Chapter CXV: Act 1895: , may be given to a married woman on applying to (4)

ALLEN, WILLIAM (1532-1594), English cardinal, born at Rossall, Lancashire, went in 1547 to Oriel College, Oxford, and in 1556 became principal of St Mary Hall and proctor. According to Anthony Wood, he was appointed to a canonry at York in or about 1558; he therefore had already entered the clerical state by receiving the tonsure. On the accession of Elizabeth, he was deprived upon refusing the oath of supremacy, but remained in Ihe university until 1561. His known opposition to the new learning in religion giving much offence, he escaped from England and went to Louvain, where were gathered many students who had left the English universities for conscience' sake. Here he continued his theological studies and began to write controversial treatises. In 1562, on account of health, he returned secretly to Lancashire and did much, by exhortation and private meetings, to restrain those Catholics who attended the new services in order to save their property from confiscation. His presence being known to the government, he left Lancashire and retired to the neighbourhood of Oxford, which he frequently visited, and where he influenced many of the students. After writing a treatise in defence of the priestly power to remit sins, he was obliged to leave and retired to Norfolk, leaving England soon after in 1565. He returned to Flanders, was ordained at Malines, and began to lecture in theology at the Benedictine college in that city. In 1567 he went to Rome for the first time, and there began his plan for establishing a college where English students could live together and finish their theological course. The idea subsequently developed into the establishing of a missionary college, or seminary, to keep up a supply of priests for England as long as the country remained separated from the Holy See. With the help of friends, and notably of the Benedictine abbots of the neighbouring monasteries, a college was established at Douai (September 29, 1568); and here Allen was joined by many of the English exiles. This college, the first of the seminaries ordered by the council of Trent, received the papal approval shortly after its establishment; the king of Spain took it under his protection and assigned it an annual grant. Allen continued his own theological studies and, after taking his doctorate, became regius professor at the university. Gregory XIII. in 1575 granted him a monthly pension of 100 golden crowns, and, as the number of students had now risen to one hundred and twenty, summoned him to Rome to undertake the establishing of a similar college in the papal city. By Allen's advice, the old English hospice was turned into a seminary and Jesuits were placed there to help Dr Maurice Clennock, the rector. The pope appointed Allen to a canonry in Courtrai and sent him back to Douai (July 1576); but here he had to face a new difficulty. Besides the reported plots to assassinate him by agents of the English government, the insurgents against Spain, urged on by Elizabeth's emissaries, expelled the students from Douai as being partisans of the enemy (March 1578). Allen moved his establishment to Reims under the protection of the house of Guise; and it was here that the English translation of the Scriptures, known as the Douai Version, was begun under his direction (see BIBLE, ENGLISH.) In 1577 he began a correspondence with Robert Parsons (q.v.), the Jesuit, an intimacy that was fraught with disaster. He was summoned again to Rome in 1579 to quell the first of the many disturbances that befell the English college under the Jesuit influence. Brought now into personal contact with Parsons, Allen fell completely under the dominating personality of the redoubtable Jesuit, and gave himself up entirely to his influence. He arranged that the Society should take over the English college at Rome and should begin the Jesuit mission to England (1580). This short-sighted policy was the cause of much grave trouble in the near future. Returning to Reims he began to take a part in all the political intrigues which Parsons' fertile brain had hatched for the promotion of the Spanish interest in England. Allen's political career dates from this period. Parsons had already intended to remove Allen from the seminary at Reims, and for this purpose, as far back as the 6th of April 1581, had recommended him to Philip II. to be promoted to the cardinalate. In furtherance of the intrigues, Allen and Parsons went to Rome again in 1585 and there Allen was kept for the rest of his life. In 1587, during the time that he was being skilfully played with by Philip's agents, he wrote, helped by Parsons, a shameless defence of a shameful deed. Sir William Stanley, an English olficer, had surrendered Deventer to the Spaniards; and Allen wrote a book in defence of Stanley, saying that all Englishmen were bound, under pain of damnation, to follow the traitorous example, as Elizabeth was no lawful queen. He shared in all the projects for the invasion of England, and was to have been archbishop of Canterbury and lord chancellor had they succeeded. Representing in reality only his own party, Allen had on the continent the position of the head of the Roman Catholics of England; and as such, just after the death of Mary, queen of Scots, he wrote to Philip II. (March 19, 1587) to exhort him to undertake the enterprise against England, and declared that the Catholics there were clamouring for the king to come and punish ``this woman, hated by God and man.'' After much negotiation, he was made cardinal by Sixtus V. on the 7th of August 1587, nominally to supply the loss of the queen of Scotland, but in reality to ensure the success of the Armada. On his promotion Allen wrote to Reims that he owed the hat, under God, to Parsons. One of his first acts was to issue, under his own name, two violent works for the purpose of inciting the Catholics of England to rise against Elizabeth: ``The Declaration of the Sentence of Sixtus V.'' a broadside, and a book, All Admonition to the nobility and people of England (Antwerp, 1588). On the failure of the Armada, Philip, to get rid of the burthen of supporting Allen as a cardinal, nominated him to the archbishopric of Malines, but the canonical appointment was never made. Gregory XIV. made him librarian at the Vatican; and he served on the commission for the revision of the Vulgate. He took part in four conclaves, but never had any real influence after the failure of the Armada. Before his death, which took place in Rome on the 16th of October 1594, he found reasons to change his mind concerning the wisdom of the Jesuit politics in Rome and England, and would have tried to curb their activities, had he been spared. The rift became so great that ten years after his death, Agazzari could write to Parsons: ``So long as Allen walked in this matter (the scheme for England) in union with and fidelity to the Company, as he used to do, God preserved him, prospered and exalted him; but when he began to leave this path, in a manner, the threads of his plans and life were cut short together.'' As a cardinal Allen had lived in poverty and he died in debt.

