Chapter III: Front Matter (3)

COMMENTARY. Serapion and Avicenna, like the Greek authorities, call the _Pimpinella anisum_ diuretic and emmenagogue. It is now reckoned the first of the four hot seeds, the other three being carui, cumin, and fennel.

Ἀντίρρινον or Ἀνάρρινον,

Antirrinon, or Anarrinon, _Snapdragon_, has properties resembling those of the bubonium, but weaker, whence you may learn its properties.

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COMMENTARY. Galen writes of this article, _Antirrinum Orontium_, or Calfsnout, as being of no use in medicine. (De Simpl. v.) Dioscorides, also, mentions it only as an amulet and external application. (iv, 131.) It is scarcely noticed by the other authorities. According to Pliny, it is emmenagogue. Serapion has omitted it.

Ἄνωνις or Ὤνωνις,

Anonis, or Ononis, _Rest-harrow_, has heating powers, especially in its root. Its juice, when drunk with wine, promotes the secretion of urine, is lithontriptic, breaks eschars, and soothes pains of the teeth.

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COMMENTARY. Our author abridges his account of the _Ononis antiquorum_ from Galen. All in fact borrow from Dioscorides, who further mentions of it, that it was sometimes used as a pickle. (iii, 18.) It would appear to be the _Onobes_ of Rhases (Cont. i, 520), who gives the characters of it from Galen. Serapion and Avicenna have omitted it. Modern authorities enumerate it among the five aperient roots. It is only of late years that it has been expelled from our Pharmacopœias. Even yet it is not wholly unknown to our apothecaries. See Gray (Suppl. to Pharmacop. p. 94.) Two species of the _Anonis_, the _antiquorum_ and _spinosa_, occur in the modern Greek Pharmacopœia (p. 119.)

Ἀπαρίνη,

Lappa, _Cleavers_ (which some call philanthropon, others omphalocarpon), is moderately detergent and desiccative; it also consists of subtile particles.

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COMMENTARY. All the herbalists and best commentators agree that it is the _Galium aparine_. (See Gerarde, Sprengel, and others.) According to Dioscorides a decoction of its leaves is useful to persons bitten by phalangia and vipers, when drunk with wine; an injection of the same into the ears cures earache; and when mixed up with axunge it discusses scrofulous tumours. Galen and the subsequent authorities seem to attach less importance to it. (iii, 94.) We cannot find it in Serapion, Rhases, Avicenna, nor Haly Abbas; but it is treated of by all our older herbalists, and has found a place in many modern pharmacopœias. It is not contained, however, in the modern Greek Pharmacopœia.

Ἄπιον,

Pyrum, _the Pear_, is unequal as to temperament, consisting partly of terrene and partly of watery matter. When eaten, therefore, it is stomachic, and quenches thirst. When applied as a cataplasm it dries and cools moderately.

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COMMENTARY. Our author copies the characters of the _Pyrus communis_ from Galen and Aëtius. We have treated of it as an article of food in the First Book. Both Dioscorides and Pliny make mention of perry. Dioscorides says, that pears prove prejudicial to hungry persons when eaten. (i, 167.)

Ἀπόκυνον or Κυνοκράμβη,

Brassica canina, _Dog’s-bane_; it is also called cynomoron, because it proves quickly fatal to dogs. But it is also deleterious to men, being very fetid and hot, without being desiccant. Hence, when applied externally as a cataplasm it is discutient.

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COMMENTARY. Our author borrows his account of this article very closely from Galen. It is clearly a poison rather than a medicine. In fact, it is classed by Schulze among the ancient poisons. (Toxicol. veterum.) Orfila also treats of it among the acrid poisons (p. 82, Eng. ed.) It seems doubtful whether it be the _Periploca Græca_, as we formerly stated it to be (II, 242); the _Cynanchus erectus_, as Sprengel supposes; or one of the species of _Apocynum_. Having no practical acquaintance with these herbs, we cannot pretend to give any decided opinion on the subject.

Ἀπόχυμα,

Apochyma, is the old pitch scraped from ships. It is solvent, desiccant, and discutient of tumours.

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COMMENTARY. Dioscorides calls it also Ζωπίσσα. It consists, as he explains, of the wax and pitch of ships which had been macerated in salt water. Pliny says of it, “Zopissam eradi navibus diximus cera marino sale maceratâ. Optima hæc a tirocinio navium. Additur autem in malagmata ad discutiendas collectiones.” (H. N. xxiv, 26.)

