Chapter XIII: Book I: , 68.) Of course it would consist of nothing but animal sweat, (9)

COMMENTARY. Although we treated of the deleterious effects of opium on the animal economy in the Fifth Book, and have given a general description of the medicinal properties of the poppy in the proper place, we shall avail ourselves of the present opportunity to supply some important information regarding the ancient use of opium in the practice of medicine. Though mention is made of “the juice of the poppy,” and of “meconium” as soporifics in the works of the Hippocratists (De Mulieribus, ii), it does not appear that these articles were much in use until a later age. “The juice of the poppy” is noticed likewise by Theophrastus (Fr. 20, 35), and the process of gathering this juice is briefly alluded to by him (H. P. ix, 8, 2); but the nature of his work did not lead him to say anything of its medicinal uses. There can be no question, we presume, that the “papaveris lacryma” of Celsus was opium, i. e. the concrete juice of the poppy. He prescribes it on many occasions, both externally and internally. For example, as an ingredient along with hyoscyamus, burnt lead, and other ingredients for an emollient plaster to be applied in arthritic pains (v, 18, 29, 35), and as an injection with alum, acacia, and henbane in earache (vi, 7); as an ingredient in various collyria for complaints of the eyes (vi, 6); as an injection in complaints about the anus (vi, 18), and in many other cases. The famous Methodist, Cælius Aurelianus, is very guarded in his use of opiates, and he appears to approve of the opinion of those who held that poppy does not induce sleep, but oppression of the senses; “papavera autem pressuram non somnum faciunt.” (i, 1.) See also Pass. Tard. (i, 5.) Dioscorides, then, is the first authority that gives a detailed account of opium and its uses in medicine. Treating of the cultivated poppy, he says, that its juice is very congealing, incrassative, and desiccative, when taken in small quantity, to the size of a vetch, is anodyne, soporific, concoctive, and is useful in coughs and cæliac affections. Taken in greater quantity, it proves injurious, inducing lethargy and death; it is beneficial in headache when rubbed in with rose oil; and in earache when injected with almond oil, saffron, and myrrh; in inflammations of the eyes with the roasted yelk of an egg and saffron; and for erysipelas and wounds with vinegar; for gout with a woman’s milk and saffron; and when applied as a suppository per anum it induces sleep. The best kind is that which is dense, has a heavy stupefying smell, is bitter to the taste, readily incorporating with water, smooth, white, not rough, nor grumous, nor moulding like wax in the process of straining; when laid in the sun softening, and when applied to a lamp not burning with a smoky flame, and after being extinguished preserving its powers in its smell. He then mentions several modes of adulterating it which were practised in his time, and then adds, it is roasted for ophthalmic medicines upon a recent shell until it becomes soft and of a tawny colour. Erasistratus says that Diagoras condemned the use of it in diseases of the ears and eyes, as inducing dimness of sight and coma. And Andreas says, that if it had not been adulterated those that rubbed it in would have been deprived of sight by it. But Mnesidemus says, that the only proper use of it is by the smell, as thus disposing to sleep, for that otherwise it proved injurious; but these statements are false, as is proved by experience; for the operation of the medicine is attested by its effects. He concludes by describing the modes by which opium and meconium were prepared, but it will be sufficient for our purpose to state that his description of the former of these is exactly the same as the method now commonly practised. See Kæmpfer (Amæn. Exost. 643), and Pereira (M. M. 1274.) The meconium was the expressed juice of the leaves and head, and is not now in use. Dioscorides states that it is much weaker than the other. (iv, 65.) Pliny’s description of the opium and meconium is obviously taken from Dioscorides, or both these authors must have copied from some preceding authority. He thus describes the meconium: “cum capita ipsa et folia decoquuntur, succus meconium vocatur, multum opio ignavior.” (H. N. xx, 76.) Opium it is certain was freely used by the Empirics, and accordingly it will be found that it is a very common ingredient in the prescriptions of Scribonius Largus, and Marcellus the Empiric. The latter gives several formulæ for collyria, in which opium occurs, and he is at pains to state that it is the concrete and not the expressed juice which must be used. (De Medicamentis, viii.) He also prescribes it internally for pains of the kidneys (xxvi), as an enema in colic (xxix), and in many other cases. Galen would appear to have had very sound opinions respecting the use of opium in the treatment of diseases. He professes, indeed, never to have had recourse to it when he could help it. (De Comp. med. sec. loc. iii); but yet he prescribes it in cæliac and certain stomach affections (ibid, viii), and even in intense pains of the eyes (Meth. Med. ii), although in general he condemns the application of it in collyria. (Meth. Med. iii; and De Comp. m. s. l. ii.) He often mentions that castor counteracts the prejudicial effects of opium. (De med. sec. loc. iii, and viii.) Of all kinds of opium he pronounces the Theban to be the best. (De Antid. i.) Avicenna, besides treating of opium as a poison, and giving the general properties of poppy, under that head, has a very interesting chapter on opium in his Mat. Med. He defines opium to be the juice of the black Egyptian poppy dried in the sun. He says it proves fatal if given in a larger dose than two drachms; but the proper dose he states to be the size of a tare. He states in parenthesis that opium is also formed from the juice of the wild lettuce (lactucarium?). He calls it narcotic and sedative of all pains, whether taken internally or rubbed in. It is useful, he says, in apostemes, especially in those of an inflammatory nature. He says of it, that it dries up ulcers; with the yelk of an egg forms a liniment for gout; it proves soporific if a cloth smeared with it be placed below the head; allays pain if injected into the ear affected, along with myrrh and saffron; allays chronic pains of the head, and sometimes cures them; soothes the pains of ophthalmy, and the apostemes of the eyes, with the milk of a woman; but yet he adds, that many of the ancient authorities had condemned the use of it in such cases as proving injurious to the sight; it allays incessant coughs, and often cures that kind which is noisy; improves the stomach in peculiar cases, when debilitated by excess of heat and humidity, is braced by it; but in many constitutions, opium, so administered, impairs digestion; it stops diarrhœa; is useful in dysentery, and in ulcerations of the intestines. It proves fatal, he says, by congealing the vital powers and extinguishing the innate heat; and its antidote is castor. He concludes by saying, that three times the amount of the seed of hyoscyamus, or double of the seed of mandragora, may be given as a substitute for it. (ii, 2, 519.) Haly Abbas treats of opium more briefly, stating in general terms that it is a soporific and sedative medicine. He seems to say that from half a drachm to a drachm will prove fatal. (Pract. ii, 40, 318.) Serapion’s account of opium is mostly made up of extracts from Dioscorides and Galen, with a few brief notices of the opinions held by Arabian authorities, which do not contain anything of much interest. (c. 374.) Rhases’s chapter upon the poppy contains many extracts from the Greek authorities on opium, with a few from Arabian writers, which, however, contain nothing of much interest after what we have given from Dioscorides and Avicenna. Like Serapion, he says, from half a scruple to a scruple is a dose, and that two drachms will prove fatal. His authority, Mesue, says it forms semen. Another of them, Joannitius, seems to say that it binds the bowels in general, but yet has some laxative power. (Cont. l. ult. i, 533.) In the ‘Book of Experience,’ as quoted by Ebn Baithar, poppy-juice is recommended in complaints of the eyes, and in pains of the head when applied to the forehead. One of his Arabian authorities mentions its good effects in diarrhœa; and it is also spoken favorably of as an application to burns. Ebn Baithar’s account of this article is otherwise mostly made up from Dioscorides.