While we cannot withhold a tribute of respect from Allen for his zeal and earnestness, and recognize that his foundation at Douai survives to-day in the two Catholic colleges at Ushaw and Ware, it is impossible to deny that he injured the work with which his name will ever be associated, by his disastrous intercourse with Father Parsons. Known as a sharer in that plotter's schemes, he gave a reasonable pretext to Elizabeth's government for regarding the seminaries as hotbeds of sedition. That they were not so is abundantly proved. The superiors kept their political actions secret from the students, and would not allow such matters even to be talked about or treated as theoretical abstractions in the schools. Dr Barrett, writing (April 14, 1583) to Parsons, makes open complaint of Allen's secrecy and refusal to communicate. How far Allen was really admitted to the full confidence of Parsons is a question; and his later attitude to the Society goes to prove that he at last realized that he had been tricked. Like James II. with Fr. Petre, Allen had been ``bewitched'' for a time and only recovered himself when too late.

AUTHORITIES. -- T. F. Knox, Letters and Memorials of Cardinal Allen (London, 1882); A. Bellesheim, Wilhelm Cardinal Allen und die englischen Seminare auf dem Festlande (Mainz, 1885); First and Second Diaries of the English College, Douai (London, 1878); Nicholas Fitzherbert, De Antiquitate et continuatione religionis in Anglia et de Alani Cardinalis vita libellus (Rome, 1608); E. Taunton, History of the Jesuits in England (London, 1901); Teulet, vol. v.; the Spanish State Papers (Simancas), vols. iii. and iv.; a list of Allen's works is given in J. Gillow, Biographical Dictionary of English Catholics, vol. i., under his name. (E. TN.)

ALLEN, WILLIAM FRANCIS (1830-1889), American classical scholar, was born at Northborough, Massachusetts, on the 5th of September 1830. He graduated at Harvard College in 1851 and subsequently devoted himself almost entirely to literary work and teaching. In 1867 he became professor of ancient languages and history (afterwards Latin language and Roman history) in the university of Wisconsin. He died in December 1889. His contributions to classical literature chiefly consist of schoolbooks published in the Allen (his brother) and Greenough series. The Collection of Slave Songs (1867), of which he was joint-editor, was the first work of the kind ever published.

ALLEN, BOG OF, the name given to a congeries of morasses in Kildare, King's County, Queen's County and Westmeath, Ireland. Clane Bog, the eastern extremity, is within 17 m. of Dublin, and the morasses extend westward almost to the Shannon. Their total area is about 238,500 acres. They do not form one continuous bog, the tract of the country to which the name is given being intersected by strips of dry cultivated land. The rivers Brosna, Barrow and Boyne take their rise in these morasses, and the Grand and Royal canals cross them. The Bog of Allen has a general elevation of 250 ft. above sea level, and the average thickness of the peat of which it consists is 25 ft. It rests on a subsoil of clay and marl.

ALLENSTEIN, a garrison town of Germany, in the province of East Prussia, on the river Alle, 100 m. by rail N.E. from Thorn, and 30 m. from the Russian frontier. Pop. (1900) 24,295. It has a medieval castle, several churches, a synagogue and various industries--iron-foundries, saw-mills, brick-works, and breweries; also an extensive trade in cereals and timber.

ALLENTOWN, a city and the county-seat of Lehigh county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the Lehigh river, about 62 m. N.N.W. of Philadelphia. Pop. (1890) 25,228; (1900) 35,416, of whom 2994 were foreign-born, 1065 being of German birth; (1910) 51,913. It is served by the Central of New Jersey, the Lehigh Valley, the Perkiomen (of the Reading system) and the Philadelphia & Reading railways. The city is situated on high ground sloping gently towards the river and commanding diversified views of the surrounding country. Hamilton Street, the principal business thoroughfare, extends over 2 m. from E. to W., and in what was once the centre of the city is Centre Square, in which there is a monument to the memory of the soldiers and sailors who fell in the Civil War. Allentown is the seat of a state homoeopathic hospital for the insane, of the Allentown College for Women (Reformed Church, 1867), and of Muhlenberg College (1867), an Evangelical Lutheran institution which grew out of the Allentown Seminary (established in 1848 and incorporated as the ``Allentown Collegiate Institute and Military Academy'' in 1864); in 1907 the college had 191 students, of whom 109 were in the Allentown Preparatory School (1904), formerly the academic department of the college and still closely afliliated with it. The surrounding country is well adapted to agriculture, and slate, iron ore, cement rock and limestone are found in the vicinity. Allentown is an important manufacturing centre, and the value of its manufactured products increased 90.9% from 1890 to 1900, and of its factory product 13.2% between 1900 and 1905. In 1905 the city ranked sixth among the cities of the country in the manufacture of silk and silk goods, its most important industry. Other important manufactures are iron and steel, slaughtering and meat-packing products, boots and shoes, cigars, furniture, men's clothing, hosiery and knit goods, jute and jute goods, linen-thread, malt liquors, brick, cement, barbed wire, wire nails and planing-mill products. Allentown's total factory product in 1905 was valued at $16,966,550, of which $3,901,249, or 23%, was the value of silk and silk goods. The municipality owns and operates its water-works. Allentown was first settled in 1751; in 1762 it was laid out as a town by James Allen, the son of a chief-justice of the province, in honour of whose family the city is named; in 1811 it was incorporated as a borough and its name was changed to Northampton; in 1812 it was made the county-seat; in 1838 the present name was again adopted; and in 1867 the first city charter was secured. The silk industry was introduced in 1881.

