Chapter XXIX: Act 1892: , it is optional to cite most important acts up (3)

ADAM OF BREMEN, historian and geographer, was probably born in Upper Saxony (at Meissen, according to one tradition) before 1045. He came to Bremen about 1067-1068, most likely on the invitation of Archbishop Adalbert, and in the 24th year of the latter's episcopate (1043?-1072); in 1069 he appears as a canon of this cathedral and master of the cathedral school. Not long after this he visited the king of Denmark, Sweyn Estrithson, in Zealand; on the death of Adalbert, in 1072, he began the Historia Hammaburgenisis Ecclesiae, which he finished about 1075. He died on the 12th of October of a year unknown, perhaps 1076. Adam's Historia---known also as Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum, Bremensium praesulum Historia, and Historia ecclesiastica--is a primary authority, not only for the great diocese of Hamburg-and-Bremen, but for all North German and Baltic lands (down to 1072), and for the Scandinavian colonies as far as America. Here occurs the earliest mention of Vinland, and here are also references of great interest to Russia and Kiev, to the heathen Prussians, the Wends and other Slav races of the South Baltic coast, and to Finland, Thule or Iceland, Greenland and the Polar seas which Harald Hardrada and the nobles of Frisia had attempted to explore in Adam's own day (before 1066). Adam's account of North European trade at this time, and especially of the great markets of Jumne at the mouth of the Oder, of Birka in Sweden and of Ostrogard (Old Novgorod?) in Russia, is also of much value. His work, which places him among the first and best of German annalists, consists of four books or parts, and is compiled partly from written records and partly from oral information, the latter mainly gathered from experience or at the courts of Adalbert and Sweyn Estrithson. Of his minor informants he names several, such as Adelward, dean of Bremen, and William the Englishman, ``bishop of Zealand,'' formerly chancellor of Canute the Great, and an intimate of Sweyn Estrithson. The fourth (perhaps the most important) book of Adam's History, Variously entitled Libellus de Situ Daniae et reliquarum quae trans Daniam sunt regionum, Descriptio Insularum Aquilonis, &c., has often been considered, but wrongly, as a separate work.

Ten MSS. exist, of which the chief are (1-2) Copenhagen, Royal Library, Old Royal Collection, No. 2296, of 12th to 13th cents.; No. 718, of 15th cent.; (3) Leyden University, Voss. Lat. 123, of 11th cent.; (4) Rome, Vatican Library, 2010; (5) Vienna, Hofu. Staatsbibliothek, 413, of 13th cent.; (6) Wolfenbuttel, Ducal Library, Gud. 83, of 15th cent.

There are 15 editions of the Historia, in whole or part; the first published at Copenhagen, 1579 (the first of the Libellus or Descriptio Ins. Aquil. appeared at Stockholm in 1615), the best at Hanover, 1846 (by Lappenberg, in Scriptores Rerum Germanicarum; reissued by L. Weiland, 1876), and at Paris, 1884 (in Migne's Patrologia Latina, cxlvi.). There are also three German versions, and one Danish; the best is by J. C. M. Laurent (and W. Wattenbach) in Geschichtsschreiber d. deutsch. Vorzeit, part vii. (1850 and 1888) . See also J. Asmussen, De fontibus Adami Bremensis, 1834; Lappenberg in Pertz, Archiv, vi, 770; Aug. Bernard, De Adamo Bremensi (Paris, 1895); Beazley, Dawn of Modern Geography, ii. 514-548 (1901).

ADAM (or ADAN) DE LE HALE (died c. 1288), French trouvere, was born at Arras. His patronymic is generally modernized to La Halle, and he was commonly known to his contemporaries as Adam d'Arras or Adam le Bossu, sometimes simply as Le Bossu d'Arras. His father, Henri de le Hale, was a well-known Citizen of Arras, and Adam studied grammar, theology and music at the Cistercian abbey of Vaucelles, near Cambrai. Father and son had their share in the civil discords in Arras, and for a short time took refuge in Douai. Adam had been destined for the church, but renounced this intention, and married a certain Marie, who figures in many of his songs, rondeaux, motets and jeux-partis. Afterwards he joined the household of Robert II., count of Artois; and then was attached to Charles of Anjou, brother of Charles IX., whose fortunes he followed in Egypt, Syria, Palestine and Italy. At the court of Charles, after he became king of Naples, he wrote his Jeu de Robin et Marion, the most famous of his works. He died between 1285 and 1288. Adam's shorter pieces are accompanied by music, of which a transcript in modern notation, with the original score, is given in Coussemaker's edition. His Jeu de Robin et Marion is cited as the earliest French play with music on a secular subject. The pastoral, which tells how Marion resisted the knight, and remained faithful to Robert the shepherd, is based on an old chanson, Robin m'aime, Robin m'a. It consists of dialogue varied by refrains already current in popular song. The melodies to which these are set have the character of folk-music, and are more spontaneous and melodious than the more elaborate music of his songs and motets. A modern adaptation, by Julien Tiersot, was played at Arras by a company from the Paris Opera Comique on the occasion of a festival in 1896 in honour of Adam de le Hale. His other play, Le jeu Adan or Le jeu de la Feuillee (c. 1262), is a satirical drama in which he introduces himself, his father and the citizens of Arras with their peculiarities. His works include a Conge, or satirical farewell to the city of Arras, and an unfinished chanson de geste in honour of Charles of Anjou, Le roi de Sicile, begun in 1282; another short piece, Le jeu du pelerin, is sometimes attributed to him.

