Chapter I: Front Matter (1)

THE
SYDENHAM SOCIETY

INSTITUTED
MDCCCXLIII

LONDON
MDCCCXLVII.

THE
SEVEN BOOKS
OF
PAULUS ÆGINETA.

TRANSLATED FROM THE GREEK.

WITH
A COMMENTARY
EMBRACING A COMPLETE VIEW OF THE KNOWLEDGE
POSSESSED BY THE
GREEKS, ROMANS, AND ARABIANS
ON
ALL SUBJECTS CONNECTED WITH MEDICINE AND SURGERY.

BY FRANCIS ADAMS.

IN THREE VOLUMES.
VOL. III.

LONDON
PRINTED FOR THE SYDENHAM SOCIETY
MDCCCXLVII.

PRINTED BY C. AND J. ADLARD,
BARTHOLOMEW CLOSE.

ADVERTISEMENT TO THE THIRD VOLUME.

I think it necessary to say a few words in explanation of the reason why the reader will find in the Commentary contained in this, my concluding volume, some deviation from the plan upon which the Commentaries in the two preceding volumes were executed.

In the Advertisement to the First Volume it is stated that, by the advice of the Council of the Sydenham Society, I had restricted the history which I gave of professional opinions on the various subjects treated of in the course of my work to what is properly called the period of ancient literature, and to this rule it will accordingly be observed that I have generally adhered, except in a few instances, where a departure from it seemed to be demanded for the sake of illustration, or for some other special object. But in dealing with the subject-matter of the present volume, namely, the Materia Medica and Pharmacy of the ancients, it became apparent to me from the first that a different plan of proceeding was indispensable, otherwise the usefulness of the whole work to the ordinary reader would be very much impaired. It is well known how frequently the nomenclature of the sciences connected with these subjects has changed, and what differences of opinion have prevailed with regard to many of the substances used in the practice of medicine by the ancients. In order, therefore, to render the information contained in this and the preceding volumes of ready access for practical purposes, it appeared to me necessary to bring down the annotations to modern times, so that one might see at once what is the exact import of the ancient terms of art, and what the medicinal substances mentioned in the course of the work actually were, according to the nomenclature of the present age. Accordingly it will be found that the Commentary in this volume abounds in references to modern authorities, and contains a variety of materials collected, not only from the earlier herbalists and commentators on Dioscorides, Theophrastus, and other ancient authors, but likewise from recent writers on Botany, Mineralogy, and the Materia Medica, in illustration of the various articles which are treated of in this work. And I have much satisfaction in having it in my power to state that the plan now described has the authority and sanction of the Council, who gave it their entire approval. To Dr. Pereira I owe my grateful acknowledgment for much valuable advice and assistance received from him on this part of my work; but at the same time it is fair to him to state I have no right to make him in anywise responsible for opinions herein advanced which may turn out to be erroneous.

And now, having brought my laborious undertaking to a conclusion, I would embrace the present opportunity of returning my most sincere expression of thanks to the Council for the honour which they conferred upon me in selecting my work for publication, and for the very flattering terms in which they speak of the first volume in the Annual Report of their proceedings for 1845. I trust that whatever degree of merit they discovered in _it_ will be found not to be wanting in the succeeding parts, and that, taken together, the three volumes will be acknowledged to constitute a more copious repertory of ancient opinions on professional subjects than is to be found elsewhere. If such be the judgment which the intelligent members of the Sydenham Society shall generally pronounce on my work, I shall certainly never regret the time and exertions which I have bestowed upon it.

τοιόν δ’ ἀπέβη τόδε πρᾶγμα,

F. A.

BANCHORY, _June 21st, 1847_.

CONTENTS OF THE THIRD VOLUME.

SEVENTH BOOK.

SECT. PAGE

1. On the Temperaments of Substances as indicated by their Tastes 1

2. On the Order and Degrees of the Temperaments 2

On the powers of simple medicines 6

3. On the Powers of Simples individually 17

Appendix to the Third Section—On the Substances introduced
into the Materia Medica by the Arabians 424

4. On Simple Purgative Medicines 480

On those things which evacuate bile 481

Medicines which evacuate black bile 483

Medicines which evacuate phlegm ib.

Medicines which evacuate water 484

On cholagogues 489

On melanogogues 491

On phlegmagogues 492

On hydragogues ib.

5. On Compound Purgatives 493

6. On the Management of those who take Purgative Medicines; and
what is to be done to those who are not purged by a proper
dose of Purgatives 497

7. On the Treatment of Hypercatharsis 499

8. On the Antidotes called Hieræ 500

9. On Liniments to be applied to the Anus, and purgative
Applications to the Navel 502

10. On Emetics 503

Modes of administering hellebore 504

11. On the different kinds of Antidotes 510

12. On Trochisks, or Troches 528

13. On Dry Applications and Abstergents (Smegmata) 536

14. On Liniments to the Mouth and Throat 541

15. On Delicious and Officinal Potions 544

16. On Collyria and Agglutinative Applications 548

17. On Plasters, and those things which are added to the boiling
of them, from the Works of Antyllus, and on the proportion
of wax to oil 558

18. On Emollient Plasters and Epithemes 576

19. On Restorative Ointments (Acopa), Liniments, Calefacient
Plasters (Dropaces), and Sinapisms 581

20. On Different Preparations of Oil and Ointments 589

21. On Œnantharia 598

22. On Perfumes and Cyphi 599

23. On the Preparations of Masucha, which some call Masuaphium 601

24. On Pessaries, from the Works of Antyllus ib.

25. On Medicines which may be substituted for one another, from
the Works of Galen 604

26. On Weights and Measures 609

GENERAL INDEX 629

PAULUS ÆGINETA.