ALLEPPI, or AULAPALAY, a seaport of southern India, in the state of Travancore, 33 m. south of Cochin, situated on a strip of coast between the sea and one of those backwaters that here form the chief means of inland communication. Pop. (1901) 24,918. There is a lighthouse, 85 ft. high, with a revolving white light visible 18 m. out at sea. Though the third town in the state in point of population, Alleppi is the first in commercial importance. It commands a fine harbour, affording safe anchorage for the greater part of the year. It was opened to foreign trade towards the latter end of the 18th century. The exports consist of coffee, pepper, cardamoms and coco-nuts. There are factories for coir-matting. The raja has a palace, and Protestant missionaries have a church.

ALLESTREE, or ALLESTRY, RICHARD (1619.-1681), royalist divine and provost of Eton College, son of Robert Allestree, and a descendant of an ancient Derbyshire family, was born at Uppington in Shropshire. He was educated at Coventry and later at Christ Church, Oxford, under Richard Busby. He entered as a commoner in 1636, was made student shortly afterwards, and took the degree of B.A. in 1640 and of M.A. in 1643. In 1642 he took up arms for the king under Sir John Biron. On the arrival of the parliamentary forces soon afterwards in Oxford he secreted the Christ Church valuables, and the soldiers found nothing in the treasury ``except a single groat and a halter in the bottom of a large iron chest.'' He escaped severe punishment only by the hasty retirement of the army from the town. He was present at the battle of Edgehill in October 1642, after which, while hastening to Oxford to prepare for the king's visit to Christ Church, he was captured by a troop of Lord Say's soldiers from Broughton House, being soon afterwards set free on the surrender of the place to the king's forces. In 1643 he was again under arms, performing ``all duties of a common soldier'' and ``frequently holding his musket in one hand and his book in the other.'' At the close of the Civil War, he returned to his studies, took holy orders, was made censor and became a ``noted tutor.'' But he still remained an ardent royalist. He voted for the university decree against the Covenant, and, refusing submission to the parliamentary visitors in 1648, he was expelled. He found a retreat as chaplain in the house of the Hon. Francis Newport, afterwards Viscount Newport, in whose interests he undertook a journey to France. On his return he joined two of his friends, Dolben and Fell, afterwards respectively archbishop of York and bishop of Oxford, then resident at Oxford, and later joined the household of Sir Antony Cope of Hanwell, near Banbury. He was now frequently employed in carrying despatches between the king and the royalists in England. In May 1659 he brought a command from Charles in Brussels, directing the bishop of Salisbury to summon all those bishops, who were then alive, to consecrate clergymen to various sees ``to secure a continuation of the order in the Church of England,'' then in danger of becoming extinct.1 While returning from one of these missions, in the winter before the Restoration, he was arrested at Dover and committed a prisoner to Lambeth Palace, then used as a gaol for apprehended royalists, but was liberated after confinement of a few weeks at the instance, among others, of Lord Shaftesbury. At the Restoration he became canon of Christ Church, D.D. and city lecturer at Oxford. In 1663 he was made chaplain to the king and regius professor of divinity. In 1665 he was appointed provost of Eton College, and proved himself a capable administrator. He introduced order into the disorganized finances of the college and procured the confirmation of Laud's decree, which reserved five of the Eton fellowships for members of King's College. His additions to the college buildings were less successful; for the ``Upper School,'' constructed by him at his own expense, was falling into ruin almost in his lifetime, and was replaced by the present structure in 1689. Allestree died on the 28th of January 1681, and was buried in the chapel at Eton College, where there is a Latin inscription to his memory. His writings are:--The Privileges of the Universily of Oxford in point of Visitation (1647)--a tract answered by Prynne in the University of Oxford's Plea Rejected; 18 sermons whereof 15 preached before the king . . . (1669); 40 sermons whereof 21 are now first published . . . (2 vols., 1684); sermons published separately including A Sermon on Acts xiii. 2, (1660); A Paraphrase and Annotations upon all the Epistles of St Paul (joint author with Abraham Woodhead and Obadiah Walker, 1675, see edition of 1853 and preface by W. Jacobson). In the Cases of Conscience by J. Barlow, Bishop of Lincoln (1692), Allestree's judgment on Mr Cottington's Case of Divorce is included. A share in the composition, if not the sole authorship, of the books published under the name of the author of the Whole Duty of Man has been attributed to Allestree (Nichols's Anecdotes, ii. 603), and the tendency of modern criticism is to regard him as the author. His lectures, with which he was dissatisfied, were not published. Allestree was a man of extensive learning, of moderate views and a fine preacher. He was generous and charitable, of ``a solid and masculine kindness,'' and of a temper hot, but completely under control.

AUTHORITIES.---Wood's Athenae Oxonienses (edited by Bliss), iii. 1269; W.ood's Fasti, i. 480, 514, ii. 57, 241, 370; Richard Allestree, 40 sermons, with biographical preface by Dr John Fell (2 vols., 1684); Sufferings of the Clergy, by John Walker; Architectural History of Eton and Cambridge, by R. Willis, i. 420; Hist. of Eton College, by Sir H. C. Maxwell-Lyte; Hist. of Eton College, by Lionel Cust (1899); Egerton MSS., Brit. Mus. 2807 f. 197 b. For Allestree's authorship of the Whole Duty of Man, see Rev. F. Barham, Journal of Sacred Literature, July 1864, and C. E. Doble's articles in the Academy, November 1884. (P. C. Y.)

