase of the sea-bear on the, 274.

Condor, the, of Patagonia, 420.

Coniferæ, Arctic forests almost confined to the, 24.

----, difference between the European and Asiatic and American
species, 24.

Constitution, Cape, discovery of, 369.

Cook, his attempt to discover the northwest passage, 344.

Cook, Captain, his discovery of South Georgia, 393.

----, his Antarctic voyages, 401.

Copper mines near Drontheim, 124.

---- of Alten, 128.

---- of Raipass, 128.

Coppermine river, Dr. Richardson’s voyage to the, 349.

Cornelius Ryp, his voyages of discovery, 340, 341.

Cornelius Corneliszoon, his voyages of discovery, 339.

Corniculariæ, carpets of, and the treeless zone, 21.

Cortereal, his voyages of discovery, 325.

Cossacks, Don, their depredations, 192.

----, their conquest of Siberia for the Czar, 193.

----, their privileges and duties in Nishne-Kolymsk, 236.

Coureur des bois, the, of North America, 304.

Cranberries of the Arctic regions, 24.

Cree Indians, uses of the paper-birch-tree to the, 305.

----, range of the various tribes of, 319.

----, their conquests of the Tinné, but subsequent defeat, 319, 320.

----, their wars with the Blackfeet, 320, 321

----, their character, 321.

----, their customs, habits, and dress, 321, 322, 323.

----, their wives and families, 323.

----, their cradles, 323.

----, their wigwams, or tents, 324.

----, their medicine-men and vapor-baths, 324.

----, their games and sports, 324, 325.

----, their wooden figures for worship, 325.

----, their malicious or capricious spirit, called Kepoochican, 325.

----, their notion of the Great Spirit and of the Deluge, 325.

----, their Tartarus and Elysium, 325.

----, prospects of Christianity amongst them, 326.

Cross, the game of, of the Cree Indians, 325.

Crowe, Mr., his copper mines at Alten, 128.

Crozier, Captain, his last voyage, 356.

----, the last heard of him, 364.

----, his Antarctic voyages, 402.

Cruciferæ, the, of the treeless zone, 20.

Crustaceans, immense numbers of, on the coast of Greenland, 59.

Cumberland Strait, Davis’s discovery of, 337, 338.

Currents, magnificent system of, and their effects on the accumulation
of ice, 56, 57.

D.

Dances of the Tchuktchi, 266.

Darwin, Mr., his ascent of Mount Tarn, 411.

Davis, John, his voyages to discover an Arctic passage to India, 337.

----, his visit to Labrador, 338.

----, his subsequent life, 338.

Davis’s Straits, probable influence of the northerly winds on the
depression of the temperature of, 27.

----, Sebastian Cabot’s discovery of, 335.

Dead, reverence paid to the, by the Samoïedes, 181.

Dease, Peter Warren, his land Arctic expedition, 355.

Death, black, its ravages in Iceland, 95.

Deception Island, account of, 393.

Deer, red (_Cervus elaphus_), its habitat and uses to man, 40.

Deer of Vogelsang and Treurenberg Bay, 137.

Deluge, Cree legend of the, 325.

Demidoff, foundation of the family of, 219.

----, their enormous wealth, 219.

Deschnew, Semen, his the first and last voyage through Bering’s
Strait, 197.

Desolation, South, 412.

Detti-foss, an Icelandic cascade, Mr. Gould’s description of the, 78.

Disco bay, icebergs formed in, 49.

Divers, their migrations to and from the north, 42.

Dog-rib Indians, hunting-grounds of the, 327.

----, their character, dress, and customs, 327, 329.

----, their want of hospitality, 329.

----, their honesty, 329.

----, their notions of a future life, 329.

Dog, the reindeer of the Lapps, 161.

----, Wrangell’s dog-sledges on the Polar sea, 239.

----, Icelandic, 80.

----, the, of the people of Kolymsk, 236.

----, the Kamchatkan, and dog-sledges, 258, 259.