Ἀράχνη,

_Aranea_, _the Spider_, when softened into a plaster, and applied to the forehead and temples, is said by Dioscorides to remove the periodical attacks of tertians. Its web, when applied, stops hemorrhage, and preserves superficial sores from inflammation.

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COMMENTARY. Dioscorides describes two species, which probably are the _Aranea retiaria_, and the _Aranea domestica_. Serapion gives the same account of their medicinal properties. They appear to have been principally used externally, as an anti-inflammatory application.

Ἀργεμώνη,

Argemone, _Prickly Poppy_, is possessed of detergent and discutient powers.

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COMMENTARY. Of the two species described by Dioscorides, the former, which is the _Papaver argemone_, is recommended by him in nebulæ and albugo of the eye, and its leaves as a soothing cataplasm for inflammations. The other, which may be the _Geum urbanum_, or avens, he also recommends principally as an external application in sores and affections of the eyes; but adds of it, that when drunk with wine it is useful in the case of persons stung by venomous animals. (ii, 208.) Galen and the succeeding authorities treat of it more cursorily; and the Arabians would seem not to treat of it at all, with the exception of Ebn Baithar, who merely gives translations of what Dioscorides and Galen had written of it. (i, 28.)

Ἀρίσαρον,

Arisarum, _Friar’s Cowl_, is smaller than the wakerobin, but much more acrid; and has a root of the size of an olive.

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COMMENTARY. Our herbalists give the name of Friar’s Cowl to this plant, which even they admit to be possessed of insignificant powers. It is the aris of Pliny. (H. N. xxiv, 16.) Its botanical name is _Arum arisaron_. Dioscorides calls it an acrid medicine, and recommends it solely in collyria. (ii, 198.) The Arabians appear to have confounded it with the arum, under the name of Luf. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 132); and Ebn Baithar (ii, 449.)

Ἀριστολοχία,

Aristolochia, _Birthwort_; all kinds of it are hot, consist of subtile particles, and are detergent, bitter and subacrid; and are most useful remedies. The round consists of more subtile particles, and is every way more drastic. The clematitis is fragrant but weaker. The long is, in other respects, intermediate between these, but no less hot than the round.

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COMMENTARY. Three species of the Birthwort, the _Aristolochia longa_, _rotunda_, and _clematis_, have been described by the authorities from Dioscorides downwards. The first two still retain their places in our Pharmacopœias, but are seldom used. Dioscorides recommends them, especially as uterine medicines, for promoting menstruation, the lochial discharge, and the expulsion of the fœtus. He also says it is useful in affections of the chest, the spleen, and in other diseases. (iii, 4, 5.) The toxicologists from Nicander downwards recommend the birthwort as an antidote to poisons. See also Theophr. (H. P. ix, 15); and Apuleius (De Herbis.) Mesue describes it as being phlegmagogue, cholagogue, and emmenagogue. He also recommends it in a fumigation along with arsenic for asthma. (De Simpl. ii, 27.) Avicenna treats of it at great length, recommending it strongly as an uterine and alexipharmic medicine. (ii, 2, 49.) See also Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 77); Averrhoes (Collig. v, 42); Serapion (c. 171); Ebn Baithar, _pluries_. Pliny describes a fourth species under the name of Pistolochia. Modern authorities confirm the birthwort’s character as to its being powerfully emmenagogue. See Quincy, Lewis, Pereira, and the other writers on the Materia Medica.

Ἄρκευθος,

Juniperus, _the Juniper_, heats and dries in the third degree. The fruit is equally calefacient, but desiccant only in the first degree.

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COMMENTARY. Dioscorides describes two species of it, the major and the minor, which probably are to be referred to the _Juniperus macrocarpa_, Sibth., and the _J. oxycedrus_. He calls them acrid, diuretic, and calefacient, and further recommends them in diseases of the chest, in the hysterical convulsion, and as being alexipharmic. (i, 103.) The other authorities, both Greek and Arabian, copy closely under this head from him. See in particular Avicenna (ii, 2, 359); and Ebn Baithar (ii, 189.) The vernix is a resinous gum, which is procured from the juniper; it is called _Sandarax_ by the Arabians, and is to be carefully distinguished from the sandaracha or sulphuret of arsenic. They recommend it in hæmoptysis. See Serapion, Rhases, and Avicenna. Of the juniper, see further under Κέδρος, and appendix under Sandaracha.

Ἄρκιον,

Arcium (called also Prosopites); its leaves are like those of the colocynth, but larger and harder. It is discutient and desiccant, and has some stypticity. Wherefore, its leaves cure old sores.