The only MS. which contains the whole of Adam's work is the La Valliere MS. (No. 25,566) in the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris, dating from the latter half of the 13th century. Many of his pieces are also contained in Douce MS. 308, in the Bodleian Library, Oxford. His OEuvres completes (1872) were edited by E. de Coussemaker. See also an article by Paulin Paris in the Histoire litteraire de La France (vol. xx. pp. 638-675); G. Raynaud, Recueil des motets francais des XIIe et XIIIe siecles (1882); Canchons et Partures des . . . Adan delle Hale (Halle, 1900), a critical edition by Rudolf Berger; an edition of Adam's two jeux in Monmerque and Michel's Theatre francais au moyen age (1842); E. Langlois, Le jeu de Robin et Marion (1896), with a translation in modern French; A. Guesnon, La Satire a Arras au XIIIe, siecle (1900); and a full bibliography of works on the subject in No. 6 of the Bibliotheque de bibliographies critiques, by Henri Guy.

ADAM, ALEXANDER (1741-1809), Scottish writer on Roman antiquities, was born on the 24th of June 1741, near Forres, in Morayshire. From his earliest years he showed uncommon diligence and perseverance in classical studies, notwithstanding many difficulties and privations. In 1757 he went to Edinburgh, where he studied at the university. His reputation as a classical scholar secured him a post as assistant at Watson's Hospital and the headmastership in 1761. In 1764 he became private tutor to Mr Kincaid, afterwards Lord Provost of Edinburgh, by whose influence he was appointed (in 1768) to the rectorship of the High School on the retirement of Mr Matheson, whose substitute he had been for some time before. From this period he devoted himself entirely to the duties of his office and to the preparation of his numerous works on classical literature. His popularity and success as a teacher are strikingly illustrated by the great increase in the number of his pupils, many of whom subsequently became distinguished men, among them being Sir Walter Scott, Lord Brougham and Jeffrey. He succeeded in introducing the study of Greek into the curriculum of the school, notwithstanding the opposition of the university headed by Principal Robertson. In 1780 the university of Edinburgh conferred upon him the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws. He died on the 18th of December 1809, after an illness of five days, during which he occasionally imagined himself still at work, his last words being, ``It grows dark, boys, you may go.'' Dr Adam's first publication was his Principles of Latin and English Grammar (1772), which, being written in English instead of Latin, brought down a storm of abuse upon him. This was followed by his Roman Antiquities (1791), A Summary of Geography and History (1794) and a Compendious Dictionary of the Latin Tongue (1805). The MS. of a projected larger Latin dictionary, which he did not live to complete, lies in the library of the High School. His best work was his Roman Antiquities, which has passed through a large number of editions and received the unusual compliment of a German translation.

See An Account of the Life and Character of A. A., by A. Henderson (1810).

ADAM, SIR FREDERICK (1781--1853), British general, was the son of the Rt. Hon. W. Adam of Blair-Adam, lord-lieutenant of Kinross-shire. He was gazetted an ensign at the age of fourteen and was subsequently educated at Woolwich. He became captain in 1799, and served with the Coldstream Guards in Egypt (1801). In 1805, having purchased the intermediate steps of promotion, he obtained command of the 21st Foot, with which regiment he served in the Mediterranean from 1805 to 1813, taking part in the battle of Maida in 1806. In 1813 he accompanied the British corps sent to Catalonia, in which he commanded a brigade. He fought a gallant action at Biar (April 12, 1813), and on the following day won further distinction at Castalla. In the action of Ordal, on the 12th of September, Adam received two severe wounds. He returned to England to recover, and was made a major-general in 1814. At Waterloo, Adam's brigade, of which the 52nd under Colborne (see SEATON, LORD) formed part, shared with the Guards the honour of repulsing the Old Guard. For his services he was made a K.C.B., and received also Austrian and Russian orders. During the long peace which followed, Sir Frederick Adam was successively employed at Malta, in the Ionian Islands as lord high commissioner (1824-1831) and from 1832 to 1837 as governor of Madras. He became K.C.M.G. in 1820, G.C.M.G. four years later, lieutenant-general in 1830, a privy councillor in 1831, G.C.B. in 1840, and full general in 1846. He died suddenly on the 17th of August 1853.

ADAM, JULIETTE (1836-- ), Freneh writer, known also by her maiden name of Juliette Lamber, was born at Verberie (Oise) on the 4th of October 1836. She has given an account of her childhood, rendered unhappy by the dissensions of her parents, in Le roman de mon enfance et de ma jeunesse (Eng. trans., London and New York, 1902). In 1852 she married a doctor named La Messine, and published in 1858 her Idees antiproudhoniennes sur l'amour, la femme et le mariage, in defence of Daniel Stern (Mme. d'Agoult) and George Sand. On her husband's death she married in 1868 Antoine Edmond Adam (1816--1877), prefect of police in 1870, and subsequently life-senator; and she established a salon which was frequented by Gambetta and the other republican leaders against the conservative reaction of the 'seventies. In the same interest she founded in 1879 the Nouvelle Revue, which she edited for the first eight years, and in the administration of which she retained a preponderating influence until 1899. She wrote the notes on foreign politics, and was unremitting in her attacks on Bismarck and in her advocacy of a policy of revanche. Mme. Adam was also generally credited with the authorship of papers on various European capitals signed ``Paul Vasili,'' which were in reality the work of various writers. The most famous of her numerous novels is Paienne (1883). Her reminiscences, Mes premieres armes litteraires et politiques (1904) and Mes sentiments et nos idees avant 1870 (1905), contain much interesting gossip about her distinguished contemporaries.