----, their mode of foretelling storms, 259.

----, mode of training sledge-dogs, 259.

----, trained by Esquimaux to attack the bear, 297.

----, description of the, and dog-sledges of the Esquimaux, 299.

----, Dr. Kane’s Newfoundland and Esquimaux, 367.

----, epidemic amongst the Esquimaux, 372.

Dolgorouky, Prince, his exile to Siberia, 205.

Dolphin, white, or beluga, of Nova Zembla, 155.

----, Greenland fishery of the, 387.

Dolphins of the Polar seas, 61, 398.

----, the beluga, or white dolphin, 61.

----, the black dolphin, “ca’ing” whale, or grind, 61.

----, the orc, or grampus, 62.

---- of Spitzbergen, 137.

Drake, Sir Francis, his voyage through the Strait of Magellan, 414.

Drifanda Foss, an icelandic cascade, 114.

Drontheim, the red deer near, 40.

----, description of, 124.

Ducks, wild, of the Arctic regions, 19.

----, their migrations to and from the north, 42.

---- of Iceland, 81, 84.

Dudinka, Castrén’s visit to, 176.

Dungeness, Point, 409.

Durfoorth, his voyage and death, 336.

D’Urville, Dumont, his discoveries in the Antarctic ocean, 402.

Dutch, their expeditions to discover an Arctic passage to India, 339.

E.

Eagle, the sea- (_Haliætus albicilla_), of the north, 44.

----, his food, 44.

----, white-tailed, of Iceland, 85.

----, value of the skins of the, 85.

----, the, on the coast of Norway, 125.

----, in the Tundra in summer, 19.

Ebierbing, 441, 466.

Egede, Hans, his voyage to Greenland, 384.

Egg-väre of the coast of Norway, 124.

Egilson, Olaf, the Westman clergyman, his slavery in Algiers, 118.

Eider-duck, its migrations to and from the north, 43.

---- of Iceland, 81.

----, breeding of, 83.

----, Mr. Shepherd’s visit to one of its head-quarters, 83.

Elder, the, in the Arctic regions, 24.

Elephant, sea-, of the Antarctic ocean, 399.

Elk, or moose deer, of the forests of the north, 38.

----, Cæsar’s account of it, 39.

----, its food and present habitat, 40.

Elk, its mode of defending itself, 40.

Enara, Lake of, the Fisher Lapps of, 166.

----, description of the, 169.

Enderby Land, discovery of, 401.

English pirates, ravages of, in Iceland, 95.

Erebus, mount, eruption of, 403.

Eric the Red, his visit to Greenland, 382.

Ermine (_Mustela erminea_) beauty and importance of the fur
of the, 210.

----, those of the Hudson’s Bay Territory, 316.

Esk, volcano, 146.

Esquimaux (_see also_ Innuits), their wide extension, 290.

----, their own name of Innuit, 290.

----, character of the regions they inhabit, 290.

----, their physical character, habits, and manners, 290, 291.

---- women, 291.

----, their dress and snow-huts, 291, 292.

----, their boat, the kayak or baidar, 293.

----, their weapons, and fishing and hunting implements, 293, 294.

----, enmity between them and the Red Indians, 294.

----, their chase of the reindeer, and bird-catching, 295.

----, their whale and seal hunts, 295, 296.

----, their “keep kuttuk,” 296.

----, their bear and walrus hunts, 296, 298.

----, their dogs and dog-sledges, 299.

----, their games and sports, 300.

----, constitution of their society, 300.

----, their angekoks, or priests, 300, 301.

----, their moral character, self-reliance, and intelligence, 301, 302.

----, their maps, and predilection for commercial pursuits, 302.

----, their voracity, and seasons of abundance and distress, 302, 303.

----, their dépôts of food, 302, 303.

----, their wars with the Kutchin Indians, 333.

----, their attack of Franklin’s boats, 349.

----, their hunting expeditions with Dr. Kane’s party, 370.