1 Egerton MSS., Brit. Mus. 2807 f. 197 b; Li/e of Dr John Barwick, ed. by G. F. Barwick (1903), pp. 107, 129, 134.

ALLEY (from the Fr: allee, a walk), a narrow passageway between two buildings available only for foot passengers or hand-carts, sometimes entered only at one end and known as a ``blind alley,'' or cul-de-sac. The name is also given to the long narrow enclosures where bowls or skittles are played.

ALLEYN, EDWARD (1566-1626), English actor and founder of Dulwich College, was born in London on the 1st of September 1566, the son of an innkeeper. It is not known at what date he began to act, but he certainly gained distinction in his calling while a young man, for in 1586 his name was on the list of the earl of Worcester's players, and he was eventually rated by common consent as the foremost actor of his time. Ben Jonson, a critic little prone to exalt the merits of men of mark among his contemporaries, bestowed unstinted praise on Alleyn's acting (Epigrams, No. 89). Nash expresses in prose, in Pierce Penniless, his admiration of him, while Heywood calls him ``inimitable,'' ``the best of actors,'' ``Proteus for shapes and Roscius for a tongue.'' Alleyn inherited house property in Bishopsgate from his father. His marriage on the 22nd of October 1592 with Joan Woodward, stepdaughter of Philip Henslowe, brought him eventually more wealth. He became part owner in Henslowe's ventures, and in the end sole proprietor of several play-houses and other profitable pleasure resorts. Among these were the Rose Theatre at Bankside, the Paris Garden and the Fortune Theatre in St Luke's--the latter occupied by the earl of Nottingham's company, of which Alleyn was the head. He filled, too, in conjunction with Henslowe, the post of ``master of the king's games of bears, bulls and dogs.'' On some occasions he directed the sport in person, and Stow in his Chronicles gives an account of how Alleyn baited a lion before James I. at the Tower.

Alleyn's connexion with Dulwich began in 1605, when he bought the manor of Dulwich from Sir Francis Cation. The landed property, of which the entire estate had not passed into Alleyn's hands earlier than 1614, stretched from the crest of that range of Surrey hills on whose summit now stands the Crystal Palace, to the crest of the parallel ridge, three miles nearer London, known in its several portions as Herne Hill, Denmark Hill and Champion Hill. Alleyn acquired this large property for little more than L. 10,000. He had barely got full possession, however, before the question how to dispose of it began to occupy him. He was still childless, after twenty years of wedded life. Then it was that the prosperous player--the man ``so acting to the life that he made any part to become him'' (Fuller, Worthies)--began the task of building and endowing in his own lifetime the College of God's Gift at Dulwich. All was completed in 1617 except the charter or deed of incorporation for setting his lands in mortmain. Tedious delays occurred in the Star Chamber, where Lord Chancellor Bacon was scheming to bring the pressure of kingly authority to bear on Alleyn with the aim of securing a large portion of the proposed endowment for the maintenance of lectureships at Oxford and Cambridge. Alleyn finally carried his point and the College of God's Gift at Dulwich was founded, and endowed under letters patent of James I., dated the 21st of June 1619. The building had been already begun in 1613 (see DULWICH.) Alleyn was never a member of his own foundation, but he continued to the close of his life to guide and control its affairs under powers reserved to himself in the letters patent. His diary shows that he mixed much and intimately in the life of the college. Many of the jottings in that curious record of daily doings and incidents favour the inference that he was a genial, kind, amiable and religious man. His fondness for his old profession is indicated by the fact that he engaged the boys in occasional theatrical performances. At a festive gathering on the 6th of January 1622 ``the boyes play'd a playe.''

Alleyn's first wife died in 1623. The same year he married Constance, daughter of John Donne, the poet and dean of St Paul's. Alleyn died in November 1626 and was buried in the chapel of the college which he had founded. His gravestone fixes the day of his death as the 21st, but there are grounds for the belief that it was the 25th. A portrait of the actor is preserved at Dulwich. Alleyn was a member of the corporation of wardens of St Saviour's, Southwark, in 1610, and there is a memorial window to him in the cathedral.

ALL FOURS, a card game (known also in America as Seven Up, Old Sledge or High-Low-Jack) usually played by two players, though four may play. A full pack is used and each player receives seven counters. Four points can be scored, one each for high, the highest trump out, for low, the lowest trump dealt, for Jack, the knave of trumps, and for game, the majority of pips in the cards of the tricks that a player has won. Ace counts 4, King 3, Queen 2, Knave 1, and ten 10 points. Low is scored by the person to whom it is dealt; High of course wins a trick; Jack is scored by the player who finally has it among his tricks. If Jack is turned up the dealer scores the point. A player who plays a high or low trump is entitled to ask if they are High or Low. The game is 10 or 11 points. Six cards are dealt to each, the thirteenth being turned up for trumps. The non-dealer may propose or beg if he does not like his hand. If the dealer refuses the elder hand scores a point; if he consents he gives and takes three more cards, the seventh being turned up for trumps, which must be of a different suit from the original trump card; otherwise six more cards are dealt out, and so on till a fresh trump suit appears. The non-dealer then leads; the other must trump or follow suit, or forfeit a point. Jack may be played to any trick. Each pair of cards is a trick, and is collected by the winner. A fresh deal may be claimed if the dealer exposes one of his adversary's cards, or if he gives himself or his adversary too few or too many. In that case the error must be discovered before a card is played (see also AUCTION PITCH.)