ADAM, LAMBERT SIGISBERT (1700-1759), French sculptor, known as Adam l'aine, was born in Nancy, son of Jacob Sigisbert Adam, a sculptor of little repute. Adam was thirty-seven when, on his election to the Academy, he exhibited at the Salon the model of the group of ``Neptune and Amphitrite'' for the centre of the fountain at Versailles, and thereafter found much employment in the decoration of the royal residences. Among his more important works are ``Nymphs and Tritons,'' ``The Triumph of Neptune stilling the Waves,'' ``Hunter with Lion in his Net,'' a relief for the chapel of St Adelaide, ``The Seine and the Marne'' in stone for St Cloud, ``Hunting'' and ``Fishing,'' marble groups for Berlin, ``Mars embraced by Love'' and ``The enthusiasm of Poetry.'' Adam restored with much ability the twelve statues (Lycomedes) found in the so-called Villa of Marius at Rome, and was elected a member of the Academy of St Luke. Several of his most important works were executed for Frederick the Great in Prussia.

His brother, also a sculptor, NICOLAS SEBASTIEN ADAM (1705-1778), known as Adam le jeune, born in Nancy, worked under equal encouragement. His first work of importance was his ``Prometheus chained, devoured by a Vulture,', executed in plaster in 1738, and carved in marble in 1763 as his ``reception piece'' when he was elected into the Academy. He produced the reliefs of the ``Birth'' and ``Agony of Christ'' for the Oratory in Paris, but his chief works are the ``Mausoleum of Cardinal de Fleury'' and, in particular, the tomb of Catherine Opalinska, queen of Poland (wife of King Stanislaus), at Nancy.

A third brother, FRANCOIS GASPARD BALTHASAR ADAM (1710-1761), born in Nancy, became the first sculptor of Frederick the Great and the head of the atelier of sculpture founded by that monarch, and passed the greater part of his life in Berlin. His chief works adorn the gardens and palaces of Sans Souci and Potsdam.

The work of the brothers Adam was too ornate in style to win the approval of the school that immediately followed them, and found its principal opponents in Bouchardon and Pigalle.

See Dussieux, Artistes francais a l'etranger (Paris, 1855, 8vo); Archives de l'art francais, documents, vol. i. pp. 117-180, chiefly for; works executed for the king of Prussia; Mariette, Abecedario; Emile de la Chavignerie and Auvray, Dictionnaire general des artistes de l'ecole francaise (Paris, 1882), mainly for works executed; Lady Dilke, French Architects and Sculptors of the 18th century (London, 4to, 1900).

ADAM, MELCHIOR (d. 1622), German divine and biographer, was born at Grotkau in Silesia after 1550, and educated in the college of Brieg, where he became a Protestant. In 1598 he went to Heidelberg, where he held various scholastic appointments. He wrote the biographies of a number of German scholars of the 16th century, mostly theologians, which were published in Heidelberg and Frankfort (5 vols., 1615--1620). He dealt with only twenty divines of other countries. All his divines are Protestants. His industry as a biographer is commended by P. Bayle, who acknowledges his obligations to Adam's labours; and his biographies, though they have faults, are still useful.

ADAM, PAUL (1862- ), French novelist, was born in Paris on the 7th of December 1862. He was prosecuted for his first novel, Chair molle (1885), but was acquitted. He collaborated with Jean Moreas in Le the chez Miranda (1886), and with Moreas and Gustave Kahn he founded the Symboliste, coming forward as one of the earliest defenders of symbolism. Among his numerous novels should be noted Le mystere des foules (2 vols., 1895), a study in Boulangism, Lettres de Malaisie (1897), a fantastic romance of imaginary future politics. In 1899 he began a novel-sequence, giving the history of the Napoleonic campaigns, the restoration and the government of Louis Philippe, comprising La force (1899), L'enfant d'Austerlitz (1901), La ruse (1902), and Au soleil de Juillet (1903). In 1900 he wrote a Byzantine romance, Basile et Sophia.

ADAM, ROBERT (1728--1792), British architect, the second son of William Adam of Maryburgh, in Fife, and the most celebrated of four brothers, John, Robert, James and William Adam, was born at Kirkcaldy in 1728. For few famous men have we so little biographical material, and contemporary references to him are sparse. He certainly studied at the university of Edinburgh, and probably received his first instruction in architecture from his father, who gave proofs of his own skill and taste in the Edinburgh Royal Infirmary (now demolished). His mother was the aunt of Dr W. Robertson, the first English historian of Charles V., and in 1750 we find Robert Adam living with her in Edinburgh, and making one of the brilliant literary coterie which adorned it at that period. Somewhere between 1750 and 1754 he visited Italy, where he spent three years studying the remains of Roman architecture. There he was struck with the circumstance that practically nothing bad survived of the Greek and Roman masterpieces except public buildings, and; that the private palaces, which Vitruvius and Pliny esteemed so highly, had practically vanished. One example of such work. however, was extant in the ruins of Diocletian's palace at Spalato in Dalmatia, and this he visited in July 1757, taking with him the famous French architect and antiquary, C. L. Clerisseau, and two experienced draughtsmen, with whose assistance, after being arrested as a spy, he managed in five weeks to accumulate a sufficient number of measurements and careful plans and surveys to produce a restoration of the entire building in a fine work which he published in 1764, The Ruins of the Palace of Diocletian, &c. Considering the shortness of the time occupied and the obstacles placed in his way by the Venetian governor and the population of the place, the result was amazing. The influence of these studies was apparent directly and indirectly in much of his subsequent work, which, indeed, was in great measure founded upon them.