----, their ravages on the Greenland coast, 383.

Europe, treeless zone of, 18–24.

Evil Spirit of the woods of the Laplanders, 157.

Exiles, Siberian, 204, 205.

----, annual number of, 206.

Eyjafialla, eruption of, in 1821, 96.

Eystein, King, his benevolence, 126.

F.

Faeroe Islands, chase of the black dolphin, or “ca’ing” whale,
in the, 61.

Falkland Islands, climate of, 394.

Famine, Port, rich vegetation of, 410, 414.

Festuca of the Arctic regions, 20.

Finback whales of Spitzbergen, 137.

Finches in the Tundra in summer, 19.

Finmark, trade and fisheries of the coast of, 129.

Finnur Johnson, the Icelander, his “Ecclesiastical History of
Iceland,” 98.

Fir, different species of, in Europe, Asia, and America, 24.

Fish, and fishing season of Iceland, 86.

----, abundance of, in Kamchatka, 255.

---- of Newfoundland, 379.

---- of Greenland, 387.

Fish river, Great, Back’s discovery of, 355.

Fisher Lapps, account of the, 166.

Fiskernasset, cod-fishery of, 388.

Fitzroy, Captain, his surveys of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, 415.

Fjall Lappars, or Mountain Lapps, account of the, 159.

Flatey, eider-ducks of, 81, 82.

Flat-fish, abundance of, on the coasts of Iceland, 87.

Floki, the Viking, his visit to Iceland, 90.

Flora of Spitzbergen, 136.

Flowers of the Arctic regions, 20.

---- of the island of St. Lawrence, 271.

---- of Taimurland, 226.

---- of Unalaschka, 269.

Fogs of the Arctic seas in summer, 54.

---- near the island of St. Lawrence, 270.

---- off Newfoundland, 380.

Food, amount of, required by man in the Arctic regions, 28.

Forest regions, Arctic, 18.

----, extent of the, 22.

----, character of the trees of the, 24.

----, distinctive character of the forests, 25.

----, characters of the Arctic forests of the Miocene period, 28, 29.

----, legions of gnats in the, 25.

----, changes being effected by the agency of man, 25.

Forests, the, head-quarters of many of the Arctic fauna, 41.

----, more _in_ than _above_ the earth in Nova Zembla, 153.

----, of Newfoundland, 376.

Forget-me-not found in Nova Zembla, 153.

Forster, Captain, his expedition to the Antarctic sea, 393.

Fossils, Arctic, in New Siberia, 203.

Foulke, Port, Dr. Hayes’s winter at, 372.

Fox, the Arctic (_Canis lagopus_), its mode of protecting itself from
the most intense cold, 42.

Fox, the Arctic, its food and enemies, 42.

---- of Spitzbergen, 137.

---- in Nova Zembla, 154.

---- found in Taimurland, 227.

---- of Newfoundland, 378.

----, black, of Siberia, value of the fur of the, 211.

----, the Brazilian (_Canis Azaræ_), of Patagonia, 419.

---- red (_Vulpes fulvus_), the, 211, 317.

---- value of the fur of the, 317.

Fox Islands, discovery of the, 201.

France, right of the people of, to fish on the banks of
Newfoundland, 379.

Franklin, Lieut. (afterwards Sir John), his first Arctic voyage, 344.

----, his first land journey, 346.

----, his second land journey to the shores of the Polar sea, 349.

----, loss of his first wife, 350.

----, his last voyage, 356.

----, searching expeditions sent for him, 356.

----, his fate and that of his companions, 362–364.

Franklin Island, discovery of, 403.

Fraser river, voyage of Mackenzie down the, 308.

Frederick II., King of Denmark, his expedition to Greenland, 383.

Frederick IV., his foundation of the Finmark mission, 156.

Friedrich, the Saxon bishop, introduces Christianity into Iceland, 92.

Fritillaria Sarrana, used as food in Kamchatka, 258.