Ὀπὸς,

Succus Cyrenaicus, Medicus, and Syriacus, are so named _per excellentiam_, being considerably hot and flatulent. The Cyrenaic is hotter and more attenuate than any of the others.

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COMMENTARY. The high interest which attaches to these articles might well dispose us to wake our classical recollections, in order to illustrate the nature of them, if the narrow limits to which we feel that we are restricted did not restrain us from such an undertaking. We beg, however, to quote the words of one of our ablest authorities in illustration of this subject. Dr. Lindley, treating of the plants which yield assafœtida, says, “assafœtida is the milky juice of various species of Ferula inhabiting Persia and neighbouring countries. Of these, F. assafœtida is the plant described by Kæmpfer. (Amæn. Exot. 535); but F. Perscia and others, are no doubt also the origin of this drug. The Asa dulcis or Laser Cyrenaicum was yielded by a Thapsia, and probably _Thapsia Garganica_. This drug was in high reputation among the ancients for its medicinal uses; it had miraculous powers assigned to it—power to neutralize the effect of poison, to cure envenomed wounds, to restore sight to the blind, and youth to the aged; these were only a part of its reputed properties; it was also reckoned antispasmodic, deobstruent, diuretic, &c., &c. So great was its reputation, that the princes of Cyrene caused it to be struck on the reverse of their coins; and the Cyrenean doctors were reckoned among the most eminent in the world.” (Veg. King. 776.) See further Pereira (Mat. Med. 1041), and most especially Sprengel in Dioscor. (iii, 85.) From what we have stated, our readers will readily comprehend that the Median and Syrian juices were varieties of the gum resin of Ferula assafœtida; while the Cyrenean juice was the gum resin of a congener, namely (as stated above), the _Thapsia Garganica_, called silphium by the ancients. That the Cyrenaic juice was the product of the silphium, is positively stated by Strabo. (Geogr. xvii, 3.) We shall reserve what we have to say on its medicinal properties till we come to that article. It is the laser and laserpitium of the Roman authors. It occurs in the Hippocratic collection. (De Morb. iv.) By the Arabian authors it is generally treated of under the name of _Assa_, and hence its modern appellation.

Ὀρίγανος,

Origanum, _Origany_, or _Wild Marjoram_; all the species of it are possessed of incisive, attenuant, desiccative, and calefacient powers in the third degree.

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COMMENTARY. Apuleius enumerates three species and recommends them for coughs. (c. 122.) Galen and Dioscorides also describe the same number of species, which may be referred—the 1st, to the _Origanum Heracleoticum_, L.; the 2d, to the _O. onitis_; and the 3d, to _O. sylvestre album_. Dioscorides describes the particular uses of these plants so fully that we cannot find room for his separate articles on each. Suffice it to say, that he sets down the first as being laxative, emmenagogue, and expectorant. (iii, 29, 30, 31.) Galen, like our author, merely states the properties of the _Origana_ in general terms. The Arabians call the origanum diuretic and vermifuge. They copy, as usual, from the Greeks. See Serapion (c. 310), Avicenna (ii, 2, 526), and Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 125.) The _Origanum Smyrnæum_ occurs in the modern Greek Pharmacopœia (121.)

Ὁρεοσέλινον,

Apium montanum, _Mountain Parsley_, has powers like those of parsley, but stronger.

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COMMENTARY. Dioscorides says of this article (_Selinum Oreoselinum_? or _Athamanta Libanotis_?), that it is diuretic and emmenagogue, and an ingredient in antidotes, and in diuretic and heating remedies. (iii, 69.) Galen and the other Greek authorities treat of it in general terms along with its congeners; and the Arabians do the same under _Apium_. See in particular Avicenna (ii, 2, 55); Serapion (De Simpl. 290); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 69.) Serapion’s Arabian authorities represent the Apium montanum as being laxative, carminative, deobstruent, diuretic, and, in some cases, emetic. The _Athamanta Libanotis_ is still to be found in the shops of the apothecaries, where it retains its ancient characters. Gray (Suppl. to the Pharmacop. 81.) Some of the commentators on Dioscorides take it for the article we are treating of.

Ὀροβάκχη,

Orobanche, _Holly Rose_, belongs to the first order of the desiccative and cooling temperament.

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COMMENTARY. It appears unquestionably to be the _Orobanche Caryophyllea_. See Sibthorp. (Fl. Græca. i, 440.) Dioscorides merely states of it, that it was eaten as a potherb both raw and boiled. The other authorities treat of it very succinctly. We have not been able to discover any traces of it in the works of the Arabians.