After his return to England he seems to have come rapidly to the front, and in 1762 he was appointed sole architect to the king and the Board of Works. Six years later he resigned this office, in which he was succeeded by his brother James,---who however, held the office jointly with another,---and entered parliament as member for the county of Kinross. In 1768 he and his three brothers leased the ground fronting the Thames, upon which the Adelphi now stands, for L. 1200 on a ninety-nine years' lease, and having obtained, with the assistance of Lord Bute, the needful act of parliament, proceeded, in the teeth of public opposition, to erect the ambitious block of buildings which is imperishably associated with their name, indicating its joint origin by the title Adelphi, from the Greek adelfoi, the Brothers. The site presented attractive possibilities. A steep hill led down Buckingham Street to the river-side, and the plan was to raise against it, upon a terrace formed of massive arches and vaults and facing the river, a dignified quarter of fine streets and stately buildings, suggestive of the Spalato ruins. In spite of many difficulties, pecuniary and otherwise (the undertaking was completed from the proceeds of a lottery), money was raised and the work pushed on; in five years the Adelphi terrace stood complete, and the fine houses were eagerly sought after by artists and men of letters. Splendid, however, as the terrace and its houses are, both in conception and execution, the underground work which upholds them is perhaps more remarkable still. The vast series of arched vaults has been described by a modern writer as a very town, which, during the years that they were open, formed subterranean streets leading to the river and its wharves. In many places the arches stand in double tiers. In time these ``streets'' obtained a bad name as the haunt of suspicious characters, and they have long been enclosed and let as cellars. Between 1773 and 1778 the brothers issued a fine series of folio engravings and descriptions of the designs for many of their most important works, which included several great public buildings and numberless large private houses; a fine volume was published in 1822. For the remaining years of Robert's life the practice of the firm was the most extensive in the country; his position was unquestioned, and when he died in 1792 he was laid to rest in Westminster Abbey almost as a matter of course.

The art of Robert Adam was extraordinarily many-sided and prolific, and it is difficult to give a condensed appreciation of it. As an architect he was strongly under Roman and Italian influences, and his style and aims were exotic rather than native. But this does not detract from their merit, nor need it diminish our estimate of his genius. It was, indeed, the most signal triumph of that genius that he was able so to mould and adapt classical models as to create a new manner of the highest charm and distinction. Out of simple curvilinear forms, of which he principally preferred the oval, he evolved combinations of extraordinary grace and variety, and these entered into every detail of his work. In his view the architect was intimately concerned with the furniture and the decorations of a building, as well as with its form and construction, and this view he carried rigorously into practice, and with astonishing success. Nothing was too small and unimportant for him--summer-houses and dog-kennels came as readily to him as the vast facades of a terrace in town or a great country house. But he never permitted minute details to obscure the main lines of a noble design. Whatever care he might have expended upon the flowing curves of a moulding or a decoration, it was strictly kept in its place; it contributed its share and no more to the total effect. He made a distinct step forward in giving shape to the idea of imparting the unity of a single imposing structure to a number of private houses grouped in a block which is so characteristic a feature of modern town building, and though at times he failed in the breadth of grasp needful to carry out such an idea on a large scale, he has left us some fine examples of what can be accomplished in this direction. A delightful but theoretically undesirable characteristic of his work is the use of stucco. Upon it he moulded delicate forms in subtle and beautiful proportions. His ``compo'' was used so successfully that the patent was infringed: many of his moulds still exist and are in constant use. That most difficult feature, the column, he handled with enthusiasm and perfect mastery; he studied and wrote of it with minute pains, while his practice showed his graslp of the subject by all avoidance of bare imitation of the classic masters who first brought it to perfection. His work might be classic in form, but it was independently developed by himself. It would be impossible here to give a list of the innumerable works which he executed. In London, of course, the Adelphi stands pre-eminent; the screen and gate of the Admiralty and part of Fitzroy Square are by him, Portland Place, and much of the older portion of Finsbury Circus, besides whole streets of houses in the west end. There are the famous country houses of Lord Mansfield at Caen Wood, Highgate and Luton Hoo, and decorations and additions to many more.

Robert Adam--with, there is reason to suspect, some help from his brother James--has left as deep and enduring a mark upon English furniture as upon English architecture. Down to his time carving was the dominant characteristic of the mobiliary art, but thenceforward the wood-worker declined in importance. French influence disposed Robert Adam to the development of painted furniture with inlays of beautiful exotic woods, and many of his designs, especially for sideboards, are extremely attractive, mainly by reason of their austere simplicity. Robert Adam was no doubt at first led to turn his thoughts towards furniture by his desire to see his light, delicate, graceful interiors, with their large sense of atmosphere and their refined and finished detail, filled with plenishings which fitted naturally into his scheme. His own taste developed as he went on, but he was usually extremely successful, and cabinetmakers are still reproducing his most effective designs. In his furniture he made lavish use of his favourite decorative motives---wreaths and paterae, the honeysuckle, and that fan ornament which he used so constantly. Thus an Adam house is a unique product of English art. From facade to fire-irons, from the chimneys to the carpets, everything originated in the same order of ideas, and to this day an Adam drawing-room is to English what a Louis Seize room is to French art. In nothing were the Adams more successful than in mantelpieces and doors. The former, by reason of their simplicity and the readiness with which the ``compo'' ornaments can be applied and painted, are still made in cheap forms in great number. The latter were most commonly executed in a rich mahogany and are now greatly sought after. The extent to which the brothers worked together is by no means clear--indeed, there is an astonishing dearth of information regarding this remarkable family, and it is a reproach to English art literature that no biography of Robert Adam has ever been published. John Adam succeeded to his father's practice as an architect in Edinburgh. James Adam studied in Rome, and eventually was closely associated with Robert; William is variously said to have been a banker and an architect. (J. P.-B.)