Frobisher, Martin, his endeavors to discover an Arctic passage
to India, 337.

----, discovery of relics of, 466.

----, his subsequent career, 337.

Froward, Cape, scenery of, 410.

Frozen sailor, 464.

Fruits of the Arctic regions, 21.

Fuego, Tierra del, climate of, 393.

----, origin of the name, 413.

----, Captain Fitzroy’s survey of, 415.

----, account of the Fuegians, 425.

----, degradation of the Fuegians, 425, 426.

----, their powers as mimics, 426.

----, their notions of trade, 427.

----, causes of their low state of civilization, 427.

----, their food, 428.

----, their dress, huts, arms, and ornaments, 428, 429.

----, their cannibalism, 430.

----, their language, 430.

----, Captain Fitzroy’s three Fuegians, 430, 431.

----, missionary labors, 431.

----, Captain Gardiner, 431.

Fuel, kinds of, used in Iceland, 89.

Fur, account of the Russian Fur Company, and its operations, 272.

----, account of the fur-trade of the Hudson’s Bay Company,
304 _et seq._

----, trade in, at the fair of Obdorsk, 189.

---- of Siberia, 208.

----, importance of the trade in, 212.

---- of the Tchuktchi, 264.

G.

Gabriel Channel, williwaws of, 412.

Gadflies which attack the reindeer, 38.

Galictis vittata, the, of Patagonia, 418.

Gambling of the Cree Indians, 324.

Gardar, the northern pirate, his the first circumnavigation of
Iceland, 90.

Gardar’s Holm, or Gadar’s Island, Iceland so called, 90.

Gardiner, Captain, his mission to Fuegia, and melancholy end, 431.

Gawrilow, produce of the gold mine of, 218.

Geese, wild, of the Arctic regions, 19.

----, snow, their migrations to and from the north, 43.

---- of Iceland, 81.

“George Henry,” the ship, 436.

George, St., climate of the island of, 270.

----, sea-lions and guillemots of, 271.

Georgia, South, discovery of, 393.

Germany, the elk or moose-deer of, in the time of Cæsar, 39.

Geysir, the Great, description of the, 71.

Gheritz, Dirck, his discovery of the New Shetland Islands, 392.

Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, takes possession of Newfoundland, 379.

Ginkloti, or children’s disease, in the Westman Islands, 118.

Gissur, his work on his voyages to the East, 94.

----, the Icelander, his learning and travels, 98.

Gjas, or chasms, in Iceland, 76, 77.

Glacier, the great, in the Gulf of Penas, 394.

Glaciers, enormous dimensions of the, of the polar regions, 50.

Glaciers of Magdalena Bay, 135;
ice cliffs and avalanches of, 135.

---- of the Beerenberg mountain, 146.

Glottoff, Stephen, his discovery of Kadiak, 202.

Gloves, reindeer, of Tornea, 37.

Glutton, or wolverine, strength and fierceness of the, 37.

Glutton, its attack of the reindeer, 37, 38.

----, its voracity, 38.

----, found in Taimurland, 227.

----, those of North America, 316.

----, value and uses of the fur of the, 316.

Gnats, legions of, in the forests and swamps, 26.

Goda-foss, the, an Icelandic cascade, 78.

Gold diggings of Eastern Siberia, 208.

----, description of the gold-fields, 214.

Gomez, his voyages of discovery, 335.

Goose, bean (_Anser segetum_), of Nova Zembla, 155.

Goose, Brent, its migrations to and from the north, 43.

----, its rapid flight, 43.

Graah, Captain, his explorations of the coast of Greenland, 386.

Graham Land, discovery of, 401.

Grampus, or orc (_Delphinus orca_), description of the, 62.

----, his ferocity and mode of ploughing the seas, 62.

---- of Nova Zembla, 155.

---- of the Antarctic Ocean, 398.

----, conflict of one with a whale, 398.

Grasses, tufted, of the Arctic regions, 20.