BOOK SEVENTH.

In this book, being the seventh and last of the whole work, we are to treat of the properties of all Medicines, both Simple and Compound, and more especially of those mentioned in the six preceding books.

SECT. I.—ON THE TEMPERAMENTS OF SUBSTANCES AS INDICATED BY THEIR TASTES.

It is not safe to judge from the smell with regard to the temperament of sensible objects; for inodorous substances consist indeed of thick particles, but it is not clear whether they are of a hot or cold nature; and odorous substances, to a certain extent, consist of fine particles and are hot; but the degree of the tenuity of their parts, or of their hotness, is not indicated, because of the inequality of their substance. And still more impracticable is it to judge of them from their colours, for of every colour are found hot, cold, drying, and moistening substances. But in tasting, all parts of the bodies subjected to it come in contact with the tongue and excite the sense, so that thereby one may judge clearly of their powers in their temperaments. Astringents, then, contract, obstruct, condense, dispel, and incrassate; and, in addition to all these properties, they are of a cold and desiccative nature. That which is acid, cuts, divides, attenuates, removes obstructions, and cleanses without heating; but that which is acrid, resembles the acid in being attenuant and purging, but differs from it in this, that the acid is cold, and the acrid hot; and, further, in this, that the acid repels, but the acrid attracts, discusses, breaks down, and is escharotic. In like manner, that which is bitter cleanses the pores, is detergent and attenuant, and cuts the thick humours without sensible heat. What is watery is cold, incrassate, condenses, contracts, obstructs, mortifies, and stupefies. But that which is salt contracts, braces, preserves as a pickle, dries, without decided heat or cold. What is sweet relaxes, concocts, softens, and rarefies: but what is oily humectates, softens, and relaxes.

SECT. II.—ON THE ORDER AND DEGREES OF THE TEMPERAMENTS.

A moderate medicine which is of the same temperament as that to which it is applied, so as neither to dry, moisten, cool, nor heat, must not be called either dry, moist, cold, or hot; but whatever is drier, moister, hotter, or colder, is so called from its prevailing power. It will be sufficient for every useful purpose to make four ranks according to the prevailing temperament, calling that substance hot, according to the first rank, when it heats, indeed, but not manifestly, requiring reflection to demonstrate its existence: and in like manner with regard to cold, dry, and moist, when the prevailing temperament requires demonstration, and has no strong nor manifest virtue. Such things as are manifestly possessed of drying, moistening, heating or cooling properties, may be said to be of the second rank. Such things as have these properties to a strong, but not an extreme degree, may be said to be of the third rank. But such things as are naturally so hot as to form eschars and burn, are of the fourth. In like manner such things as are so cold as to occasion the death of a part are also of the fourth. But nothing is of so drying a nature as to be of the fourth rank, without burning, for that which dries in a great degree burns also; such are misy, chalcitis, and quicklime. But a substance may be of the third rank of desiccants without being caustic, such as all those things which are strongly astringent, of which kind are the unripe juice of grapes, sumach, and alum.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The following is a list of the ancient authorities on the Materia Medica and Pharmacy: Hippocrates (pluries); Dioscorides (de Materia Medica); Celsus (v); Scribonius Largus (pluries); Marcellus Empiricus; Pliny (H. N. pluries); Rei Rusticæ Scriptores; Apuleius (de Herbis); Antonius Musa (de Herba Betonica); Macer Floridus; Galenus (de Simpl.; de Comp. Med. sec. loc.; de Comp. Med. sec. gen.); Aëtius (i and ii); Oribasius (Med. Collect. xi et seq.); Sextus Platonicus (de Med. ex animal.); Zosimus Panopolita (de Zythorum confectione); Actuarius (Meth. Med.); Myrepsus (pluries); Psellus (de Lapidibus); Rhases (Contin. liber ult.; ad Mansor. iii); Avicenna (ii, et alibi); Serapion (de Simpl.; de Antidot.); Mesue (de Simpl.); Haly Abbas (Pract. ii and x); Averrhoes (Collig. v); Albengnefit (Libellus de Simpl. med. virt.); Geber (Chemia); Servitor (de Præpar. Med. i. e. xxviii Albucasis); Baitharis Præfatio ap. Casiri Biblioth. Arab. Hisp. p. 276; Ebn Baithar (Uebersetz von Sontheimer); Rei Rusticæ Scriptores Arabici ap. Casiri B. A. H.; Alchindus (Libellus de Med. compos. grad.)