ALLIA (mod. Fosso Bettinia), a small tributary of the river Tiber, joining it on the left (east) bank, about 11 m. N. of Rome. It gave its name to the terrible defeat which the Romans suffered at the hands of the Gauls on the 18th of July 390 B.C. Livy (v. 37) and Diodorus (v. 114) differ with regard to the site of the battle, the former putting it on the left, the latter on the right bank of the Tiber. Mommsen and others support Diodorus, but the question still remains open.

See T. Ashby in Papers of the British School at Rome, iii. 24.

ALLIANCE, a city of Stark county, Ohio, U. S. A., on the Mahoning river, about 57 m. S.E. of Cleveland, about 1080 ft. above the sea, and about 505 ft. above the level of Lake Erie. Pop. (1890) 7607; (1900) 8974, of whom 1029 were foreign-born: (1906, estimate) 9796. It is served by the Pennsylvania and the Lake Erie, Alliance & Wheeling railways, and by an electric line connecting with Canton and Salem. The city is the seat of Mount Union College (Methodist Episcopal), opened in 1846 as a preparatory school and having in 1907 a library of about 10,000 volumes, a collegiate department (opened in 1858), a normal department (1858), a school of music (1855), a commercial school (1868), a faculty of 29 teachers, and an enrolment of 524 students, of whom 274 were women. Among the manufactures of Alliance are structural iron, steel castings, pressed sheet steel, gun carriages, boilers, travelling cranes, pipe organs, street-car indicators, sashes and doors, and account registers and other material for file and cabinet-bookkeeping. The municipality owns and operates its water-works. Alliance was first settled in 1838, when it was laid out as a town and was named Freedom; it was named Alliance in 1851, was incorporated as a village in 1854, and became a city of the second class in 1888.

ALLIANCE, in international law, a league between independent states, defined by treaty, for the purpose of combined action, defensive or offensive, or both. Alliances have usually been directed to specific objects carefully defined in the treaties. Thus the Triple Alliance of 1688 between Great Britain, Sweden and the Netherlands, and the Grand Alliance of 1689 between the emperor, Holland, England, Spain and Saxony, were both directed against the power of Louis XIV. The Quadruple or Grand Alliance of 1814, defined in the treaty of Chaumont, between Great Britain, Austria, Russia and Prussia, had for its object the overthrow of Napoleon and his dynasty, and the confining of France within her traditional boundaries. The Triple Alliance of 1882 between Germany, Austria and Italy was ostensibly directed to the preservation of European peace against any possible aggressive action of France or Russia; and this led in turn, some ten years later, to the Dual Alliance between Russia and France, for mutual support in case of any hostile action of the other powers. Occasionally, however, attempts have been made to give alliances a more general character. Thus the ``Holy Alliance'' (q.v.) of the 26th of September 1815 was an attempt, inspired by the religious idealism of the emperor Alexander I. of Russia, to find in the ``sacred precepts of the Gospel'' a common basis for a general league of the European governments, its object being, primarily, the preservation of peace. So, too, by Article VI. of the Quadruple Treaty signed at Paris on the 20th of November 1815--which renewed that of Chaumont and was again renewed, in 1818, at Aix-la-Chapelle--the scope of the Grand Alliance was extended to objects of common interest not specifically defined in the treaties. The article runs:--``In order to consolidate the intimate tie which unites the four sovereigns for the happiness of the world, the High Contracting Powers have agreed to renew at fixed intervals, either under their own auspices or by their respective ministers, meetings consecrated to great common objects and to the examination of such measures as at each one of these epochs shall be judged most salutary for the peace and prosperity of the nations and the maintenance of the tranquillity of Europe.''

It was this article of the treaty of the 20th of November 1815, rather than the ``Holy Alliance,'' that formed the basis of the serious effort made by the great powers, between 1815 and 1822, to govern Europe in concert, which will be found outlined in the article on the history of Europe. In general it proved that an alliance, to be effective, must be clearly defined as to its objects, and that in the long run the treaty in which these objects are defined must---to quote Bismarck's somewhat cynical dictum --``be reinforced by the interests'' of the parties concerned. Yet the ``moral alliance'' of Europe, as Count Nesselrode called it, though it failed to secure the permanent harmony of the powers, was an effective instrument for peace during the years immediately following the downfall of Napoleon; and it set the precedent for those periodical meetings of the representatives of the powers, for the discussion and settlement of questions of international importance, which, though cumbrous and inefficient for constructive work, have contributed much to the preservation of the general peace (see EUROPE: History.) (W. A. P.)

ALLIARIA OFFICINALIS, also known botanically as Sisymbrium Alliaria, and popularly as garlic-mustard, Jack-by-the-hedge, or sauce-alone, a common hedge-bank plant belonging to the natural order Cruciferae. It is a rankly scented herb, 2 to 3 ft. high, with long-stalked, coarsely-toothed leaves, and small white flowers which are succeeded by stout long four-sided pods. It is widely spread through the north temperate region of the Old World.

ALLIBONE, SAMUEL AUSTIN (1816-1889), American author and bibliographer, was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 17th of April 1816, of French Huguenot and Quaker ancestry. He was privately educated and for many years was engaged in mercantile business in his native city. He, however, devoted himself chiefly to reading and to bibliographical research; acquired a very unusual knowledge of English and American literature, and is remembered as the compiler of the well-known Critical Dictionary of English Literature and British and American Authors (3 vols.: vol. i. 1854, vols. ii. and iii. 1871). To this, two supplementary volumes, edited by John Foster Kirk, were added in 1891. From 1867 to 1873, and again in 1877-1879, Allibone was book editor and corresponding secretary of the American Sunday School Union; and from 1879 to 1888 he was librarian of the Lenox Library, New York City. He died at Lucerne, Switzerland, on the 2nd of September 1889. In addition to his Critical Dictionary he published three large anthologies and several religious tracts.