ADAM, WILLIAM (1751--1839), British lawyer and politician, eldest son of John Adam of Blair-Adam, Kinross-shire, and nephew of the architect noticed above, was born on the 2nd of August 1751, studied at the universities of Edinburgh and Glasgow, and passed at the Scottish bar in 1773. Soon afterwards he removed to England, where he entered parliament in 1774, and in 1782 was called to the common law bar. He withdrew from parliament in 1795, entered it again in 1806 as representative of the united counties of Clackmannan and Kinross, and continued a member, with some interruptions, till 1811. He was a Whig and a supporter of the policy of Fox. At the English bar he obtained a very considerable practice. He was successively attorney and solicitor-general to the prince of Wales, one of the managers of the impeachment of Warren Hastings, and one of the counsel who defended the first Lord Melville when impeached. During his party's brief tenure of office in 1806 he was chancellor of the duchy of Cornwall, and was afterwards a privy councillor and lord-lieutenant of Kinrossshire. In 1814 he became a baron of Exchequer in Scotland, and was chief commissioner of the newly established jury-court for the trial of civil causes, from 1815 to 1830, when it was merged in the permanent supreme tribunal. He died at Edinburgh on the 17th of February 1839.

ADAMANT (from Gr. adamas, untameable), the modern diamond (q.v.), but also a name given to any very hard substance. The Greek word is used by Homer as a personal epithet, and by Hesiod for the hard metal in armour, while Theophrastus applies it to the hardest crystal. By an etymological confusion with the Lat. adamare, to have an attraction for, it also came to be associated with the loadstone; but since the term was displaced by ``diamond'' it has had only a figurative and poetical use.

ADAMAWA, a country of West Africa, which lies roughly between 6 deg. and 11 deg. N., and 11 deg. and 15 deg. E., about midway between the Bight of Biafra and Lake Chad. It is now divided between the British protectorate of Nigeria (which includes the chief town Yola, q.v.) and the German colony of Cameroon. This region is watered by the Benue, the chief affluent of the Niger, and its tributary the Faro. Another stream, the Yedseram, flows north-east to Lake Chad. The most fertile parts of the country are the plains near the Benue, about 800 ft. above the sea. South and east of the river the land rises to an elevation of 1600 ft., and is diversified by numerous hills and groups of mountains. These ranges contain remarkable rock formations, towers, battlements and pinnacles crowning the hills. Chief of these formations is a gigantic pillar some 450 ft. high and 150 ft. thick at the base. It stands on the summit of a high conical hill. Mount Alantika, about 25 miles south-south-east of Yola, rises from the plain, an isolated granite mass, to the height of 6000 ft. The country, which is very fertile and is covered with luxuriant herbage, has many villages and a considerable population. Durra, ground-nuts, yams and cotton are the principal products, and the palm and banana abound. Elephants are numerous and ivory is exported. In the eastern part of the country the rhinoceros is met with, and the rivers swarm with crocodiles and with a curious mammal called the ayu, bearing some resemblance to the seal.

Adamawa is named after a Fula Emir Adama, who in the early years of the 19th century conquered the country. To the Hausa and Bornuese it was previously known as Fumbina (or South-land). The inhabitants are mainly pure negroes such as the Durra, Batta and Dekka, speaking different languages, and all fetish-worshippers. They are often of a very low type, and some of the tribes are cannibals. Slave-trading was still active among them in the early years of the 20th century. The Fula (q.v.), who first came into the country about the 15th century as nomad herdsmen, are found chiefly in the valleys, the pagan tribes holding the mountainous districts. There are also in the country numbers of Hausa, who are chiefly traders, as well as Arabs and Kanuri from Bornu. The emir of Yola, in the period of Fula lordship, claimed rights of suzerainty over the whole of Adamawa, but the country, since the subjection of the Fula (e. 1900), has consisted of a number of small states under the control of the British and Germans. Garua on the upper Benne, 65 m. east of Yola, is the headquarters of the German administration for the region and the chief trade centre in the north of Adamawa. Yoko is one of the principal towns in the south of the country, and in the centre is the important town of Ngaundere. After Heinrich Barth, who explored the country in 1851, the first traveller to penetrate Adamawa was the German, E. R. Flegel (1882). It has since been traversed by many expeditions, notably that of Baron von Uechtritz and Dr Siegfried Passarge (1893--1894).

An interesting account of Adamawa, its peoples and history, is given by Heinrich Barth in his Travels in North and Central Africa (new edition, London, 1890), and later information is contained in S. Passarge's Adamawa (Berlin, 1895). (See also CAMEROON and NIGERIA, and the bibliographies there given.)

ADAMITES, or ADAMIANS, a sect of heretics that flourished in North Africa in the 2nd and 3rd centuries. Basing itself probably on a union of certain gnostic and ascetic doctrines, this sect pretended that its members were re-established in Adam's state of original innocency. They accordingly rejected the form of marriage, which, they said, would never have existed but for sin, and lived in absolute lawlessness, holding that, whatever they did, their actions could be neither good nor bad. During the middle ages the doctrines of this obscure sect, which did not itself exist long, were revived in Europe by the Brethren and Sisters of the Free Spirit.

ADAMNAN, or ADOMNAN (c. 624-704), Irish saint and historian, was born at Raphoe, Donegal, Ireland, about the year 624. In 679 he was elected abbot of Hy or Iona, being ninth in succession from the founder, St Columba. While on a mission to the court of King Aldfrith of Northumberland in 686, he was led to adopt the Roman rules with regard to the time for celebrating Easter and the tonsure, and on his return to Iona he tried without success to enforce the change upon the monks. He died on the 23rd of September 704. Adamnan wrote a Life of St Columba, which, though abounding in fabulous matter, is of great interest and value. The best editions are those published by W. Reeves (1857, new edit. Edinburgh, 1874) and by J. T. Fowler (Oxford, 1894). Adamnan's other well-known work, De Locis Sanctis (edited by P. Geyer, Itinera Hierosolymitana saeculi, iii.-viii., &c., 1898; vol. 39 of Bienna Corpus Script. Ecc. Latin) was based, according to Bede, on information received from Arculf, a French bishop, who, on his return from the Holy Land, was wrecked on the west coast of Britain, and was entertained for a time at Iona. This was first published at Ingolstadt in 1619 by J. Gretser, who also defended Baronius' acceptance of Arculf's narrative against Casaubon. An English translation by G. J. R. Macpherson, Arculfus' Pilgrimage in the Holy Land. was published by the Pilgrim's Text Society (London, 1889).