Hippocrates, although he appears to have been familiarly acquainted with the properties of most of the vegetable substances of the Old World, still employed in the practice of medicine, has left no regular treatise on the Materia Medica and pharmacy of his time. Theophrastus has treated more fully and ingeniously of botany and vegetable physiology than any other Greek writer; but except in two or three instances he scarcely alludes to the medicinal powers of the articles which he describes. In short, Dioscorides is the first and great authority on the Materia Medica,—his contributions to which can never be too highly appreciated; for, as Alston justly remarks, the science in ancient times remained ever after in nearly the same state as he left it. The genius of Galen, it is true, shed a considerable degree of lustre over the subject by his philosophical theory regarding the general actions of medicines; but his descriptions of particular substances, and even his detail of their properties, are mostly borrowed from Dioscorides. The Greek authors, subsequent to his time, can scarcely be said to have added one single article to the list of medicinal substances described by him. Aëtius, however, although he can advance no great claim to originality, has given, as we shall see presently, a remarkably lucid exposition of the Galenical principles of therapeutics. Of Pliny’s great work, so replete with the most rare and curious information on almost every department of ancient literature, we feel reluctant to speak otherwise than in terms of unqualified eulogy, and yet candour obliges us to admit that on all medical subjects this writer is but a very indifferent authority. For, being evidently possessed of no practical acquaintance with professional matters, he appears to have been wholly incapable of discriminating real from pretended facts in medicine, and has accordingly jumbled important and useless matter together in many instances with very little judgment, nor can his opinions be much relied upon except when he copies closely from Dioscorides. The same objection cannot be made to his countryman Celsus; but the plan of his work being limited, the account which he gives of these matters is confined to a classification of simple substances, and a few formulæ for the formation of the more important pharmaceutical compounds. The Arabians added camphor, senna, musk, nux vomica, myrobalans, tamarinds, and a good many other articles to the Materia Medica; but, upon the whole, they transmitted the science to us in much the same shape as regards arrangement and general principles as they received it from their Grecian masters. At the same time it is impossible to take even a cursory view of the great work of Ebn Baithar, now fortunately rendered accessible to many European scholars by Dr. Sontheimer’s translation of it into German, without being struck with the amazing industry, enterprise, and talent displayed by that wonderful people in this department of medical science. In this collection, more than 1400 medicinal and dietetical articles are described, many of them no doubt in nearly the same terms as they had been noticed by Dioscorides and Galen, but of original matter relative to substances then for the first time introduced into the practice of medicine, there is no lack; and it is only to be regretted that a proper key to these stores is still a desideratum which it is to be feared will not soon be supplied. Ebn Baithar’s list of medicinal substances, however, is far more copious than those of the other Arabians, who in general follow closely in the footsteps of the Greek authorities, and seldom supply anything very original of their own. For example, the Materia Medica of Rhases contains only 765 articles, and that of Avicenna only 747, which it is to be remarked, is a smaller number than is contained in the work of Dioscorides, wherein Alston states that he counted above 90 minerals, 700 plants, and 168 animal substances, making 958 in all. This is nearly triple the number of simples contained in the Materia Medica of the Edinburgh Dispensatory at the present day, which amount only to 341 articles; so that if this branch of medical science has received any material improvement in modern times, it must arise principally from our superior accuracy in estimating the virtues of the substances now in use, or in making more ingenious compositions of their elementary ingredients. At all events, it is quite clear that the Greek, Roman, and Arabian physicians were amply provided with medicines of every possible character, and there is no reason to suppose that they were in anywise behind us in the skilful management of them. It has been affirmed, indeed, in some late publications which we have seen, that the ancients had never classified the articles in the Materia Medica according to the nature of their actions; but this we need scarcely assure the reader is a very erroneous account of the matter: and in proof of this we could have wished, if our limits had permitted us, to have introduced here some of the classified lists of medicinal substances as given by the ancient authorities, and more especially those of Aëtius and Serapion.

Verum hæc ipse equidem, spatiis inclusus iniquis
Prætereo, atque aliis post me memoranda relinquo.

We have mentioned above that Aëtius’s account of the general principles of the Materia Medica is particularly excellent, and we have now to add, that as it is sufficiently explicit to convey a distinct idea of the Galenical system, and is contained within moderate limits when compared with the full and lengthy exposition of it given by Galen himself, we shall give that of Aëtius entire, and confine our annotations almost solely to it in the present instance:—