Ὄροβος,

Ervum, _Bitter Vetch_, or _Tare_, is heating in the first degree, and desiccative in the second. It is also bitter, and therefore is incisive, detergent, and deobstruent. When taken in too great a dose it occasions bloody urine.

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COMMENTARY. It is the _Ervum Ervilia_, Bitter Vetch. Dioscorides enumerates its medicinal virtues at considerable length, recommending it as being good for the bowels, and diuretic, but in large doses inducing bloody discharges from the belly and bladder; as being a cleansing application in obstinate diseases of the skin, and in carcinoma and gangrene; as being alexipharmic and forming a good fomentation for chilblains and pruritus. (ii, 131.) Our author copies word for word from Galen. The Arabians treat of it at much greater length, but add little to what Dioscorides had delivered under this head. When drunk with vinegar, they say it relieves difficulty of urine, tenesmus, and acute pain of the bowels; promotes expectoration, and softens indurated mammæ. See in particular Avicenna. (ii, 342.) Though this plant has long been omitted from our Dispensatory, it is still not wholly unknown in the shops. See Gray (Pharmacop. 96.)

Ὃρμινον,

Horminum, _Clary_, is like horehound in appearance, and hot, moderately desiccative, and detergent. It therefore is a provocative to venery; and along with honey clears any thickness of the coats of the eyes, dispels œdema, and extracts sharp instruments. The wild is stronger than the cultivated.

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COMMENTARY. Our author borrows his account of this article (_Salvia Horminum_) from Dioscorides. (ii, 135.) It is not treated of by Galen, Aëtius, nor Celsus. It is fully treated of by the Arabians, who recommend it as an application to cancerous and other sores, as a collyrium in ulceration of the eyes, and as a plaster in cases of gout. They further hold it to be aphrodisiac. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 692); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 727.) Even of late years, it has been reported as possessing the virtues ascribed to it by the ancients. See Rutty (Mat. Med. 238.)

Ὄρυζα,

Oryza, _Rice_, is somewhat astringent, and therefore it binds the belly in a moderate degree.

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COMMENTARY. It is the _Oryza sativa_. Dioscorides, Galen, and the other authorities state its virtues in the same brief terms. For the views of the Arabians, see Serapion (c. 13); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 583); Avicenna (ii, 2, 567.) The Arabians recommend it boiled in milk, which, they say, takes away its astringency, and it becomes more nutritious and forms semen.

Ὄρχις,

Orchis; the herb is also called _Dog’s Orchis_, or _Testicle_, having a double bulbous-shaped root. The powers of the greater orchis are humid and heating, and therefore it is a provocative to venery. But those of the lesser are heating and desiccative, and therefore, on the contrary, it restrains venery. That species which is called _Sarapias_, and otherwise _Triorchis_, is more desiccative than the former. It therefore discusses œdematous swellings, cleanses foul and putrid ulcers, and cures herpes. When dried it is more desiccative. Owing to its sub-astringency, it binds the belly when drunk with wine.

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COMMENTARY. The modern botanists have described many species of it, and it is difficult to determine from among them those which are applicable to the two species described by Dioscorides and our author. Sprengel is pretty confident that the former is the _Orchis papilionacea_. He is undecided respecting the _Sarapias_, but we may venture to refer it to the _Orchis Morio_. Regarding the medicinal virtues of the former of these, Dioscorides merely relates the vulgar belief, namely, that one of its bulbous roots had the virtue of rousing to venery, and the other of blunting the venereal appetite, and that the one promoted the generation of male children, and the other of female. However nonsensical all this may appear, the same properties are ascribed to the orchis by our herbalist Culpeper. (130.) The other orchis he represents as being an ingredient in applications to fistulæ, mortifications, ulcers of the mouth, and so forth. (iii, 31, 32.) Galen attempts to explain the reputed aphrodisiacal virtues of the orchis upon its sensible qualities. Our author copies from him. The Arabians describe these two plants under the names of Testiculus Vulpis and Testiculus Canis, or _Chasi altaleb_ and _Chasi alchelb_. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 706); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 714); Serapion (De Simpl. 90, 91.) They ascribe the same real and imaginary powers to the two species as the Greeks had done.

Ὄσιρις,

Osiris, _Toad-flax_, from which besoms are made, is bitter and removes obstructions in the liver.

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COMMENTARY. Dioscorides briefly notices this plant (_Osyris alba?_), and recommends it in jaundice. Our author copies literally from Galen, as does also Aëtius. Oribasius borrows from Dioscorides. It does not appear to be treated of by the Arabian authorities at all.

Ὀστὰ,

Ossa, _Bones_, when burnt are possessed of discutient and considerably desiccative powers, especially, they say, those of men. The ankle-bone of a sow when burnt, is said to cure flatulence and tormina. And some cure epilepsy and arthritis by giving burnt bones to drink. The burnt ankle-bone of an ox is said to fasten loose teeth; but if drunk with honey, it removes round worms, and with oxymel it reduces the spleen, and when rubbed in relieves leuce. It is also an aphrodisiac. The burnt thigh-bones of an ox if taken in a draught, stop hemorrhages and fluxes of the bowels.

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COMMENTARY. The other authorities give nearly the same account of their medicinal properties. See Galen (De Simpl. 11); Serapion (c. 464); Avicenna (ii, 2, 528.) The Arabians borrow from Galen and our author.

Ὄστρακα,

Testæ, _Shells_, from furnaces, when triturated, are possessed of desiccative and detergent powers. Hence they are used as a dentifrice, and when rubbed in with vinegar cure itch, exanthemata, and gouty complaints, and with cerate dispel enlarged scrofulous glands.

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COMMENTARY. It is now well ascertained that _burnt shells_ consist principally of lime. They, may, therefore, be supposed to form a good stimulant application to certain cutaneous diseases and tumours of an indolent nature, as recommended by our author and Dioscorides. (v, 177.) Oribasius says, that they are very efficacious in repressing fungous flesh when sprinkled in the form of a fine powder.