---- of the treeless zone, 21.

----, paramount importance of the grasses in Iceland, 79.

---- of Taimurland, 226.

Greenland, vast ice-fields of, 27.

----, proofs of a former milder climate in, 29.

----, enormous dimensions of the glaciers of, 50.

----, the, whale, 60.

----, transparency of the water on the coast of, 59.

----, abundance of animal life in the seas of, 60.

----, walruses of the coasts of the north of, 64.

----, Kane’s sledge journey along the coast of, 367.

----, unknown extent of, 382.

----, ancient Scandinavian colonists of, 382.

----, the name of, given to it, 382.

----, introduction of Christianity in, 382.

----, decline and fall of the country, 383.

----, subsequent explorations of, 383.

----, Hans Egede, the pastor, his voyage to, 384.

----, foundation of Godthaab in, 384.

----, arrival of Herrenhuth missionaries in, 384.

----, explorations of the coast of, 385.

----, present Danish settlements of, 386.

----, scanty population of, 386.

----, mode of life of the people of, 386, 387, 389.

----, fisheries of, 388.

----, poorness of the land in, 388.

----, quantities of drift-wood at, 388.

----, minerals of, 389.

----, Christianity in, 389.

----, climate, mountains, and fjords of, 389.

----, ice-caves of the coast of, 390.

----, the capital of, 437.

Greenlanders, their discovery of, and colonies in America, 335.

----, destruction of their colonies, 335.

----, their habits, 437.

Greiffenfeld, his imprisonment in Munkholm, 124.

Grinds. _See_ Dolphins, black.

Grinnell Land, vegetation of, 20.

----, Dr. Hayes’s discoveries in, 372–374.

Guanaco, the, of Patagonia, 419.

Guano, circumstances which favor the deposit of, 418.

Guillemot, on the Pribilow Islands, 271.

Gulf Stream, influence of, on the south and west coasts of
Iceland, 79;
and on the climate of Norway, 121.

Gull, Ross’s, distance north at which it has been seen, 67.

Gull, ivory, in Taimurland, 227.

Gustavus I., King of Sweden, his kind treatment of the Lapps, 156.

Gustavus Adolphus, his foundation of a school for the Lapps, 156.

H.

Haddocks, abundance of, on the coast of Iceland, 87.

Hakon, King of Norway, his annexation of Iceland, 95.

Hall, Charles Francis, his Arctic expedition, 433–467.

----, James, his voyage to Greenland, 383.

Hammerfest, description of the town of, 129.

----, traffic of, 129.

----, the people of, 129.

----, cargoes of walruses and seals brought from Spitzbergen, 143.

Hare, the fur of the, of Siberia, 212.

----, ice (_Lepus glacialis_), 317.

----found in Taimurland, 227.

Hare Indians, hunting-grounds of the, 327.

----, their women, 328.

Harold Haafager, or the Fair-haired, his establishment of an absolute
monarchy in Norway, 90.

----, exodus caused by his tyranny, 91.

Harp-seal of the Polar seas, 62.

Hatherton, Cape, discovery of, 365.

Haven, Lieut, de, his search for Franklin, 357, 358.

Hawks in the Tundra, in summer, 19.

Hayes, Dr., his sledge journey over Kennedy Channel, 368.

----, his Arctic voyage in 1860, 372–374.

----, his opinion as to what may be done in the Arctic regions, 374.

Hecla, eruptions of, since the colonization of Iceland, 95–97.

“Hecla” and “Fury” Straits, discovery of, 348.

Heemskerk, his voyages of discovery, 340.

Heineson, Mogens, the “sea-cock,” his voyage towards Greenland, 383.

Hepburn, John, the sailor, his overland journey, 346.

Herald Island, discovery of, 360.

Heimaey, or Home Island, description of, 116.

Herring, the fishery of the coast of Norway, 125.

----, food for the rorqual, or fin-whales, 61.

----, abundance of the, on the coasts of Iceland, 87.