“_On the Powers of Simple Medicines._

“There are differences in the particular actions of medicines, arising from each of them being to a certain degree hot, or cold, or dry, or humid, or consisting of subtile or of gross particles, but the degree in which each of them is possessed of the above-mentioned properties cannot be truly and accurately determined. We have endeavoured, however, to define them in such a manner as will be sufficient for all practical purposes, laying it down that there is one class of medicines possessed of a similar temperament to our bodies, when they have received a certain principle of change and aliation from the heat in them, and that there is another which is of a hotter temperament than we. Of this temperament I have thought it right to make four orders, the first being imperceptible to the senses, and only to be inferred from reflection; the second being perceptible to the senses; the third strongly heating but not burning; and the fourth, or last, caustic. In like manner of frigorific or cooling things, the first order requires reflection to demonstrate its coldness: the second consists of such things as are perceptibly cold; the third is perceptibly cold, but does not occasion mortification; the fourth produces mortification. So it is in like manner with humectating and desiccant articles. Let such an order of degrees be laid down to render clearer the course of instruction, rose oil or the rose itself being placed in the first order of cooling things; the juice of roses in the second, and in the third and fourth those things which are extremely cold, such as cicuta, meconium, mandragora, and hyoscyamus. In regard to hot things, dill and fenugreek belong to the first order; those which are next to them, to the second; and so of the third and fourth, until we come to the caustic. In like manner, respecting moistening and desiccant medicines, beginning with those of a moderate degree, we may arrange them until we come to their extremes. Such knowledge is of no small importance for the purpose of medical instruction. One ought also to exercise the sense of taste, and remember the peculiar qualities of juices; as, for example, that such a substance when applied to the tongue dries strongly, contracts, and roughens it to a considerable depth, such as unripe wild pears, cornels, and the like; every such thing that is intensely austere is called sour. Such things, as when applied to the tongue, do not constringe and contract it like astringents, but, on the contrary, appear to be detergent and cleansing, are called salt. Such things as are more detergent and also rougher in a painful degree, are called bitter. Those things which are biting and corrosive with a strong heat, are called acrid; and such as are biting without heat, are called acid, and these have the power of causing a fermentation when poured upon earth. Of those which lubricate, fill, remove asperities, and, as it were, erosions of the tongue, such as do so with sensible delight, are called sweet; but such as do this without sensible delight, are called fat. If, then, you wish to form a judgment of acrimony, you may learn to do so from garlic, onions, and the like, which are to be frequently tasted and long masticated, in order that the sensation thereby imparted may be fixed in the memory. But if you wish to acquire the perception of astringency, you may do so from galls, sumach, and the like; if of bitterness, from natron and bile; and if of sweetness, from rob and honey. Further, if you would wish to judge of such things as are devoid of all qualities, or of an intermediate quality as to taste, take water, and having tasted it, retain the perception in your memory; but see that it be the purest water, and that it contain none of the aforesaid qualities; neither sweetness, acidity, acrimony, nor bitterness; and, in addition, that it be neither very hot nor very cold. Proceeding from this, you may the more readily perceive the obscure taste of certain juices which I call moderately sweet, but which others call watery; such as the juice of green reeds and of grass, of wheat and of barley, and of moderately sweet things, as resembling what I have described to be of all other things the most devoid of qualities, I mean water, which is in an intermediate state between heat and cold, or inclines a little to cold. If being endowed with such a taste, it have not a liquid but a dry consistence, it must necessarily be terrene and desiccative without pungency. These things are called emplastic, such as starch, and most of the thoroughly-washed metals, as pompholyx, ceruse, calamine, Cimolian earth, Samian earth, and the like. Some are not only terrene, but also watery in their nature; and some contain no little air in them: such are viscid and therefore emplastic. There are two kind of emplastic medicines, the one very terrene and dry, and the other altogether viscid, being composed of water, earth, and, for the most part, of air, such as sweet oil. The white of an egg is similar to oil, but more terrene. The cheesy part of milk is emplastic, and so also the fat of swine. The fat and suet of a bull and a buck-goat are acrid, and more terrene than that of swine. That of a goose or a cock is hotter and drier than that of swine; but of subtile parts, and by no means terrene. The fats then, if they have no acrimony, are emplastic, or obstruent of the pores, more especially if of a drier and more terrene nature, such as well-washed wax. Emplastic medicines then are of such a nature. But astringents are terrene, and with regard to the composition of their particles are thick; but in their qualities they are cold. Acids in composition are attenuating, but cold, like astringents. The terrene particles contained in the juices, which, when melted, contract and dry the humidity of the sentient parts of the tongue, if particularly rough, are called sour; but if less so, austere; and we properly call the temperament of such juices cold. But since they are unequally desiccative—for in this consists their asperity—they are likewise terrene; for every watery substance permeates the body evenly, and when removed it easily coalesces; but what is terrene when removed does not readily coalesce again. And the peculiarity of the sensation, if you will recollect the impression, will testify to the same effect; for the passage of acid juices, in the organs of sensation, appears quick; but that of sour, slow; and acids exert their actions more on the deep-seated parts, whereas sour substances act more superficially. When you wish to ascertain the action of a truly sour substance, if that which is made trial of appear at the same time sour and pungent, I would recommend you to lay that species aside, and to have recourse to something which is sour without being pungent, and neither acid, sweet, nor bitter, but as much as possible having no one quality or power mixed up with its astringency; for it is useless and foolish to make trial of such a medicine, as it cannot be ascertained whether it be by its astringency, or by any of the qualities mixed with it, or by a combination of both, that the substance which is made trial of exerts its action. Therefore, chalcitis, misy, copperas, the flakes of copper, sori, and, in addition to them, the armeniacum pictorium (Armenian pigment), mercury, and other astringent substances which are also at the same time pungent, act by both their properties upon the bodies to which they are applied; but we are not thereby informed whether they burn by their astringency or by their acrimony; for such substances, when taken into the body, being composed of gross particles, and rather hot in their powers, having become ignited in the course of time, according to the change which they undergo in the body of the animal, ulcerate and burn the parts about the stomach like heated stones or irons; and owing to their weight they are incapable of being distributed over the body. It is better, therefore, after much observation, to look out for something that is purely astringent, and when you have found such a substance, make haste to try it in the manner you have formerly heard described; such as having tasted the flowers of the wild pomegranate, galls, or the