Ὂστρεα,

Ostrea, _Oysters_; the burnt shell is possessed of similar powers to the buccina, but is not of so gross a consistence. It is used, therefore, as a detergent to the face, and whitens the teeth. When washed it is freed from pungency, and is useful for incarnating and cicatrizing ulcers attended with a copious discharge.

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COMMENTARY. Galen gives the same account of the burnt shells of oysters or snails. He says, that if a shell be washed and burnt it imparts an empyreuma to the water, which renders it heating and attenuant; whereas, what remains is devoid of pungency and terrene, and it is useful for the filling up and cicatrization of ulcers. He recommends the ashes of all burnt shells as a dentifrice, in which case they do not require to be finely levigated as they should be when applied to sores. (De Simpl. 11.) This article is not treated of by Dioscorides, the reason of which probably is, that in his time the word ὄστρεα was a term applied to the whole class of the ὀστρακόδερμα. See Commentary (i, 91.) They are treated of in the same terms by the Arabians as by the Greeks. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 529); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 224); Serapion (c. 443.)

Ὀῦρον,

Urina, _Urine_; all kinds of it are hot and acrid, but that of man is weaker than the urine of other animals, with the exception of castrated boars, but it is considerably detergent; and it is said that some who have drunk it in the plague have recovered. It also cures leprosy, putrid ulcers, achores, and furfures; and likewise sprains of the feet when not inflamed. That of boys not come to puberty is stronger, and from it the chrysocolla is formed. The urine of mules suits with arthritic remedies. That of goats and of camels is laxative of the belly, and hence is given in dropsical complaints.

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COMMENTARY. The account given by our author of the medicinal properties of _Urine_ is abridged from Dioscorides and Galen. Galen rejects, with disgust, the internal use of it. Some, he says, have given the urine of a boy for the cure of orthopnœa; but he justly remarks that there is no want of other remedies for this affection, and that in fact the article in question has no peculiar virtue in the complaint. Most of the other authorities, however, sanction the use of it in this case, as for example, Dioscorides, Avicenna, and Rhases. They also recommend urine to be drunk for the cure of the bite of the viper, for deadly poisons, and incipient dropsies. Dioscorides recommends the sediment of urine as an application to erysipelas; upon which practice Galen remarks that when the affection is still hot such an application must be quite unsuitable; but that when cooled, it or any other discutient is indicated. Those who desire to know more fully the views of the ancients on this subject, are referred to Dioscorides (ii, 99); Galen (De Simpl. 10); Serapion (c. 448); Avicenna (ii, 2, 716); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 749); Haly Abbas (Pract. ii, 517); Ebn Baithar (i, 191.) The last of these is particularly full under this head.

Πανγράτιον,

Pancratium, _Sea-daffodil_, in appearance and powers is like the squill, but is weaker.

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COMMENTARY. There are two varieties of the _Scilla maritima_, or Squill, namely, the white and the red. The _pancration_ would appear to be the red variety. See Alston (Mat. Med.); Pereira (Mat. Med. 651); and Lindley (Veg. King. 203.) Dioscorides, like our author, states of it, that it has the same powers as the squill, but in a weaker degree; and that it is prepared in the same manner, and used in the same affections; for example, in diseases of the spleen and dropsies. (ii, 203.) Galen and Aëtius treat of it in nearly the same words as our author. We are in doubt whether the pancration be treated of by the Arabian authorities, with the exception of Ebn Baithar, who, it would appear, describes it under the name of _Kebal_. He, however, merely gives extracts from Dioscorides and Galen. (ii, 309.)

Παλίουρος,

Paliurus, _Christ’s-thorn_; the leaves and root of it are astringent, and hence they stop fluxes of the belly, and discuss phymata when they are not of a very hot nature. The fruit is of so incisive a nature as to break down stones, and relieve expectorations.

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COMMENTARY. It would seem to be the _Paliurus australis_, Gaertn. Dioscorides ascribes to it nearly the same medicinal properties as our author. Thus, he says, it is expectorant, lithontriptic, and alexipharmic, its leaves and root being astringent, so as to stop looseness of the bowels, and that it is diuretic and discutient externally. (i, 121.) Galen and Aëtius treat of it in nearly the same terms as our author. We have not been able to detect it in the Mat. Med. of the Arabians.

Πάνακες,

Panaces, _All-heal_; it is from that species called Heraclium, from which the substance named opoponax is produced, being heating in the third degree, desiccative in the second, emollient and discutient. The bark of the root being weaker than the juice, is somewhat detergent and incarnative, but the fruit of it is emmenagogue. The species of Panaces which are called Asclepium and Chironium, are more heating than the former, and hence their leaves and fruit are used for ill-conditioned ulcers and phymata.

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COMMENTARY. Dioscorides decides that the Heraclium is the tree which produces the famous _opoponax_. It has now got the scientific name of _Opoponax Chironium_, Koch. See Pereira (Mat. Med. 1040), and Lindley (Veg. King. 776.) Dioscorides gives a most excellent account of the process by which the opoponax is collected, and describes the marks by which that which is genuine may be recognized. He ascribes to it calefacient, attenuant, and emollient powers, and recommends it in a great variety of cases, such as periodical fevers, rigors, convulsions, bruises, pains of the sides, tormina, strangury, scabies vesicæ; as an emmenagogue, and a medicine which destroys the fœtus; as a liniment in sciatica; a good application to the holes of carious teeth; as forming a good plaster to bites of mad dogs; as an incarnant when applied to ulcers connected with exposure of the bone; and as being alexipharmic, and remedial in hysterical convulsions, and in many other cases. (iii, 48.) Galen also gives an interesting account of opoponax, which he represents as being hot in the third degree, and drying in the second. He recommends it particularly in ill-conditioned ulcers complicated with exposure of the bone. He says the fruit of the tree is emmenagogue. Aëtius treats of it in similar terms. The Arabians treat of this article at considerable length, as usual following in the footsteps of Dioscorides. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 521); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 521); Serapion (De Simpl. 252); Averrhoes (Collig. v, 42.) They recommend it in hardness of the spleen, in pleuritic pains, and chronic coughs. They say it softens hardness of the uterus, and is useful in stillicidium urinæ. Both when taken by the mouth and in a suppository, they say it occasions abortion. Avicenna says that galbanum is used as a succedaneum for it, and that gum ammoniac is nearly allied to it.