Hesperis, the, on the Mary Minturn river, 20.

Hildringen, agriculture of, 124.

Hobson, Lieut., his search for Franklin, 362, 364.

Holme, the, of Norway, 124.

Hood, Robert, his Arctic journey, 346.

----, murdered, 347.

Horn, Cape, discovery of the passage round, 414.

Horse, the, in Iceland, 80.

---- of the Jakuts, 230–232.

Hrafnagja, 75.

Hudson, Henry, visit of, to Spitzbergen, 138.

----, his the first attempt to sail across the North Pole, 342.

----, his subsequent voyages and discoveries, 342.

----, his melancholy end, 343.

Hudson’s Bay, barren lands of, 22.

----, characters of the Coniferæ of, 24.

----, walruses of the coasts of, 64.

----, discovery of, 312.

Hudson’s Bay Company, account of the fur-trade of the, 304.

----, the old coureur des bois and the modern voyageur of, 304, 305.

----, history of the, 307.

----, formation of a rival company, and subsequent amalgamation of the
two, 307–310.

----, palmy days of the, 310.

----, its reconstruction in 1863, 310.

----, its trading-posts, and their management, 310, 311.

----, its efforts to civilize the native tribes, 312.

----, the standard of exchange, the beaver-skin, 313.

----, extent of the fur-trade of, 313.

----, account of the fur-bearing animals of the Territory, 313, 314.

Hudson river, discovery of the, 342.

Hudson’s Straits, Sebastian Cabot’s discovery of, 335.

Humboldt Glacier, the Great, 50.

----, Kane’s description of the, 367.

Humming-bird on the peninsula of Aliaska, 269.

---- in Newfoundland, 378.

---- of Patagonia, 420.

Huts of the Esquimaux, 293.

---- of the Icelanders, 102.

Hvalö, island of, 129.

Hvita river, in Iceland, 78.

I.

Ice, vast fields of, in the plateaus of Spitzbergen, Greenland, and
Nova Zembla, 27.

----, floating masses of, in the Polar seas, 45.

----, enormous extent of the Polar glaciers, 49, 50.

----, causes which prevent the accumulation of Polar ice, 55, 56.

----, a bad conductor of heat, 57.

----, ice-fields of Iceland, 69.

----, glaciers, ice-cliffs, and avalanches of Spitzbergen, 135, 136.

----, impediments offered by the hummocks to travellers on the
Polar sea, 240.

----, icebergs of the Antarctic sea, 392.

----, ice-caves of Greenland, 390.

----, the great ice-barrier of the Antarctic Ocean, 403.

----, pack-ice of the Antarctic Ocean, 404, 405.

Icebergs, 46.

----, forms and size of, 48.

----, origin of, 48.

----, localities in which most of the icebergs of the North Atlantic
are formed, 49.

----, Dr. Hayes’s description of, in a midnight sun, 50.

----, how distinguished at night and in fogs, 52.

----, dangers of collisions with, 52.

----, protection to ships afforded by, 53.

----, dangers of anchoring to, 53.

Icebergs, “calving” of, 54.

----, crumbling of, 54.

Ice-blink, description of the phenomenon of, 54.

----, its advantages to the Arctic navigator, 54.

Ice-fields, 46.

----, hummocks on, 46.

----, collision of, 48.

----, dangers caused by, to ships, 48.

Ice-grotto of Surts-hellir, 77.

Iceland, volcanic origin of, 68.

----, the country in winter and in summer, 68, 79.

----, sterile portions of the island, 69.

----, its immense ice-fields, 69.

----, its lava-streams, 69, 77.

----, the burning mountains of Krisuvik, 69.

----, the mud-caldrons and hot springs, 70.

----, the Great Geysir, 71.

----, the Strokkr, 72.

----, crystal pools, 73.

----, the Almannagja, 73, 74.

----, the Surts-hellir, or caves of Surtur, 77.

----, rivers and cascades of, 78.