flowers of the cultivated pomegranate, hypocistis, acacia, sumach, or the like, if the substance appear intensely sour, and it is manifest that it contains no other quality, you must prove the action of astringency from it. A sour substance then is terrene and cold, and its quality may necessarily be removed in three ways; either by being heated, or moistened, or by undergoing both these changes at the same time. If only heated, it will neither become more humid nor softer; but becoming harder it will have acquired sweetness, as is the case with acorns and chesnuts, as they are called. But if only moistened, and if the humidity is of a thick nature and watery, it becomes austere; for the astringent part being dissolved renders the juice austere, it being the property of a watery fluid to obtund the powers of every juice. If a subtile and airy fluid be superadded, it will become acid, for coldness being attenuating will render the former quality acid. When moistened and heated at the same time, if with a watery humidity, it will occasion a change to sweetness; but if with an airy, to fatness; for the fruits of such trees as appear sweet to us when ripened, are, when newly formed, sour and dry in their consistence, each according to the nature of the tree which produced it; but in process of time, they become more humid or juicy; and some get acidity superadded to their sourness, which latter quality when they have laid aside they become again sweet as they arrive at maturity. Some do not acquire sweetness at all while upon the trees, but after a time, when separated from them. Some without the intermediate acidity pass from sourness to sweetness, as the fruit of the olive. All things are concocted by heat, which is of a twofold nature, the one proper and innate, and the other supplied from without by the sun. But, since being sour at first, they become sweet when ripe, their sweetness is occasioned by heat; but their acidity and sourness by cold. And it has already become obvious that as fruits being sour at first, in process of time become, some sweet, some acid, some austere, and some remain sour, that great variety will arise from a mixture of these qualities. Wherefore, the fruit of the ilex, the cornel, and other such things, are sour to the last, because they remain cold and dry as at the beginning, being only increased in size, but acquiring no other internal change. The fruits of the myrtle, the wild pear, and the oak are sweet and sour at the same time; but the fruit of Aminæan vines, wine, and such like things, are only austere. The fruit of the palm tree, and of wines, the Surrentine, and such as have sweetness joined to astringency, are at the same time austere and sweet. The Theræan wine, the Scybelitic, boiled must called rob, and other such like things, are only sweet. The fruit and juice of the olive in particular, but also of all other such things from which oil is formed, are fatty. And as a sour juice in process of time, becoming at first sweeter, and afterward turning more acrid and bitter, ends in becoming wholly bitter; so in like manner, a cold juice becomes at first more acid, and if wholly congealed it turns entirely acid; and such fruits as at gathering are filled with much humidity, and such as otherwise acquire much water, readily become acid from very slight causes. For if the unripe grape is acid, but the ripe sweet, and if all fruits are ripened by the solar heat, it is obvious that what is more imperfect and colder is acid; whereas, what is more perfect and hotter is sweet. When wine, therefore, from refrigeration becomes acid, it is clear that it returns again to the same juice from which it was formed, I mean that of the unripe grape. But vinegar differs thus far in power from the juice of the unripe grape, that the vinegar has acquired a certain degree of acrimony from the putrefactive heat (”fermentation?“); but the juice of the unripe grape has no acquired heat, and therefore none of the acrimony of vinegar; wherefore, vinegar is more attenuating than the juice of the unripe grape, as the sensation bears testimony to the truth of what has been said; but the acrimony of the vinegar is not sufficient to overcome the coldness arising from its acidity; it serves, however, to make it more penetrating; for inasmuch as heat is more penetrating than cold, so does the acrimony of vinegar the more readily pass the pores of sensible bodies, and thus acrimony takes the lead, but coldness follows at no great interval. And it is this mixed and almost indescribable sensation which prevents us from calling vinegar simply cold; for we perceive in it a certain fiery acrimony. But the coldness, from the accompanying acidity, straightway obtunds and extinguishes the acrimony, and therefore there is a much greater sensation from the coldness than from the heat; for some persons by drinking oxycrate in the summer season are sensibly cooled, and remain free from thirst. But since thirst arises from two distinct causes, either from a deficiency of moisture or an excess of heat, that arising from dryness is not cured, but that occasioned by heat is removed by it; for vinegar by itself does not moisten, but is decidedly refrigerant. Thirst, therefore, arising from a hot intemperament, or from a hot and dry one, is not to be cured by drinking vinegar; but when humidity and heat meet together, the proper cure of such a kind of thirst is vinegar; but otherwise in the case of those who are thirsty in ardent fevers and all other hot diseases, and in those during summer and hot weather, their state is a compound of heat and dryness, so that the proper cure for it is a composition of vinegar and water; for the vinegar is decidedly refrigerant, and by its tenuity readily diffusible, and the water, in addition to its property of cooling, is the most moistening of all substances, for nothing is more moistening than water. But as an external application for heat of the hypochondrium, the juice of unripe grapes is preferable to vinegar, because it has no violent and offensive coldness, nor any pungent heat mixed with it; for in such affections persons require to be soothed without violence by an application which will not induce externally any pungent acrimony. The juice of the unripe grape, then, is not only acid but sour; for, as mentioned before, almost all the fruits of trees are at first sour to the taste; and not only are acids cold, but so also are sour and austere things. And if any one will taste quinces, myrtles, or medlars, he will perceive clearly that there is one sensation from acids, and another from sour and austere things; for sour things seem to propel inwards the part which they touch, everywhere equally squeezing, constricting, and contracting, as it were; but the austere seem to penetrate deeply, and to induce a rough and unequable sensation, so that by drying they expel the humidity of the parts of sensation. Thus, between sour and austere juices, there is a certain peculiar difference of sensation not easily to be described, but which everybody must understand from what has been said. Every sour substance, then, when free from all other qualities, I have upon trial always found to be cold; but every sweet substance is hot, and does not greatly exceed the heat in us; and as we are delighted, more especially if we are cold, with the touch of warm water, until it expand the parts congealed by the cold, and as it heats us, and does not dissolve nor break the continuity of the parts, it is very pleasant and useful; so all sweet food is hot, and yet it is not possessed of such a degree of heat as to be unpleasant, but remains within the limits of those things which expand, soften, and are demulcent: for all nutritive food is allied to, and agrees with, the whole substance of the bodies which it nourishes; it requires, therefore, to be moderately hot, so as to agree with the bodies which are nourished; and hence one kind of food and medicine does not agree with all men; for according to his peculiar substance and affection is every one delighted and benefited. And such being the nature of things those kinds of food which are less sweet are less hot, and their heat is proportionate to their sweetness; but these things, when