See the ``Memoir'' by S. D. M`Connell, an address delivered before the Historical Society of Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1890).

ALLIER (anc. Elaver), a river of central France flowing into the Loire. It rises in the department of Lozere, among the Margeride mountains, a few miles east of the town of Mende. The upper course of the Allier separates the mountains of the Margeride from those of the Velay and lies for the most part through deep gorges. The river then traverses the plains of Langeac and Brioude, and receives the waters of the Alagnon some miles above the town of Issoire. Swelled by torrents from the mountains of Dore and Dome, it unites with the river Dore at its entrance to the department to which it gives its name. It then flows through a wide but shallow channel, joining the Sioule some distance above Moulins, the chief town on its banks. It soon after becomes the boundary line between the departments of Cher and Nievre, and reaches the Loire 4 m. west of Nevers, after a course of 269 m. Its basin has an area of 6755 sq. m. The Allier is classed as navigable for the last 154 m. of its course, but there is little traffic on it.

ALLIER, a department of central France, formed in 1790 from the old province of Bourbonnais. Pop. (1906) 417,961. Area, 2849 sq. m. It is bounded N. by the department of Nievre, E. by Saone-et-Loire, from which it is divided by the river Loire, S.E. by Loire, S. by Puy-de-Dome, S.W. by Crouse and N.W. by Cher. Situated on the northern border of the Central Plateau, the department slopes from south to north. Its highest altitudes are found in the south-east, in the Bois-Noirs, where one point reaches 4239 ft., and in the Monts de la Madeleine. Plains alternating with forests occupy the northern zone of the department, while the central and western regions form an undulating and well-watered plateau. Entering the department in the south, and, like the other chief rivers, flowing almost due north, the Allier drains the central district, receiving on its left the Sioule. East of the Allier is the Bebre, which joins the Loire within the limits of the department; and on the west the Cher, with its tributary the Aumance. Rigorous and rainy in the south-east, the climate elsewhere is milder though subject to sudden variations. Agriculturally the department is flourishing, the valleys of the Allier and the Sioule known as the Limagne Bourbonnaise comprising its most fertile portion. Wheat, oats, barley and other cereals are grown and exported, and owing to the abundance of pasture and forage, sheep and cattle-rearing are actively carried on. Potatoes and mangels yield good crops. Wines of fair quality are grown in the valley of the Sioule; walnuts, chestnuts, plums, apples and pears are principal fruits. Goats, from the milk of which choice cheese is made, and pigs are plentiful. A large area is under forests, the oak, beech, fir, birch and hornbeam being the principal trees. The mineral waters at Vichy (q.v.), Neris, Theneuille, Cusset and Bourbon l'Archambault are in much repute. The mineral wealth of the department is considerable, including coal as well as manganese and bituminous schist; plaster, building stone and hydraulic lime are also produced. Manufactories of porcelain, glass and earthenware are numerous. Montlucon and Commentry are ironworking centres. There are flour mills, breweries and saw-mills; and paper, chemicals, wooden shoes, wool and woollen goods are produced. Besides the products of the soil Allier exports coal, mineral waters and cattle for the Paris market. Building materials, brandy and coal are among the imports. The railways belong chiefly to the Orleans and Paris-Lyons-Mediterranean companies. The lateral canal of the Loire, the Berry Canal and the canal from Roanne to Digoin together traverse about 57 m. in the department. Allier is divided into the arrondissements of Moulins, Gannat, Lapalisse and Montlucon (29 cantons, 321 communes). It forms the diocese of Moulins and part of the ecclesiastical province of Bourges, and falls within the academie (educational division) of Clermont-Ferrand and the region of the XIII. army-corps. Its court of appeal is at Riom. Moulins, the capital, Montlucon and Vichy, are the principal towns. Souvigny possesses the church of a famous Cluniac priory dating from the 1ith-12th and 15th centuries, and containing the splendid tombs (15th century) of Louis II. and Charles I. of Bourbon. At St Menoux, Ebreuil and Gannat there are fine Romanesque churches. Huriel has a church of the 11th century and a well-preserved keep, the chief survival of a medieval castle. St Pourcain-sur-Sioule has a large church, dating from the 11th to the 18th centuries. The castle of Bourbon l'Archambault, which belonged to the dukes of Bourbon, dates from the 13th and 15th centuries. The Romanesque churches of Veauce and Ygrande, and the chateaus of Veauce and Lapalisse, are also of interest, the latter belonging to the family of Chabannes.

ALLIES, THOMAS WILLIAM (1813-1903), English historical writer, was born at Midsomer Norton, near Bristol, on the 12th of February 1813. He was educated at Eton and at Wadham College, Oxford, of which he became a fellow in 1833. In 1840 Bishop Blomfield of London appointed him his examining chaplain and presented him to the rectory of Launton, Oxfordshire, which he resigned in 1850 on becoming a Roman Catholic. Allies was appointed secretary to the Catholic poor school committee in 1853, a position which he occupied till 1890. He died in London on the 17th of June 1903. Allies was one of the ablest of the English churchmen who joined the Church of Rome in the early period of the Oxford movement, his chief work, The Formation of Christendom (London, 8 vols., 1865-1895) showing much originality of thought and historical knowledge. His other writings: St Peter, his Name and Office (1852); The See of St Peter, the Rock of the Church (1850); Per Crucem ad Lucem (2 vols., 1879), have gone through many editions and been translated into several languages.

See his autobiography, A Life's Decision (1880); and the study of his daughier, Mary H. Allies, Thomas Allies, the Story of a Mind (London, 1906), which contains a full bibliography of his works.