----, influence of the ocean currents on the climate, 78.

----, mean annual temperature, 79.

----, absence of trees in, 79.

----, vegetation and condition of agriculture, 79.

----, indigenous land quadrupeds, 80.

----, cattle of the Icelanders, 80.

----, beverages, 80.

----, mode of shearing sheep, 80.

----, characteristics and number of horses, 80.

----, the reindeer, 80, 81.

----, the polar bear, 81.

----, the eider-duck, 81, 88.

----, the giant auk, 85, 86.

----, Icelandic fish and fishing season, 86, 87.

----, hospitality of the people, 87.

----, minerals of the country, 88.

----, fuel used by the Icelanders, 88.

----, history of, 89.

----, Naddodr’s discovery of the Ice Land, 89;
which he named Snowland, 99.

----, circumnavigated by the pirate Gadar, and called by him
Gardar’s holm, 90.

----, visited by the viking Floki, and called by him Iceland, 90.

----, foundation of Reykjavik by Ingolfr and Leif, 90.

----, exodus from Norway to, 91.

----, introduction of the Norwegian language and customs, 91.

----, code of laws of Uffliot the Wise, 91.

----, the ancient Althing at Thingvalla, 91, 92.

----, introduction of Christianity into the island, 92.

----, the golden age of Icelandic literature, 94.

----, history of, annexation of the island to Norway, 95.

----, its subsequent misfortunes, 95.

----, volcanic eruptions, 95.

----, misery caused by the curse of monopoly, 97.

----, hope for the future of the islanders, 97.

----, account of the Icelanders of the present day, 98.

----, Skalkott, the former capital of the island, 98.

----, the present capital, Reykjavik, 100.

----, state of trade in, 100.

----, the merchant and the peasant, 101.

----, temperate habits of the people, 101.

----, condition of agriculture, 102.

Iceland, a harvest home, 102.

----, winter life, 102, 108, 109.

----, huts of the Icelanders, 102, 103.

----, churches, 104.

----, clergymen all blacksmiths, 101, _note_, 106;
their poverty, 106–108.

----, the Iceland poet, John Thorlakson, 107.

----, education of the clergy and children, 108, 109.

----, industry and thirst for knowledge of the people, 109;
their language, 109.

----, the library of Reykjavik, 109.

----, the Icelandic Literary Society, 110.

----, Icelandic newspapers, 110.

----, health of the people, 110.

----, difficulties and expense of travelling, 110–113.

---- moss, eaten and exported by the Icelanders, 79.

---- moss, food for the deer of Spitzbergen, 137.

----, in the treeless zone, 21.

Idols of the Samoïedes, 180.

Igloolik, island of, 348.

Iligliuk, the Esquimaux, her intelligence and passion for music, 348.

Indians, Red, their enmity with the Esquimaux, 294.

----, their decimation by smallpox and drunkenness, 308.

----, efforts of the Hudson’s Bay Company to civilize them, 312, 313.

----, the beaver skin their standard of exchange with the Company, 313.

Inglefield, Captain, his search for Franklin, 359.

----, his discoveries, 365.

Ingolfr, the Norwegian yarl, his visit to Iceland, and foundation of
Reykjavik, 90.

Innuits, the, _see also_ Esquimaux, 433, 467.

----, their character, 439, 461.

----, amusement of, 440.

----, their dwellings, 443, 457, 462.

----, distress in winter, 444.

----, seal, feasts of, 445.

----, mode of capturing seals, 446, 448, 452.

----, their dogs, 445, 450, 454.

----, their opinion of the bear, 451.

----, mode of hunting the walrus, 454.

----, their implements, 456.

----, mode of constructing an igloo, 457.

----, their use of the reindeer, 458.

----, their clothing, 460.

----, reindeer feasts, 459.

----, food and mode of eating, 460.

----, their religious ideas, 460.

----, treatment of the sick, 461.

----, gradual extinction, 462.

Insects of Taimurland, 227.