they get to an immoderate degree of heat, are no longer sweet, but appear bitter, such as honey which is old and much boiled, and so also with all other sweet things; for such things as without boiling or preparation are allied to the temperaments of the bodies which they nourish, appear already sweet; but all such as are not allied appear unsavoury until prepared, for those which are hot require to be corrected by cold, and those which are sufficiently cold by the mixture of calefacient food and by heat. In like manner such things as are terrene and drier than proper, are to be corrected by humidity; and those things which are humid and watery, by drying; that which is sweet therefore, in addition to being more or less hot, is necessarily more or less humid. But when this bitterness arises from being over-roasted, as in lime and ashes, it is necessarily rendered dry and hot. For this reason every bitter thing is of such a nature as to prove detergent, and is calculated to break down and to cut viscid and thick humours, and such are ashes and natron; but that bitter sap is dry and terrene, may be collected from the circumstance, that bitter things are of all others the least prone to putrefaction, and do not engender worms nor other animals such as are usually formed in roots, herbs, and fruits when they become putrid; for we see that such animals and putrefactions take place in humid bodies. Those things which are intensely bitter (I call those things such which have no other manifest quality) are uneatable, not only by men, but by almost all animals, because every living creature is more or less humid, and bitter things are dry in like manner as ashes and cinders. As, therefore, that which is truly sweet is nutritive, and that which is purely bitter innutritive, so those things which are intermediate are nutritive indeed, but less so than the sweet. The salt juice is allied to the bitter, for both are terrene and hot; but they differ from one another perceptibly in this, that the bitter is more attenuated and wrought by the heat and dryness; and thus, too, of salts, such as are hard, denser, and more terrene (as are almost all the fossils), are less calefacient and attenuating; but such as are brittle and porous are at the same time more attenuating and hotter; and some of them are bitterish, being intermediate between the hard salts and aphronitrum; and if you will warm any saltish thing to a great degree it will straightway become bitter. Thus, the water of the Lake Asphaltitis, which they call the Dead Sea, being contained within a hollow and hot place, and overheated by the sun, becomes bitter, and for this reason it becomes more bitter in summer than in winter. And if you will draw some of it, and put it into a hollow vessel in a place exposed to the sun during the summer season it will straightway become more bitter than it generally is. For no animals appear to be found in such water, neither plants; and although the rivers which fall into it contain many large fishes, more especially the river near Jericho called Jordan, none of the fishes pass the mouth of the river, and if you will catch some and throw them into the Lake, you will see that they die immediately, and hence it is called the Dead Lake or Sea. Thus, that which is intensely bitter is inimical to all plants and animals, and is of a parched and dry nature, becoming like soot from roasting. Having, therefore, settled the powers of bitter juices, and said that they are cutting, detergent, attenuant, and decidedly hot, to such a degree only as not to burn, we shall next proceed to the acrid; and first we may say of them that they are truly hot, then corrosive, caustic, escharotic, and of a dissolvent nature, when applied externally to the skin; but when taken internally, those which, in their whole substance are adverse to certain animals, are all septic and destructive to them, as the cantharis and buprestis are to men. But such as are distinguished only by excess of their heating powers, if thicker and terrene, as arsenic, sandarach, and the like, we call ulcerative of the internal parts; but if they consist of subtile parts, such as the common seeds, carrot, anise, and the like, they are diuretic, diaphoretic, and, in a word, cutting and discutient; and some are also useful in expectorations from the chest and menstrual discharges. But acrid juices would seem to differ from bitter, not only in possessing strong heat, but also in this, that all bitter things are not only hot but of a dry temperament like ashes, while in such acrid substances as are not bitter, there is often much humidity mixed, and therefore we use no few acrid things as articles of food. But since enough has been said respecting all the juices, it still remains to treat of the vapours. Most of the vapours, then, affect us similarly to the juices; for all acids, and likewise vinegar itself, move the senses of smell and taste in like manner; and acrid things, as garlic, onions, and the like, are pungent and offensive to the smell, no less than to the taste; so that, without tasting certain things, such as dung, we are confident that we know its quality, and therefore at once we abstain from them, because we repose confidence in the sense of smell. And of fragrant things, such as have become putrid and offend the smell, we straightway throw away, and do not attempt to taste; and in short, with regard to almost all things, the smell and taste are found to agree; and we refer each of them to two classes, calling the most of those substances which have smell, odorous, and fetid, and considering the odorous analogous to sweet things, and the fetid to such as are not sweet to the tongue, it would appear that from bodies which have no smell there is but little emitted, or at least that it is disproportionate to their bulk, as is the case with salt and sour things in particular; for the substance of sour things is of a dense and cold nature, so that it is natural that what is emitted from them should be small in quantity, thick, and terrene in its parts, so as not to reach the brain in respiration. Hence it is not safe to judge of their temperament from the smell as it is from the taste: for we know that things which are inodorous consist of thick particles, but it is not apparent how they are as to heat and cold; and that fragrant things consist of subtile particles, and are hot in their nature; but it is not shown by the smell but by the taste what is the degree of their tenuity and heat. The inequality of their substance is the cause why fragrant things give no certain indication of temperament; and therefore it is not safe to judge of all the qualities of the rose from its smell; but in taste all the parts of the bodies which are tasted fall equably upon the tongue, and each excites a sensation agreeably to its nature, namely, the sour part in it which is terrene consists of thick particles and is cold; the bitter, which consists of subtile parts and is hot; and third, the watery, which is necessarily cold. It is not safe then, as has been said, to form a judgment of all the powers of simple substances from the smell; but it is still more impracticable to estimate simple medicines from their colours; for hot, cold, dry, and humid substances are found of every colour. And yet from the colour of every kind of seeds, roots, or juices it is possible to derive a certain indication of their temperament. For example, onions, squills, and wine, the whiter they are, are the less hot; but such as are of a yellowish and intermediate colour are hotter. And wheat, vetches, and kidney-beans, and chick-peas, the root of iris, that of kingspear, and many others, are similarly affected. In each genus, for the most part, such things as are gold coloured, red, and of a bright yellow, are hotter than the white, so that if any conjecture can be formed therefrom of the powers of medicines, it is so far well. It is best then, as has been often said and demonstrated, to determine the powers of each by exact experiment, for by this you cannot be deceived; but before ascertaining their powers by experiment, the taste will give many indications, in which it will be assisted in a small degree by the smell.” (_Præfatio in Aëtium._)