The authorities are much divided whether the Asclepium be _Cachrys Libanotis_, or _Echinophora tenuifolia_. The former of these would appear to be the _Libanotis_ of the ancient Mat. Med., and therefore the latter would seem to have preferable claims. Dioscorides recommends it externally as a discutient application to ulcers and tumours, and internally with wine as being an antidote to reptiles. (iii, 49.)

Sprengel inclines to think that the Chironium is the _Hypericum origanifolium_, Willd. Why modern botanists have applied the specific term _Chironium_ to the first of these plants, we are at a loss to explain. Dioscorides recommends it both internally and externally for the bites of reptiles. Galen and the other authorities treat of it in general terms, like our author. The Arabians in like manner give its medicinal properties under the head of _Panaces_.

Πάπυρος,

Papyrus, when unburnt is only simply the vehicle of other substances. But when burnt it is desiccative like burnt paper, but the ashes of the papyrus are weaker.

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COMMENTARY. It is marked _Cyperus Papyrus_ by Linnæus. From burnt papyrus and burnt paper prepared from it, the ancients procured an impure carbonate of kali, which they used as a caustic. It is frequently mentioned by Celsus. Pliny says of it, “Charta quæ fit ex Papyro, cremata inter caustica est.” (H. N. xxiv, 51.) See also Dioscorides and Galen. The papyrus was much used by the ancients for dilating fistulæ in the same manner that prepared sponge now is. Avicenna recommends it for this purpose, and also as a styptic to stop the flow of blood. Its ashes, he says, stop the spitting of blood. (ii, 2, 536.) See also Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 132), and Ebn Baithar (ii, 244.)

Παρωνυχία,

Paronychia, _Mountain Knotgrass_, is so named because it cures paronychia (whitlow). Its powers are those of an attenuate and desiccative substance without pungency.

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COMMENTARY. The commentators are divided between the _Paronychia Hispanica_, Cand., and the _Draba verna_, or Whitlow-grass. See Sprengel (Ad Dioscorid. iv, 54); Gray (Suppl. to Pharmacop. 105.) Dioscorides and Galen join in commending it for the cure of whitlow. Galen argues that it acts in this case by being possessed of discutient powers. We have not been able to detect it in the works of the Arabians. Neither Hippocrates nor Celsus has noticed it.

Πεντάφυλλος,

Quinquefolium, _Cinquefoil_, is desiccative in the third order, but by no means acrid. It is therefore greatly in use.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Although this article be minutely described by Dioscorides (iv, 42), Theophrastus (H. P. ix, 13), and by Democritus (Ad Geopon. ii, 6), there has been considerable difference of opinion respecting it. See Parkinson, Sprengel (Ad Dioscor. l. c.), and Rutty (Mat. Med. 382.) We think that the well-known plant _Potentilla reptans_, Angl. common creeping Cinquefoil, answers well to the descriptions above referred to. Dioscorides recommends it for a great many purposes: its decoction for the cure of toothache, and mortifications in the mouth as a wash; for roughness of the windpipe as a gargle; for diarrhœa and dysentery; as a discutient application to many tumours and cutaneous eruptions; in intermittent fevers, epilepsy, and, in short, as our author remarks, it would appear to have been much used in ancient times. Galen, like our author, merely states its general properties as a medicine, without defining the particular cases in which it is applicable. It is the cinquefolium of Celsus, who places it in his list of things which are gently repressing and emollient. (ii, 33.) It occurs in the Hippocratic treatises. It is recommended by Apuleius for pains of the bowels, epistaxis, angina, &c. For the Arabians, see Avicenna (ii, 2, 545); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 544); Ebn Baithar (i, 174.) They do little more under this head than repeat the cases in which it is recommended by Dioscorides. The cinquefoil is highly commended by all our old herbalists, Parkinson, Gerard, and Culpeper, and it held a place in our English Dispensatory down to the time of Quincy, who, treating of it, says, “Schröder runs through most chronical distempers in commendation of it, says that it is astringent and vulnerary, that it cures coughs, &c.” (137.) Quincy here does not seem to have been aware that Schröder was merely confirming the character of it as given by Dioscorides and Ebn Baithar.

Πέπλος.

Peplus, called by some Papaver spumosum. And this shrub has a juice and purges like the spurges.

Πέπλιον,

Peplium; this too has a juice, and grows by the sea-side; for the most part, it is of no use, but the seed of it purges flatus like that of the peplus.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. There can be no doubt that they are two species of the Euphorbia or _Spurge_; probably the _E. Peplus_ and _E. Peplis_, that is to say, the petty spurge, and small purple sea spurge. These articles are frequently mentioned as drastic purgatives in the Hippocratic collection. (Epidem. vi., &c.) Ruffus Ephesius gives them the character of being safe phlegmagogues and cholagogues. (De Med. Purgant.) Dioscorides gives them the same characters. (iv, 65, 66.) They are also mentioned by Pliny (H. N. xx, 20), but are not noticed by Celsus. Galen gives their seed the character of purging, and at the same time of expelling flatulence. All the Greek authorities on the Mat. Med. down to Actuarius (Mat. Med. v), give them exactly the same character. The Arabians briefly say of them that they purge like the Tithymallé. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 103, 104.) We may be allowed to mention, that although the _E. Peplis_ and _Peplus_ be now excluded from our Dispensatory, they are still to be found in the shops of the apothecaries. We concur in the opinion thus stated by Boerhaave while treating of spurge root: “We have declined these rough medicines too hastily.” (Mat. Med.) See further Rutty (Mat. Med. 520.)