ALLIFAE (mod. Alife), a town of the Samnites, 15 m. N.W. of Telesia, and 17 m. E.N.E. of Teanum. The site of the Samnite city, which in the 4th century B.C. had a coinage of its own, is not known; the Roman town lay in the valley of the Vulturnus, and its walls (4th century) enclose a circuit of 1 1/2 m., in which are preserved remains of large baths ( Thermae Herculis) and a theatre.

ALLIGATOR (Spanish el lagarto, ``the lizard''), an animal so closely allied to the crocodile that some naturalists have classed them together as forming one genus. It differs from the true crocodile principally in having the head broader and shorter, and the snout more obtuse; in having the fourth, enlarged tooth of the under jaw received, not into an external notch, but into a pit formed for it within the upper one; in wanting a jagged fringe which appears on the hind legs and feet of the crocodile; and in having the toes of the hind feet webbed not more than half way to the tips. Alligators proper occur in the fluviatile deposits of the age of the Upper Chalk in Europe, where they did not die out until the Pliocene age; they are now restricted to two species, A. mississippiensis or lucius in the southern states of North America up to 12 ft. in length, and the small A. sinensis in the Yang-tse-kiang. In Central and South America alligators are represented by five species of the genus Caiman, which differs from Alligator by the absence of a bony septum between the nostrils, and the ventral armour is composed of overlapping bony scutes, each of which is formed of two parts united by a suture. C. sclerops, the spectacled alligator, has the widest distribution, from southern Mexico to the northern half of Argentina, and grows to a bulky size. The largest, attaining an enormous bulk and a length of 20 ft., is the C. niger, the jacare-assu or large caiman of the Amazons. The names ``alligator'' and ``crocodile'' are often confounded in popular speech; and the structure and habits of the two animals are so similar that both are most conveniently considered under the heading CROCODILE.

ALLINGHAM, WILLIAM (1824-1889), Irish man of letters and poet, was born at Ballyshannon, Donegal, on the 19th of March 1824 (or 1828, according to some authorities), and was the son of the manager of a local bank. He obtained a post in the custom-house of his native town and filled several similar situations in Ireland and England until 1870, when he had retired from the service, and became sub-editor of Fraser's Magazine, which he edited from 1874 to 1879. He had published a volume of Poems in 1850, followed by Day and Night Songs, a volume containing many charming lyrics, in 1855. Allingham was on terms of close friendship with D. G. Rossetti, who contributed to the illustration of the Songs. His Letters to Allingham (1854-1870) were edited by Dr Birkbeck Hill in 1897. Lawrence Bloomfield, a narrative poem illustrative of Irish social questions, appeared in 1864. Allingham married in 1874 Helen Paterson, known under her married name as a water-colour painter. He died at Hampstead on the 18th of November 1889. Though working on an unostentatious scale, Allingham produced much excellent lyrical and descriptive poetry, and the best of his pieces are thoroughly national in spirit and local colouring.

William Allingham: a Diary (1907), edited by Mrs Allingham and D. Radford, contains many interesting reminiscences of Tennyson, Carlyle and other famous contemporaries.

ALLISON, WILLIAM BOYD (1829-1908), American legislator, was born at Perry, Ohio, on the 2nd of March 1829. Educated at Allegheny and Western Reserve Colleges, he studied law, and practised in Ohio until 1857. In that year he settled in Dubuque, Iowa, where he took a prominent part in Republican politics; and in 1860 he was a delegate to the national convention at Chicago which nominated Abraham Lincoln for the presidency. In 1861 he was appointed a member of the staff of Governor Samuel J. Kirkwood (1813-1894), and was of great service in the work of equipping and organizing the Iowa volunteers. From 1863 until 1871 he served with distinction in the House of Representatives; in 1873 he was elected to the United States Senate, and re-elected in 1878, 1884, 1890, 1896 and 1902. Here he became one of the highest authorities on questions connected with finance, and from 1877 he was a member of the Senate committee on finance. In 1881-1893, and again from 1895, he was chairman of the committee on appropriations, in which position he had great influence. He declined offers of the secretaryship of the treasury made to him by Presidents Garfield and Harrison. He was a prominent candidate for the presidential nomination in the Republican national conventions of 1888 and 1896. In 1892 he was chairman of the American delegation to the International Monetary Conference at Brussels. He died at Dubuque, Iowa, on the 4th of August 1908.

ALLITERATION (from Lat. ad, to, and littera, letter), the commencing of two or more words, in close juxtaposition, with the same sound. As Milton defined rhyme to be ``the jingling sound of like endings,'' so alliteration is the jingle of like beginnings. All language has a tendency to jingle in both ways, even in prose. Thus in prose we speak of ``near and dear,'' ``high and dry,'' ``health and wealth.'' But the initial form of jingle is much more common--``safe and sound,'' ``thick and thin,'' ``weal or woe,'' ``fair or foul,'' ``spick and span,'' ``fish, flesh, or fowl,'' ``kith and kin.'' The poets of nearly all times and tongues have not been slow to seize upon the emphasis which could thus be produced.

Although mainly Germanic in its character, alliteration
was known to the Latins, especially in early times, and
Cicero blames Ennius for writing ``O Tite tute, Tati,
tibi tanta, tyranne, tulisti.'' Lucretius did not disdain
to employ it as an ornament. We read in Shakespeare:--
``Full fathom five thy father lies:
Of his bones are corals made.''
In Pope:--
``Here files of pins extend their shining rows,
Puffs, powders, patches, bibles, billet-doux.',
In Gray:--
``Weave the warp and weave the woof,
The winding-sheet of Edward's race.''
In Coleridge:-
``The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew,
The furrow followed free:
We were the first that ever burst
Into that silent sea.''
Churchill describes himself, in his Prophecy of Famine, as one
``Who often, but without success, had prayed
For apt alliteration's artful aid,''--
an example which is itself a proof of his failure; for
alliteration is never effective unless it runs upon consonants.