For a fuller account of the subject, the reader is referred to the first five books of Galen’s work ‘On the Powers of Simples;’ to the first tractate of the Second Book of Avicenna; and to the introductory part of Serapion’s work ‘On Simples.’ A useful abstract of the ancient opinions is given in the small tract of Albengnefit. The nature of the tastes is ingeniously discussed in the ‘Timæus’ of Plato, and by Theophrastus (de Causis Plantarum, vi.) Alkhendi’s theory of the action of compound medicines appears to be ingenious; but it is complex and difficult to explain, being founded upon the principles of geometrical properties and musical harmony. The ‘Chemia’ of Geber contains a very interesting abstract of the knowledge possessed by the ancients regarding the recondite nature of substances, that is to say, on alchemy, but supplies little or no information on the Materia Medica or Pharmacy.

Before concluding our present commentary, it may be proper to remark, as tending to show the importance of the Galenical theory of the action of medicines in the literature of medicine, that not only was it generally adopted by most of the Greek and Arabian authorities subsequent to Galen, but it prevails in the works of all our old herbalists, as, for example, Gerarde, Parkinson, Culpeper, and of the other writers on the Materia Medica, down to the days of Quincy. We may also take the present opportunity to state that in the works of the ancient authorities, we have detected a few traces of the singular doctrine of signatures, as it has been called, but that with the exception of Geber, who can scarcely be held to be a medical writer, we have found no allusion to alchemy _or_ astral influence, as having anything to do with the operation of medicines. The first ancient writer who notices alchemy, we believe, is Firmicus (iii.) Though the Arabians were much given to this superstitious conceit, it would appear from what we have mentioned that their medical authorities had kept their minds free from the contamination of it.

SECT. III.—ON THE POWERS OF SIMPLES INDIVIDUALLY.

COMMENTARY. The part of our task upon which we are now entering is at once so arduous and important, that we cannot but feel diffident of our abilities to execute it properly. We may venture, however, to assure the reader that we have spared no pains as far as lay in our power to unravel the intricacies with which this department of ancient science is involved, and that, with this intention, upon every article we have carefully compared the descriptions of the ancient authors, and have likewise availed ourselves of the learned labours of modern commentators on Theophrastus, Pliny, and Dioscorides. We may mention that those we have generally reposed most confidence in are Matthiolus, Dodonæus, Harduin, Stackhouse, Schneider, Sprengel, and Sibthorp. It will also be seen that we have paid a good deal of attention to the works of our English herbalists, the study of whose works we consider highly important, as reflecting much light on the ancient literature of this subject. We have further culled freely from a variety of other sources. As our limits prevent us from entering into the discussion of controverted points, we are under the necessity of merely giving the result of our own investigations in each case. Those who wish to see the commentator’s opinions more fully on these matters are referred to the Appendix to Dunbar’s ‘Greek Lexicon,’ which was written exclusively by him.

Ἀβρότονον,

Abrotonum, _Southernwood_, warms and dries in the third degree, being of a discutient and cutting nature, for it is possessed of a very small degree of sourness, and if rubbed with oil over the whole body, it cures periodical rigors. But it is prejudicial to the stomach; and the burnt being more desiccative than the unburnt, cures alopecia, along with some of the finer oils.