Irish colonists on the Westman Islands, 115.

Irkutsk, extreme cold of, 208.

----, Wrangell’s visit to, 233.

----, summer flowers of, 233.

Iron mines near Drontheim, 124.

Isabella, Cape, discovery of, 365.

Ishemsk, Castrén’s visit to, 174.

----, the Isprawnik of, and his wife, 174, 176.

Islands within the Arctic Circle, barren grounds of the, 18.

Isleif, the oldest chronicler of the North, 98.

Issakow, of Kem, rounds the north-eastern extremity of Nova
Zembla, 150.

Itälmenes, cruelty of their conquerors, the Russians, 198.

Ivan Wasiljewitsch I., first Czar of Russia, his defeat of the
Tartars, 191.

Ivan Wasiljewitsch I., subdues the Great Novgorod, 191.

----, becomes head of the Greek orthodox Church and the first Czar, 192.

----, Chancellor’s visit to him at Moscow, 336.

Ivan Wasiljewitsch II., his conquest of Kasan, 192.

----, his surname of the Terrible, 192.

Ivory, fossil, in the islands of New Siberia, 202.

Iwalo river, in Lapland, Castrén’s journey on the, 169.

J.

Jakowlew family, 219.

----, their enormous wealth in gold mines, 219.

Jakuts, the, confirmed by the Czar in their possessions, 199.

----, their snares and traps, 213.

----, their energy and cunning, 228.

----, their language, origin, character, and personal appearance, 228.

----, their summer and winter huts, 229.

----, their horses, 230.

----, their powers of endurance and sharpness of vision, 230.

----, their manufactures and articles of dress, 231.

----, their gluttony, 231.

----, the universal carriers to the east of the Lena, 231.

----, their superstitions, 232.

----, their offerings of horsehair to the spirit of the mountains, 232.

----, their songs, 232.

----, wretched condition of the river, 252.

Jakutsk, mean temperature of, in summer and winter, 27.

----, extreme cold of, 208.

----, gloomy appearance of the town, 233.

----, trade of, 233.

Jan Meyen, description of, 146.

Jelly, made from the horns and claws of the reindeer, 37.

Jelly-fish (_Pleurobrachia pileus_) in the sea of Kara, 151.

Jenissei river, Castrén’s journey to the, 176.

Jeniseisk, Castrén’s visit to, 177.

----, the ostrog of, founded, 195.

Jyrfalcon (_Falco gyrfalco_), its head-quarters in Iceland, 85.

----, former trade in the, 85.

Jilibeambaertje, or Num, the Supreme Being of the Samoïedes, 179.

“John, Gentleman,” the English pirate, 118.

John’s, St., capital of Newfoundland, 378.

Jökuls, or ice-mountains of Iceland, 68.

Jökulsa i Axarfirdi river, in Iceland, 78.

Jökulsa river, in Iceland, 78.

Jones’s Sound, discovery of the entrance to, 343.

Jukahires, chief resource of those of the Aniuj, 237.

----, Jelissei Busa’s residence among the, 195.

K.

Kadiak, island of, discovery of the, 202.

Kaiak, island of, landing of Stella on the, 249.

“Kalewala,” Castrén’s Swedish translation of the, 170.

Kamchatka, subjugation of, by the Russians, 198.

----, cruelty of the conquerors, 198.

Kamchatka, Steller’s scientific journey to, 248.

----, its climate and fertility, 254.

----, abundance of fish in the rivers, 255.

----, bird-catchers of, 255.

----, population, 255.

----, mountain chain and volcanoes, 256.

----, climate and mineral springs, 256.

----, harbors and population, 256.

----, healthiness of the people, 257.

----, their food, 258.

----, their animals, 258, 260.

----, character of the people, 260, 261.

Kane, Dr., his Arctic voyages, 365.

----, his account of his first winter in Rensselaer Bay, 365.

----, his description of the Polar night, 366.

----, his sledge journey along the coast of Greenland, 367.