Πέπερ,

Piper, _Pepper_; its root resembles the costus in power. But the fruit of it, while yet germinating, forms the long pepper, being more humid and hot. But that which is as it were the unripe fruit is the white pepper, being more acrid than the black, because it is over-heated. Both are heating and desiccative.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Solinus gives the following account of it: “Quod incorruptum est Piper album. Quorum cutem rugosam et torridam calor fecerit, Piper nigrum. Qui demum caducus torretur fervido sole, vocamen trahit de colore. At quod ex ipsa arbore stringitur, ut est, album Piper dicitur.” (Polyhist. 65.). This is not quite a correct account of the matter. Black pepper is the fruit gathered before it is ripe, and dried in the sun. White pepper is the fruit of the same plant, gathered after it is fully ripe and freed of its external coat by maceration in water. Isidorus says further, “quod immaturum est piper longum vocatur.” (Orig. xviii, 8.) It is now ascertained that the _Piper longum_ is a distinct species. Frequent mention of the peppers is made in the Hippocratic treatises. (De Morb. Mul., &c.) Dioscorides gives an excellent account of the pepper, and on the whole a very correct one, except that he does not recognize the _P. longum_ as a distinct kind from the black and white varieties. He says of it in general terms, that it is calefacient, diuretic, digestive, and detergent of obscurities of the cornea, and recommends it in a great variety of cases, beginning with its use as a remedy in intermittent fevers. (ii, 188.) The use of peppers for the cure of intermittents is strongly recommended by Stephanus in his commentary on Galen. (Therap. ad Glauc.) Celsus prescribes pepper for a great many purposes, as being calefacient, diuretic, opening the pores, &c. (v, 4, &c.) Galen, in treating of the pepper in his work on Simples, merely says of its medicinal powers, that it is strongly calefacient and desiccative. Aëtius and the other Greek authorities copy from Galen. Avicenna treats separately of the _Piper_ and the _Piper longum_, and although in one place he quotes Galen as saying that the latter is a variety of the former, he speaks of them as if he held them to be distinct plants. He says of the former, that it increases the appetite, promotes digestion; and of the other, that it is aphrodisiac. He says the white kind is the most stomachic; but the long the most laxative. On the whole, he agrees with Dioscorides and Galen as to its medicinal uses. (ii, 2, 549, 550.) See further Serapion (c. 357), Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 556), Averrhoes (Collig. v, 42.)

Πέπων,

Pepo, _Pompion_, is possessed of detergent powers. Hence that part which is as it were the flesh of it, cleanses away freckles and the like. But the seed of it removes obstructions of the kidneys.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It appears to be the _Cucurbita Pepo_, L. See Book First, sect. 80. Alexander mentions that the seed of the pepo is possessed of an emetic quality. (vii, 14.) Dioscorides and Avicenna agree in ascribing the same property to its root. The Arabians treat of this article at considerable length, recommending it externally as an application to obstinate diseases of the skin; and internally as an excellent diuretic and laxative medicine. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 89), Rhases (Cont. l. ult, iii, 20), and Serapion (De Simpl. 251.) It is clear from Avicenna’s section on the _Pepo_, that the term was also applied to the melon. Indeed, as we have stated more than once before, it is difficult to distinguish the summer fruits of the ancients from one another.

Περικλύμενον,

Periclymenon, _Woodbine_; the leaves and fruit are possessed at the same time of incisive and heating powers, so as to occasion a discharge of blood by urine when drunk for seven days. The seed is desiccative, and if drunk for forty days, relieves affections of the spleen and dyspnœa.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. There can be no doubt that it is either the _Lonicera periclymenum_, or the _L. caprifolium_, that is to say, either the Woodbine or the Honeysuckle. Sprengel decides in favour of the latter. Dioscorides recommends it in nearly the same cases as our author, and also says of it, that it accelerates delivery in labour. (iv, 14.) Our author’s account of it is condensed from Galen. It is not found in the works of Celsus. The Arabians give rather a confused account along with other climbing plants. See Serapion (c. 41.)

Περιστερεὼν,

Verbenaca, _Vervain_, is so desiccative and astringent that it agglutinates wounds, and therefore stops hemorrhage.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It is undoubtedly the _Verbena officinalis_. According to Apuleius, it is styptic, agglutinative, and abstergent. He recommends it as an application to the bites of serpents, phalangia, and mad dogs. Dioscorides, and most of the succeeding authorities down to Macer, recommend it internally for the cure of jaundice, and externally for foul ulcers. He describes two species, of which the second is the _Verbena supina_. (iv, 60, 61.) Galen describes only one variety, and merely recommends it as being a vulnerary herb. Ebn Baithar’s description of this plant is entirely made up from Dioscorides and Galen. (i, 498.) We are inclined to think that it is the plant described in the translation of Avicenna under the names of _Pastus columbarum_, s. _palea_. He recommends it as an application to erysipelas. (ii, 2, 551.) See also Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 530.) On its use by the Hindoos, see Ainslie (Mat. Ind. ii, 314.)

Περσαία,

Persica (_the Peach?_), is an Egyptian tree, the leaves of which are desiccative and astringent, and therefore stop hemorrhage.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It has been generally acknowledged as the _peach tree_, but, as Alston and Woodville state, this supposition is attended with many difficulties. Sprengel is by no means decided; but, upon the whole, inclines to the _Cordia Myxa_. With this opinion we are not disposed to agree, as we have stated in another place. See under _Myxa_. We would hesitatingly, then, admit it as the _Persica vulgaris_, Miller. Dioscorides merely recommends the dried powder of the leaves as a good styptic in cases of hemorrhage. Galen and the other Greek authorities give the same character of it. The Arabians, in like manner, follow Dioscorides. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 22.)

Πετασίτης,

Petasites, _Butter-burr_, is of the third order of desiccants; hence it is used for ill-conditioned and phagedænic ulcers.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides’s description of this plant with its petasiform leaf, leaves no doubt of its being the _Tussilago petasites_. He recommends it only for malignant and phagedænic ulcers (iv, 106.) Galen and the other Greek authorities say the same of it. We have not been able to find it in the works of any of the Arabians except Ebn Baithar, who, under this head, merely gives extracts from Dioscorides and Galen. It is still used by the country people as an application to foul ulcers. It was retained in the Dispensatory as late as the time of Quincy.