For full bibliography see U. Chevalier, Repert de sources Historiques (1903), p. 40.

ADAMS, ANDREW LEITH (1827-1882), Scottish naturalist and palaeontologist, the second son of Francis Adams of Banchory, Aberdeen, was born on the 21st of March 1827, and was educated to the medical profession. As surgeon in the Army Medical Department from 1848 to 1873, he utilized his opportunities for the study of natural history in India and Kashmir, in Egypt, Malta, Gibraltar and Canada. His observations on the fossil vertebrata of the Maltese Islands led him eventually to give special study to fossil elephants, on which he became an acknowledged authority. In 1872 he was elected F.R.S. In 1873 he was chosen professor of zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin, and in 1878 professor of natural history in Queen's College, Cork, a post which he held until the close of his life. He died at Queenstown on the 29th of July 1882.

PUBLICATIONS.--Notes of a Naturalist in the Nile Valley and Malta (London, 1870); other works of travel; Monograph on the British Fossil Elephants (Palaeontographical Soc.), (London, 1877-1881).

ADAMS, CHARLES FRANCIS (1807-1886), American diplomatist, son of John Quincy Adams, and grandson of John Adams, was born in Boston on the 18th of August 1807. His father, having been appointed minister to Russia, took him in 1809 to St Petersburg, where he acquired a perfect familiarity with French, learning it as his native tongue. After eight years spent in Russia and England, he attended the Boston Latin School for four years, and in 1825 graduated at Harvard. He lived two years in the executive mansion, Washington, during his father's presidential term, studying law and moving in a society where he met Webster, Clay, Jackson and Randolph. Returning to Boston, he devoted ten years to business and study, and wrote for the North American Review. He also undertook the management of his father's pecuniary affairs, and actively supported him in his contest in the House of Representatives for the right of petition and the anti-slavery cause. In 1835 he wrote an effective and widely read political pamphlet, entitled, after Edmund Burke's more famous work, An Appeal from the New to the Old Whigs. He was a member of the Massachusetts general court from 1840 to 1845, sitting for three years in the House of Representatives and for two years in the Senate; and in 1846-1848 he edited a party Journal, the Boston Whig. In 1848 he was prominent in politics as a ``Conscience Whig,'' presiding over the Buffalo Convention which formed the Free Soil party and nominated Martin van Buren for president and himself for vice-president. He was a Republican member of the Thirty-Sixth Congress, which assembled on the 5th of December 1859, and during the second session, from the 3rd of December 1860 to the 4th of March 1861, he represented Massachusetts in the Congressional Committee of Thirty-three at the time of the secession of seven of the Southern states. His selection by the chairman of this committee, Thomas Corwin, to present to the full committee certain propositions agreed upon by two-thirds of the Republican members, and his calm and able speech of the 31st of January 1861 in the House, served to make him conspicuous before congress and the country. Together with William H. Seward, he stood for the Republican policy of concession; and, while he was criticized severely and charged with inconsistency in view of his record as a ``Conscience Whig,'' he was of the same mind as President Lincoln, willing to concede non-essentials, but holding rigidly to the principle, properly understood, that there must be no extension of slavery. He believed that as the Republicans were the victors they ought to show a spirit of conciliation, and that the policy of righteousness was likewise one of expediency, since it would have for its result the holding of the border slave states with the North until the 4th of March, when the Republicans could take possession of the government at Washington. With the incoming of the new administration Secretary Seward secured for Adams the appointment of minister to Great Britain. So much sympathy was shown in England for the South that his path was beset with difficulties; but his mission was to prevent the interference of Great Britain in the struggle; and while the work of Lincoln, Seward and Sumner, and the cause of emancipation, tended to this end, the American minister was insistent and unyielding, and knew how to present his case forcibly and with dignity. He laboured with energy and discretion to prevent the sailing of the ``Alabama''; and, when unsuccessful in this, he persistently urged upon the British government its responsibility for the destruction of American merchant vessels by the privateer. In his own diary he shows that underneath his calm exterior were serious trouble and keen anxiety; and, in fact, the strain which he underwent during the Civil War made itself felt in later years. Adams was instrumental in getting Lord John Russell to stop the ``Alexandra,'' and it was his industry and pertinacity in argument and remonstrance that induced Russell to order the detention in September 1863 of the two ironclad rams intended for the Confederate States. Adams remained in England until May 1868. His last important work was as a member, in 1871--1872, of the tribunal of arbitration at Geneva which disposed of the ``Alabama'' claims. His knowledge of the subject and his fairness of mind enabled him to render his country and the cause of international arbitration valuable service. He died at Boston on the 21st of November 1886.

He edited the works of John Adams (10 vols.. 1850-1856), and the Memoirs of John Quincy Adams (12 vols., 1874-1877). See the excellent biography (Boston, 1900), in the ``American Statesmen Series,'' by his son, Charles Francis Adams, Jr. (J. F. R.)