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COMMENTARY. The ancient descriptions of this plant seem to point to the burdock, which, however, owing to a confusion of names, has been called the _Arctium lappa_. Dioscorides recommends it internally in diseases of the chest, and externally as a cataplasm to old ulcers. (iv, 105.) This is the same as the second arctium of Galen, who recommends it in the same cases as Dioscorides. Apuleius, like Dioscorides, says it is useful in cases of strangury. Our old herbalists treat of the virtues of the burdock in the same terms as the Greek and Roman authorities. The Arabians, as far as we can discover, do not treat either of the arcion or the arction, with the exception of Ebn Baithar, who merely gives extracts from Dioscorides and Galen, and seems puzzled to distinguish the two plants from one another. (i, 25.) In the modern Greek Dispensatory both the _Arctium bardana_ and the _A. lappa_ are set down as corresponding to the ἄρκειον.

Ἄρκτιον,

Arctium, _Lappa_, is like the verbascum; its roots are tender, white, and sweet: it consists of subtile particles, and is possessed of desiccant and moderately detergent powers.

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COMMENTARY. This, which is treated of under the same name by Dioscorides (iii, 104), and is the former arctium of Galen, is probably the _Verbascum sanguineum_. The description of it given by Galen, at all events, points to some species of the mullein. Both the authorities we have mentioned recommend it as an application to burns and chilblains.

Ἀρμενιακὸν,

Armeniacum, has detergent properties with a little acrimony, and a small degree of astringency. It is therefore mixed up with ophthalmic medicines, and promotes the growth of the hairs of the eyelids.

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COMMENTARY. We shall not enter into the discussion of disputed points respecting this article, further than to state our own opinion, that in all probability it was a native ore of carbonate of copper; but which of the species or sub-species described by modern mineralists the armenium was, we cannot venture to decide. See Cleavland’s Mineralogy (p. 570, &c.) Dioscorides, who treats of it under the name of armenium, (v, 105), compares it to chrysocolla, which it is well ascertained is that species of native carbonate of copper now described under the names of copper green and mountain green. He merely recommends it as a cosmetic when applied to the eyelashes. Serapion confounds this substance with the Lapis armeniacus, (c. 404); but Avicenna accurately distinguishes between them. (ii, 2, 56, 415.)

Ἀρνάβω,

Arnabo, is one of the aromatics. Hence it is mostly mixed up with ointments, being possessed of hot and dry powers in the third degree, like cassia and carpesium. Hence Posidonius says, that it may be used instead of cinnamon when it is not at hand.

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COMMENTARY. This article, which is treated of only by Aëtius (xvi, 113), besides our author, has never been accurately determined. It has been supposed to be the zerumbeth, of which we will have occasion to treat more fully in another place. See the Appendix.

Ἀρνόχλωσσον,

Plantago, _Plantain_, both cools and dries in the second degree, being composed of a watery and a terrene substance, and having a little astringency; therefore it agrees with malignant ulcers, defluxions, and mortifications; by the symmetry of its temperament it stops hemorrhages, and agrees with most of them. For it is desiccant without being stimulant, and cooling without being narcotic.

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COMMENTARY. The greater plantain of Dioscorides was probably the _Plantago major_, which, in all ages down to the present times, has been so celebrated as a vulnerary herb. Our author’s account of its virtues is taken either from Dioscorides or Galen, for, in the present instance, there is scarcely a shade of difference in opinion between these two authorities. The lesser plantain of Dioscorides is either the _lanceolata_ or _maritima_, probably the former. (ii, 152.) See Macer Floridus. Avicenna and Serapion copy word for word from Dioscorides and Galen. None of the plantains are mentioned by Hippocrates. Celsus places the “plantago” in the list of substances which are both astringent and cooling. (ii, 33.) None of the species of plantago here described occur in the modern Greek Pharmacopœia.

Ἄρον,

Arum, _Wakerobin_, is of the first order in heating and drying, being formed of a terrene substance that is hot and detergent. Its roots are hotter. But the dracunculus is stronger.

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COMMENTARY. We have all along assumed, with our older herbalists, that this is the wakerobin or cuckow-pent, namely, the _Arum maculatum_ L. Pliny and Mesue are the only ancient authors who have noticed its purgative powers. Our author’s account of its faculties is much the same as that given by Dioscorides, Galen, and Oribasius, and its ancient character has been amply confirmed by modern authority. The Arabians treat of it fully, but rather confusedly, under the name of _Luf_. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 432); Serapion (c. 43); Ebn Baithar (ii, 246.) Even at the present day it is not wholly excluded from the Materia Medica. See Pereira (M. M. p. 811.) We have treated of its congener, the dragon herb, as an article of food, in another place. See Book I, 114.