Πετροσέλινον,

Petroselinum, _Stone Parsley_; the seed is hot and desiccative in the third degree, being incisive; and hence it occasions copious urinary and menstrual discharges. It is also carminative.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It is the species of Parsley called the Macedonian, and known by the different botanical names of _Petroselinum Macedonicum_, _Bubon Macedonicum_, and _Athomanta Macedonicum_. As Miller remarks, “the Macedonian parsley is a stranger to our country, and not to be found except in curious botanical gardens.” (Gardener’s Dictionary.) It is cultivated, however, on the continent, and its seeds are still to be found in the shops of our apothecaries. See Gray (Suppl. to Pharmacop. 79.) It had not wholly disappeared from our English Dispensatory in the time of Quincy (145.) Our author borrows his characters of it from Galen. Dioscorides says its seeds are fragrant, aromatic, diuretic, and emmenagogue; that it is beneficial in flatulence of the stomach and colon, and in tormina, for pains of the side, of the kidneys, and of the bladder when taken in a drink; and that it is an ingredient in diuretic antidotes. (iii, 70.) It occurs in the works of Celsus, who mentions it as an ingredient in a confection for colic, and in other cases. (iv, 14, &c.) Galen has a curious passage on the places where this plant was cultivated for the market in his time. (De Antidot. i.) The Arabians in general treat of it along with other species of parsley under the head of _Apium_. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 55); Serapion (c. 290); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 69); Averrhoes (Collig. v, 42); Ebn Baithar (ii, 388.) The Arabians do little more than repeat the characters of it given by their Grecian masters.

Πευκεδανὸν,

Peucedanum, _Hog’s-fennel_; we use the concrete juice and sap as being considerably heating, discutient, and attenuant, both when smelled to and in a potion for affections in the lungs and chest occasioned by thick humours, and also for scirrhous spleen. When put into a tooth eaten with caries it straightway allays the pain; and it agrees with nervous affections. The root promotes the exfoliation of scales of bones, and cures ill-conditioned ulcers, proving calefacient and desiccative in the third degree.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It appears to be the _Peucedanum officinale_, Angl. Hog’s-fennel, or Sulphur-wort. Dioscorides gives a very correct account of this plant, and of the well-known gum, or rather resin, which exudes from it. He says the gum is possessed of a strong smell, is of a tawny colour, and heats the taste, and when rubbed in along with vinegar and rose oil proves beneficial in cases of lethargy, phrenitis, vertigo, epilepsy, chronic headaches, paralytic attacks, sciatica, and convulsions, and in all nervous affections when rubbed in with oil and vinegar; that when smelled to it rouses from hysteric convulsions, and from catalepsy, &c. He speaks also of its being efficacious in coughs, dyspnœa and tormina; says that it loosens the belly gently, reduces swelling of the spleen, and greatly assists in cases of difficult labour; that it is useful in pains of the kidneys and in those of the bladder, and that its root is useful for the same purposes, but is less energetic. (iii, 182.) Galen also has a very interesting section on this article in his work ‘On Simples,’ explaining its action upon the principles of his system. Aëtius, like our author, follows Galen. Celsus recommends it in pains of the joints as an external application. (211, ed. Milligan.) The Arabians give it the same characters as the Greeks. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 86); Serapion (c. 286.) The root and gum resin of _peucedanum_, although now rejected from our Dispensatory, are still to be found in the shops of the apothecaries, where they retain their ancient characters. See Gray (Suppl. to Pharmacop. 80.)

Πεύκη,

Picea, _the Pitch Tree_, has similar powers to the pine, but more moderate.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. We think there is no doubt that it is the _Pinus Cembro_, L., or Aphernousli pine. The fruit of it, namely, the Cembro nuts, are called στρόβιλοι by the Greek authorities. Dioscorides says when drunk with must or the seed of cucumber they are diuretic, and allay irritation of the bladder, kidneys, and stomach. Taken fresh from the tree and bruised, and boiled in must, he says, they suit old and consumptive coughs. (See further under πίτυς.)

Πήγανον,

Ruta, _Rue_; the wild belongs to the fourth order of calefacients and desiccants; but the cultivated to the third, dividing and discussing the thick and viscid humours. It also promotes the urinary discharge, and is composed of subtile parts and carminative; hence it restrains venereal appetites.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The wild rue is the _Peganum Harmala_, L. The other species is the _Ruta graveolens_. According to Florentinus, it kills the fœtus in utero (Geopon. xii, 25.) Dioscorides’s two chapters on the Peganum are so long that we can scarcely attempt an abstract of them. Both species, he says, are caustic, calefacient, ulcerative, diuretic, emmenagogue, astringent, and alexipharmical. (iii, 45, 46.) It occurs in the Hippocratic treatises, and in the works of Celsus. Our author abridges the interesting account of it given by Galen. The Arabians treat of the two species very elaborately, but in the main follow Dioscorides. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 571); Serapion (c. 300); Averrhoes (Collig. v, 42.) We may just mention that the _Ruta graveolens_ still retains its place in our Mat. Med., and that the seeds of the other, _Peganum Harmala_, are still kept in the shops. See Gray (Suppl. to Pharmacop. 116.) The Turks use its seeds as a spice, in like manner as they were used in the time of Pliny. (H. N. xx, 51.)

Πίσσα,

Pix, _Pitch_; dry pitch is desiccative in the second degree, but less calefacient, while the liquid is contrariwise. They have some detergent and digestive powers, and also discutient and acrid. They therefore remove leprous nails, cleanse lichen, and digest swellings. But the liquid is more powerful, so as to be serviceable in a linctus for asthma and empyema. The dry is more agglutinative of wounds.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Pliny says of pitch, “Phthisicis etiam cyathi mensura quidam dederunt, et contra veterem tussim.” (H. N. xxiv, 24.) Averrhoes also recommends it in such cases. (Collig. ii, 42.) See, however, more fully on the virtues of pitch, Dioscorides (i, 94), who recommends the liquid pitch in phthisis, empyema, coughs, asthma, and cases of difficult expectoration; also as an external application to leprous nails, hard tumours of the uterus, fissures of hands and feet, &c. The liquid pitch of the ancients was evidently tar; the dry was the same boiled until it became hard. The latter is often called παλιμπίσσα. See Dioscorides (i, 94, 97) and Pliny (xxiii, 1.)