ADAMS, HENRY (1838-- ), American historian, son of Charles Francis Adams and grandson of John Quincy Adams, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 16th of February 1838. He graduated at Harvard in 1858, and from 1861 to 1868 was private secretary to his father. From 1870 to 1877 he was assistant professor of history at Harvard and from 1870 to 1876 was editor of the North American Review. He is considered to have been the first (in 1874-1876) to conduct historical seminary work in the United States. His great work is his History of the United States (1801 to 1817) (9 vols., 1889--1891), which is incomparably the best work yet published dealing with the administrations of Presidents Jefferson and Madison. It is particularly notable for its account of the diplomatic relations of the United States during this period, and for its essential impartiality. Adams also published: Life of Albert Gallatin (1879), John Randolph (1882) in the ``American Statesmen Series,'' and Historical Essays (1891); besides editing Documents Relating to New England Federalism (1877), and the Writings of Albert Gallatin (3 volumes, 1879). In collaboration with his elder brother Charles Francis Adams, Jr., he published Chapters of Erie and Other Essays (1871), and, with H. C. Lodge, Ernest Young and J. L. Laughlin, Essays in Anglo-Saxon Law (1876).

His elder brother, JOHN QUINCY ADAMS (1833-1894), a graduate of Harvard (1853), practised law, and was a Democratic member for several terms of the Massachusetts general court. In 1872 he was nominated for vice-president by the Democratic faction that refused to support Horace Greeley.

Another brother, CHARLES FRANCIS ADAMS, Jr. (1835- ), born in Boston on the 27th of May 1835, graduated at Harvard in 1856, and served on the Union side in the Civil War, receiving in 1865 the brevet of brigadier-general in the regular army. He was president of the Union Pacific railroad from 1884 to 1890, having previously become widely known as an authority on the management of railways. In 1900-1901 he was president of the American Historical Association. Among his writings are: Railroads, Their Origin and Problems (1878); Three Episodes of Massachusetts History (1892); a biography of his father, Charles Francis Adams (1900); Lee at Appomattox and Other Papers (1902); Theodore Lyman and Robert Charles Winthrop, Jr., Two Memoirs (1906); and Three Phi Beta Kappa Addresses (1907).

Another brother, BROOKS ADAMS (1848-- ), born in Quincy, Massachusetts, on the 24th of June 1848, graduated at Harvard in 1870, and until 1881 practised law. His writings include: The Emancipation of Massachusetts (1887); The Law of Civilization and Decay (1895); America's Economic Supremacy (1900); and The New Empire (1902).

ADAMS, HENRY CARTER (1852-- ), American economist, was born at Davenport, Iowa, on the 31st of December 1852. He was educated at Iowa College and Johns Hopkins University, of which latter he was fellow and lecturer (1880--1882). He was afterwards a lecturer in Cornell University, and in 1887 became professor of political economy and finance in the university of Michigan. He also became statistician to the Interstate Commerce Committee and was in charge of the transportation department in the 1900 census. His principal works are The State in Relation to Industrial Action (1887); Taxation in the United States, 1787 to 1816 (1884); Public Debts (1887); The Science of Finance (1888); Economics and Jurisprudence (1897).

ADAMS, HERBERT (1858- ), American sculptor, was born at West Concord, Vermont, on the 28th of January 1858. He was educated at the Worcester (Massachusetts) Institute of Technology, and at the Massachusetts Normal Art School, and in 1885-1890 he was a pupil of Antonin Mercie in Paris. In 1890-1898 he was an instructor in the art school of Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, New York. In 1906 he was elected vice-president of the National Academy of Design, New York. He experimented successfully with some polychrome busts and tinted marbles, notably in the ``Rabbi's Daughter'' and a portrait of Miss Julia Marlowe, the actress; and he is at his best in his portrait busts of women, the best example being the study, completed in 1887, of Miss A. V. Pond, whom he afterwards married. Among his other productions are a fountain for Fitchburg, Massachusetts (1888); a number of works for the Congressional Library, Washington, including the bronze doors (``Writing'') begun by Olin Warner, and the statue of Professor Joseph Henry; memorial tablets for the Boston State House; a memorial to Jonathan Edwards, at Northampton, Mass.; statues of Richard Smith, the type-founder, in Philadelphia, and of William Ellery Channing, in Boston (1902); and the Vanderbilt memorial bronze doors for St Bartholomew's Church, New York.

ADAMS, HERBERT BAXTER (1850-1901), American historian and educationalist, was born at Shutesbury (near Amherst), Massachusetts, on the 16th of April 1850. He graduated at Amherst, at the head of his class, in 1872; and between 1873 and 1876 he studied political science, history and economics at Gottingen, Berlin and Heidelberg, Germany, receiving the degree of Ph.D.at Heidelberg in 1876, with the highest honours (summa cum lande). From 1876 almost until his death he was connected with the Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, being in turn a fellow, an associate in history (1878--1883), an associate professor (1883--1891) and after 1891 professor of American and institutional history, In addition he was lecturer on history in Smith College, Northampton, Massachusetts, in 1878-1881, and for many years took an active part in Chautauqua work. In 1884, also, he was one of the founders of the American Historical Association, of which he was secretary until 1900. In 1882 he founded the ``Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and Political Science,'' and at the time of his death some forty volumes had been issued under his editorship. After 1887 he also edited for the United States Bureau of Education the series of monographs entitled ``Contributions to American Educational History,'' he himself preparing the College of William and Mary (1887), and Thomas Jefferson and the University of Virginia (1888). It was as a teacher, however, that Adams rendered his most valuable services, and many American historical scholars owe their training and to a considerable extent their enthusiasm to him. He died at Amherst, Massachusetts, on the 30th of July 1901.

In addition to the monographs mentioned above, he published: Maryland's Influence in Founding a National Commonwealth (1877); Methods of Historical Study (1884); Maryland's Influence upon Land Cessions to the United States (1885); and the Life and Writings of Jared Sparks (2 vols., Boston, 1893), his most important work.

See Herbert B. Adams: Tributes of Friends (Baltimore, 1902), extra volume (xxiii.) of ``Studies in Historical and Political Science.''