As thus far considered, alliteration is a device wholly dependent on the poet's fancy. He may use it or not, or use it much or little, at his pleasure. But there is an extensive range of Teutonic poetry whose metrical laws are entirely based on alliteration. This, for example, is the principle on which Icelandic verse is founded; and we have a yet nearer interest in it, because it furnishes the key to Anglo-Saxon and a large portion of early English verse. For a specimen take the following lines, the spelling modernized, from the beginning of Piers the Plowman:-- ``But in a May morning | on Malvern hills, Me befel a ferly | of fairy methought; I was weary of wandering | and went me to rest Under a broad bank | by a burn-side; And as I lay and leaned | and looked on the waters, I slumbered in a sleeping | it sounded so merry.'' The rule of this verse is indifferent as to the number of syllables it may contain, but imperative as to the number of accented ones. The line is divided in the middle by a pause, and each half ought to contain two accented syllables. Of the four accented syllables, the first three should begin with the same letter; the fourth is free and may start with any letter. Those who wish for a more minute analysis of the laws of alliterative verse, as practised by the Anglo-Saxon and early English poets, may consult an exhaustive essay on the subject by Professor W. W. Skeat, prefixed to vol. iii. of Bishop Percy's Folio Manuscript; only the reader must be on his guard against an error which pervades it, and which this able writer seems to have derived from Rask. The question arises--What is the nature of the cadence in alliterative verse? Now all metrical movement is of two kinds, according as the beat or emphasis begins the movement or ends it. If the beat is initial, we say in classical language that the movement is trochaic or dactylic, according to the number of its syllables; and if the beat is final, we in like manner say that the movement is iambic or anapaestic. Skeat and many others object with some reason to use the classical terms, and therefore brushing them aside, let us put the question in the simplest form--Has the movement of alliterative verse got the initial or the final beat? In the middle of the 18th century Bishop Percy decided this question with sufficient accuracy, though he mixed up his statement with a blunder which it is not easy to account for. He points out how the poets began to introduce rhyme into alliterative verse, until at length rhyme came to predominate over alliteration, and ``thus was this kind of metre at length swallowed up and lost in the common burlesque Alexandrine or anapaestic verse, as ``A cobbler there was, and he lived in a stall.'' Percy made a serious mistake when he gave the name of Alexandrine to anapaestic verse; but he is quite right in his general statement that alliterative verse became lost in a measure the movement of which had the final beat. Conybeare has stated the fact still more accurately. ``In the Saxon poetry a trochaic character is predominant. In Piers the Plowman there is a prevailing tendency to an anapaestic cadence.'' It is the result of a change in the language--the loss of inflexion. Take the word man. The genitive in Saxon would be mannes, a trochee; in English, of man, an iambus. The tendency of the language was thus to pass from a metrical movement, in which the beat was initial, to one in which it was final. It may therefore be quite right to speak of Anglo-Saxon alliterative poetry as trochaic or dactylic, and quite wrong to apply the same terms to the cadence of our later alliterative verse. And this is precisely the error into which Skeat has fallen. He says--``Lines do not always begin with a loud syllable, but often one or two and sometimes (in early English especially) even three soft syllables precede it. These syllables are necessary to the sense, but not to the scanision of the line.'' That is just the point at issue. By leaving out of account the light syllable or syllables at the beginning of a line, and taking his start from the first syllable that has the alliterative beat, Skeat may certainly prove that all the later alliterative poetry has a movement of initial beat. But English ears will not submit to this rule. It is those light syllables of no account which have altered the rhythm of English descant from one of initial to one of final beat.

ALLIUM (Lat. for ``garlic''), a genus of plants, natural order Liliaceae, with about 250 species (seven of which occur in Britain), found in Central and South Europe, North Africa, the dry country of West and Central Asia, and North and Central America. The plants are bulbous herbs, with flat or rounded radical leaves, and a central naked or leafy stem, bearing a head or umbel of small flowers, with a spreading or bell-shaped white, pink, red, yellow or blue perianth. Several species afford useful foods, such as onion (Allium Cepa), leek (A. Porrum), shallot or eschallot (A. ascalonicum), garlic (A. sativum), and chives (A. schoenoprasum.) A few species are cultivated as border plants; such are A. Moly, an old garden plant with bright yellow flowers, and A. neapolitanum, the well-known white-flowered species, both natives of southern Europe.

ALLIX, PIERRE (1641-1717), French Protestant divine, was born at Alencon. He was pastor first at St Agobile in Champagne, and then at Charenton, near Paris. The revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685 compelled him to take refuge in London, where, under the sanction of James II., he opened a church for the French exiles. His reputation for learning was such as to obtain for him, soon after his arrival, the degree of doctor of divinity from both universities, and in 1690 he received from Bishop Burnet the more substantial honour of the treasurership and a canonry in Salisbury Cathedral. He died at London in March 1717. The works of Allix, which are numerous, are chiefly of a controversial and apologetic character, and must be used with caution. In opposition to Bossuet he published Some Remarks upon the Ecclesiastical History of the Ancient Churches of Piedmont (1690), and Remarks upon the Ecclesiastical History of the Ancient Churches of the Albigenses (1692), with the idea of showing that the Albigenses were not Manichaeans, but historically identical with the Waldenses.