Πισσέλαιον,

Oleum picatum, _Pitched Oil_, is formed from liquid pitch consisting of a more attenuate substance than it.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. According to Sprengel, the π. of Dioscorides is the same as _Tar-water_, so celebrated as the grand panacea by Dr. Berkley in his ingenious work called ‘Siris.’ It is called ὀροπίσση by our author in another place. (iii, 74.) The _Pissasphaltum_ of the ancients, according to Dr. Hill, was the _Pix Mineralis_, or Earth Pitch of the moderns.

Πιστάκια,

Pistachia, _Pistachio Tree_; its fruit when eaten is moderately stomachic, and removes obstructions of the liver, and more especially a decoction of the light and aromatic parts of it in wine. It also relieves those who have been bitten by reptiles.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. We have treated of the _Pistachio nuts_ in the First Book. They are the fruit of the _Pistachia vera_. It is hardly worth while to give the opinions of the other authorities under this head, as none of them supply any additional information to that given by our author. See Dioscorides (i, 167.) We may just mention in this place, that the oil of pistachio nuts was much used as an application to the cicatrices of small-pox. See Rhases (Contin. xxxii, 2.)

Πιτυΐδεσ,

Pityides, _the Fruit of Pines_, being possessed of mixed powers, the astringent and acrid, hence it assists expectoration from the chest.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Pliny restricts it to the fruit of the _Pinaster_ or Wild Pine, but the Greeks apply it to the fruit of all the pine tribe. Pliny, like our author, recommends it as a remedy for coughs. Here, however, as is usual with him, he merely translates Dioscorides (i, 87.) Our author is principally indebted to Galen. (De Simpl. viii.) Celsus places the “nuclei pinei” in his list of things which are particularly good for the stomach. (ii, 24.) The Arabians treat of these under the general head of pinus. See in particular, Avicenna (ii, 2, 301) and Averrhoes (Collig. v, 42.) The latter enlarges on the virtues of them beyond his wont, ascribing to them powerful effects in disinfecting a pestilential state of the air, in resisting putrefaction, preventing impregnation, and procuring abortion. He also calls them vermifuge.

Πιτυοκάμπαι.

Erucæ pinorum, _the Canker-worms of Pines_, are possessed of the same powers with cantharis and buprestis.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. We have treated of the _Erucæ pinorum_ in the Fifth Book. As they were seldom or never used in the practice of medicine, it is difficult to see why they should have been allowed a place in the Mat. Med.

Πίτυος φλοιὸς,

Pini cortex, _the Bark of Pine_; its prevailing power is astringency, by which it proves a useful application for intertrigo and burns. In a potion it restrains the belly. The leaves of it are also agglutinative of wounds.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It is the _Pinus Pinea_, L., _Stone Pine_. Our author would appear to have condensed and abridged the more lengthy account of this article given by Dioscorides. He says it is a species of the same genus as the _picea_, and that the bark of both being astringent, is a suitable application to excoriations, to superficial ulcers and burns, with litharge and the manna of frankincense; that it stops hepatic diseases when pulverized with copperas; in a fumigation promotes the expulsion of the fœtus and secundines, and in a draught binds the belly and proves diuretic. The leaves he recommends externally as a soothing application in cases of inflammation and toothache, and internally with hydromel in diseases of the liver. (M. M. i, 86.) Of the fruit of pines, and of the torch prepared from it (δᾴδιον), we have treated in their proper places. Galen’s notice of this article is to the same effect as our author’s. Frequent mention of the pine occurs in the works of Hippocrates and Celsus. The latter recommends its flowers in diseases of the liver. (iv, 8.) The Arabians treat of the pine, and the virtues of the different parts of it, at great length. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 280, 301, 555, 693); Serapion (De Simpl. 63); Rhases (Contin. l. ult. i, 341); Averrhoes (Collig. v, 42); Ebn Baithar (ii, 137.) They borrow freely from the Greeks, and further recommend the different parts of the pine very much in diseases of the kidneys and bladder, especially calculus and hæmaturia.

Πιτύουσα,

Pityusa; some say that this is a species of spurge, because it has a juice and purges like them.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. There can be no doubt of its being the _Euphorbia Pityusa_. It is briefly noticed by all the other writers on the Mat. Med. as possessing the same virtues as the spurges in general.

Πλάτανος,

Platanus, _the Plane Tree_, is possessed of a humectating and refrigerant power. Hence the green leaves are of use in incipient inflammations. But the bark and spherical balls are more desiccative, so that when one has been boiled in vinegar it relieves toothache. They also cure burns by fire along with fat. The burnt bark is more desiccative and detergent, so as to cure leprosies and humid ulcers.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. It is the _Platanus orientalis_, L. The seed forms into spherical balls, which are called _Pilulæ_ by Pliny. He recommends them for the bites of serpents and for burns; also when pounded with acrid vinegar, as a styptic for stopping bleeding. (H. N. xxiv, 29.) Pliny, however, merely copies from Dioscorides, who further recommends the leaves boiled in wine in defluxions of the eyes, and as an application to swellings and inflammations; and its rind boiled in vinegar as a gargle in toothache. (i, 107.) Our author is evidently much indebted to Galen, who commends it for the same medicinal purposes, and warns his readers to guard against the down which grows on its leaves, as it may prove prejudicial to the windpipe, eye, or ear, if admitted into them. (De Simpl. viii.) Aëtius, like our author, copies very closely from Galen. Not much additional information can be drawn from the Arabians, who, under this head, do little more than copy from Dioscorides and Galen. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 209); Serapion (c. 142); Ebn Baithar (ii, 422.)

Πνεύμων,