ADAMS, JOHN (1735-1826), second president of the United States of America, was born on the 30th of October 1735 in what is now the town of Quincy, Massachusetts. His father, a farmer, also named John, was of the fourth generation in descent from Henry Adams, who emigrated from Devonshire, England, to Massachusetts about 1636; his mother was Susanna Boylston Adams. Young Adams graduated from Harvard College in 1755, and for a time taught school at Worcester and studied law in the office of Rufus Putnam. In 1758 he was admitted to the bar. From an early age he developed the habit of writing descriptions of events and impressions of men. The earliest of these is his report of the argument of James Otis in the superior court of Massachusetts as to the constitutionality of writs of assistance. This was in 1761, and the argument inspired him with zeal for the cause of the American colonies. Years afterwards, when an old man, Adams undertook to write out at length his recollections of this scene; it is instructive to compare the two accounts. John Adams had none of the qualities of popular leadership which were so marked a characteristic of his second cousin, Samuel Adams; it was rather as a constitutional lawyer that he influenced the course of events. He was impetuous, intense and often vehement, unflinchingly courageous, devoted with his whole soul to the cause he had espoused; but his vanity, his pride of opinion and his inborn contentiousness were serious handicaps to him in his political career. These qualities were particularly manifested at a later period---as, for example, during his term as president. He first made his influence widely felt and became conspicuous as a leader of the Massachusetts Whigs during the discussions with regard to the Stamp Act of 1765. In that year he drafted the instructions which were sent by the town of Braintree to its representatives in the Massachusetts legislature, and which served as a model for other towns in drawing up instructions to their representatives; in August 1765 he contributed anonymously four notable articles to the Boston Gazette (republished separately in London in 1768 as A Dissertation on the Canon and Feudal Law), in which he argued that the opposition of the colonies to the Stamp Act was a part of the never-ending struggle between individualism and corporate authority; and in December 1765 he delivered a speech before the governor and council in which he pronounced the Stamp Act invalid on the ground that Massachusetts being without representation in parliament, had not assented to it. In 1768 fee removed to Boston, Two years later, with that degree of moral courage which was one of his distinguishing characteristics, as it has been of his descendants, he, aided by Josiah Quincy, Jr., defended the British soldiers who were arrested after the ``Boston Massacre,'' charged with causing the death of four persons, inhabitants of the colony. The trial resulted in an acquittal of the officer who commanded the detachment, and most of the soldiers; but two soldiers were found guilty of manslaughter. These claimed benefit of clergy and were branded in the hand and released. Adams's upright and patriotic conduct in taking the unpopular side in this case met with its just reward in the following year, in the shape of his election to the Massachusetts House of Representatives by a vote of 418 to 118.

John Adams was a member of the Continental Congress from 1774 to 1778. In June 1775, with a view to promoting the union of the colonies, he seconded the nomination of Washington as commander-in-chief of the army. His influence in congress was great, and almost from the beginning he was impatient for a separation of the colonies from Great Britain. On the 7th of June 1776 he seconded the famous resolution introduced by Richard Henry Lee (q.v.) that ``these colonies are, and of a right ought to be, free and independent states,'' and no man championed these resolutions (adopted on the 2nd of July) so eloquently and effectively before the congress. On the 8th of June he was appointed on a committee with Jefferson, Franklin, Livingston and Sherman to draft a Declaration of Independence; and although that document was by the request of the committee written by Thomas Jefferson, it was John Adams who occupied the foremost place in the debate on its adoption. Before this question had been disposed of, Adams was placed at the head of the Board of War and Ordnance, and he also served on many other important committees.

In 1778 John Adams sailed for France to supersede Silas Deane in the American commission there. But just as he embarked that commission concluded the desired treaty of alliance, and soon after his arrival he advised that the number of commissioners be reduced to one. His advice was followed and he returned home in time to be elected a member of the convention which framed the Massachusetts constitution of 1780, still the organic law of that commonwealth. With James Bowdoin and Samuel Adams, he formed a sub-committee which drew up the first draft of that instrument, and most of it probably came from John Adams's pen. Before this work had been completed he was again sent to Europe, having been chosen on the 27th of September 1779 as minister plenipotentiary for negotiating a treaty of peace and a treaty of commerce with Great Britain. Conditions were not then favourable for peace, however; the French government, moreover, did not approve of the choice, inasmuch as Adams was not sufficiently pliant and tractable and was from the first suspicious of Vergennes; and subsequently Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, John Jay and Henry Laurens were appointed to co-operate with Adams. Jefferson, however, did not cross the Atlantic, and Laurens took little part in the negotiations. This left the management of the business to the other three. Jay and Adams distrusted thc good faith of the French government. Outvoting Franklin, they decided to break their instructions, which required them to ``make the most candid confidential communications on all subjects to the ministers of our generous ally, the king of France; to undertake nothing in the negotiations for peace or truce without their knowledge or concurrence; and ultimately to govern yourself by their advice and opinion''; and, instead, they dealt directly with the British commissioners, without consulting the French ministers. Throughout the negotiations Adams was especially determined that the right of the United States to the fisheries along the British-American coast should be recognized. Political conditions in Great Britain, at the moment, made the conclusion of peace almost a necessity with the British ministry, and eventually the American negotiators were able to secure a peculiarly favourable treaty. This preliminary treaty was signed on the 30th of November 1782. Before these negotiations began, Adams had spent some time in the Netherlands. In July 1780 he had been authorized to execute the duties previously assigned to Henry Laurens, and at the Hague was eminently successful, securing there recognition of the United States as an independent government (April 19, 1782), and negotiating both a loan and, in October 1782, a treaty of amity and commerce, the first of such treaties between the United States and foreign powers after that of February 1778 with France.