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COMMENTARY. Dioscorides and most of the subsequent authorities, with the exception of Paulus, describe two species, the mas. and the femina. The one without doubt is the _Artemisia Abrotanum_; the other probably the _Santolina Chamæcyparissus_. The use of southernwood is as ancient as Hippocrates, but Galen is the ancient author who has treated of its faculties most elaborately. He recommends it strongly both externally in fomentations, and internally as an anthelminthic. For the latter purpose it is praised by the natural historian Ælian (H. A. ix, 33), and by most of the medical authorities on the Materia Medica, both ancient and modern. As an application in ophthalmy, along with the pulp of a roasted quince, it is highly spoken of by Galen and the others. Galen says, that friction with the oil of southernwood is useful in intermittents, and this character of it is confirmed by all the authorities down to recent times. Avicenna joins Dioscorides in praising it as an emmenagogue, and says, that it produces abortion. (ii, 266.) Aëtius is fuller than the others on the virtues of the lixivial ashes of southernwood, recommending them particularly in diseases of the anus and in alopecia. Celsus ranks it among the cleansing medicines (v, 5.) Pliny makes mention of a vinous tincture (xiv, 19.) See also Dioscorides (v, 49.) Macer Floridus, a comparatively modern authority, joins the more ancient authorities in commending it as an antidote to narcotic poisons. He also says, that a vinous tincture of it is useful in sea-sickness. Serapion, after quoting freely from Dioscorides and Galen, under this head adds, upon “an unknown authority,” that, when boiled with oil and rubbed over the stomach, it cures coldness of the same. (De Simpl. 317.) In the modern Greek Pharmacopœia (Athens, 1837), the two species of wormwood are described by the names of _Artemisia Abrotonum_ and _Artemisia contra_. See further Pereira (M. M. 1356.)

Ἀγάλλοχον,

Agallochum, is an Indian wood resembling the thyia, of an aromatic nature. When chewed it contributes to the fragrance of the mouth. It is also a perfume. Its root, when drunk to the amount of a drachm weight, cures waterbrash and loss of tone in the stomach, and agrees with hepatic, dysenteric, and pleuritic complaints.

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COMMENTARY. It is probably the lignum aloes or _Aloexylon Agallochum_, Lour., although there has been considerable difference of opinion on this point. See Gerarde’s ‘Herbal’ and the commentators on Dioscorides and Mesue. Our author’s description of it is taken from Dioscorides (i, 21.) The Arabian authorities and Simeon Seth describe several varieties of it; the most excellent of which is said to be the Indian. At all times it has been much used in India as a perfume. See in particular Avicenna, who gives an elaborate dissertation on the different kinds of agallochum or xylaloe, found in India, and the modes of preparing it (ii, 2, 733.) See also Serapion (De Simpl. 197); Ebn Baithar (ii, 224); and Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 27.) It does not occur in the Hippocratic treatises, nor in the works of Celsus. Although not retained in our Dispensatory, it is still kept in the shops of the apothecaries, and has the reputation of being cordial and alexiterial. See Gray (Suppl. to Pharmacop. p. 91.)

Ἀγαρικὸν,

Agaricum, _Agaric_, is a root or an excrescence from the trunk of a tree, of a porous consistence, and composed of aerial and terrene particles. It is of a discutient nature, cuts thick humours, and clears away obstructions, of the viscera particularly.

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COMMENTARY. It appears to have been the same as the _Boletus igniarius_ (_touchwood_ or _spunk_), which is still retained in our modern Dispensatories. It is a fungous excrescence which grows on the trunk of the oak, larch, cherry, and plum. Dioscorides and most of the ancient authorities speak highly of it as a styptic. Dioscorides also commends it in stomach complaints, but Aëtius maintains that it is prejudicial to the stomach. Galen calls it cathartic, and speaks highly of its virtues in the cure of jaundice and other hepatic affections. (De Simpl. v.) For the Arabians, see Avicenna (ii, 2); Serapion (De Simpl. 78); Rhases (Contin. l. ult. i, 28.) They recommend it in jaundice, like Galen, and in complaints of the lungs, melancholy, protracted fevers, and in other cases. It is now seldom used, being found to act harshly both as an emetic and a cathartic. We have treated of the poisonous agarici in another place (v, 64.) The _Boletus Laricis_ occurs in the modern Greek Pharmacopœia. (Athens, 1837.)

Ἀγήρατον,

Ageratum, _Maudlin_, is possessed of discutient and slightly anti-inflammatory powers.

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COMMENTARY. Our modern herbalists are generally agreed that this is our maudlin, that is to say, the _Achillea Ageratum_, and the commentators on Mesue hold that it is his eupatorium. From Dioscorides down to modern times it has been commended as a diuretic medicine and an emollient of the uterus. Dioscorides, however, seems to say that it is heating, whereas Galen represents it as mildly anti-inflammatory. Perhaps there is some error in the text of the former. (iv, 59.) We do not find it in the works of Hippocrates, nor in those of Celsus, nor have we found it treated of by any of the Arabians, except Ebn Baithar, who merely gives extracts from Dioscorides and Galen (ii, 57.)

Ἄγνος ἢ λύγος,

Vitex, the _Chaste-tree_, heats and dries in the third rank. It consists of fine particles and dispels flatulence, whence it is believed to contribute to chastity, not only when eaten and drunk, but also when strewed under one. Its seed also, when drunk, acts as a deobstruent of the liver and spleen. When toasted it is less flatulent and more distributable.

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COMMENTARY. The anaphrodisiacal powers of the _Vitex Agnus Castus_, or chaste-tree, are noticed by most of the medical authorities, and by Ælian (H. A. ix, 36.) But modern authorities question its claims to this character. Until lately, however, it held a place in our Pharmacopœia. Our author abridges Dioscorides (1, 134), and Galen (De Simpl.) For the Arabians, see particularly Avicenna (ii, 2, 43), and Rhases (Cont. l. ult. 31.) It occurs in the works of Hippocrates.

Ἄγρωστις,

Gramen, _Grass_, that of Parnassus is particularly useful; it is desiccative, moderately cooling, consists of fine particles, and is somewhat sour; it, therefore, is an agglutinant of bloody wounds, and its decoction is lithontriptic.

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