Ἀρσενίκον,

_Arsenic_, is possessed of caustic powers. It is used also for depilatories, but if the application be allowed to remain long it affects the skin itself. When burnt its particles become attenuated.

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COMMENTARY. There can be no hesitation in deciding that this is the yellow sulphuret of arsenic, commonly called orpiment, the latter term being a corruption of auripigmentum, the Latin name of it. See Celsus (v, 5.) The ancients used this mineral very freely as an external application, and internally by the mouth, in clysters, and in fumigations. Avicenna recommends arsenic with the gum of pine, in the form of a pill, for asthma. He also speaks highly of a potion containing arsenic and honeyed water. He particularly commends arsenic as an application to herpes esthiomenos of the nose. (ii, 2, 48.) Cælius Aurelianus recommends an injection containing arsenic for ascarides. (Tard. Pass. iv, 7). It was freely used in injections for the cure of chronic dysentery. (See Book iii.) Serapion speaks favorably of it in complaints of the eyes. (§ 381.) Servitor says, that sublimed arsenic is a septic and pungent medicine, which removes the fungous flesh of ulcers, and is a depilatory. He describes minutely the process of subliming and whitening it. Avicenna likewise makes mention of white arsenic. Geber also treats of sublimed arsenic, by which it is clear he meant the factitious oxide with which we are now familiar. (iii, 29.)

Ἀρτεμισία,

Artemisia, _Mugwort_; both varieties are heating in the second degree, and desiccant in the first. They are composed of subtile particles, so that they break down stones in the kidneys, and suit with fumigations of the womb.

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COMMENTARY. The three species of the artemisia described by Dioscorides are probably the _arborescens_, _spicata_, and _campestris_. He recommends the artemisia strongly as an emmenagogue, when given internally, in the form of a hip-bath, and as an injection into the vagina. He also makes it to be lithontriptic. (iii, 107, 118.) The same characters are given it by Galen and by Avicenna, whose _berengfef_ it appears to be. (c. 83.) Aëtius and most of the authorities describe only the first two species of the artemisia. Serapion and Avicenna describe under this head an oriental species, which, it is probable, was the _Artemisia Judaica_. Honain (ap. Avicennam), also describes the _A. Indica_. The famous _Moxa_ is prepared from the lanugo or downy substance which adheres to the under surface of the leaf of the artemisia. See Barrow’s ‘Travels in China,’ Woodville, Miller, and Pereira. That the artemisia long retained the character which Dioscorides gave it, of possessing powerful virtues as an emmenagogue and a lithontriptic, is evident from what is said of it in the work of Macer Floridus. Except as furnishing the moxa, (and it is now believed to be got from a particular species, the _A. moxa_) the species of artemisia here treated of are now wholly discarded from the practice of medicine.

Ἅρτος,

Panis, _Bread_; in a cataplasm it is more discutient than can be accounted for from the properties of wheat, owing to its containing salt and leaven. For the leaven is attractive of the deep-seated humours.

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COMMENTARY. We have given some account of the kinds of bread used by the ancients in the 78th sect. of the First Book. Oribasius gives an excellent description of the mode of preparing the bread poultice and its uses. He directs us to dissolve the bread in water until it acquires the consistence of gruel, and then, having added oil or butter to it, to boil it to the proper consistence. He adds, that it is the best of all applications with which he was acquainted for promoting suppuration. His account of the different kinds of cataplasms is most ample and interesting. (Med. Collect.)

Ἄσαρον,

Asarum, _Asarabacca_, has the same powers as the sweet flag, but more intense.

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COMMENTARY. This plant, which is certainly the _Asarum Europæum_, or common Asarabacca, is said by Dioscorides to be diuretic, heating, and emetic, answering well with dropsical cases and chronic sciatica and promoting menstruation; its roots drunk with mulse to the amount of six drachms, he says, purge like white hellebore. (i, 9.) Galen seems to have overlooked the importance of this article, for he is nearly as brief as our author in treating of it; and Aëtius and Oribasius follow him. Serapion, Rhases, and Avicenna recommend it in the same cases as Dioscorides, and also in obstructions of the liver and spleen, and as a stimulant ingredient in collyria. Modern authorities confirm the character of this medicinal article given it by Dioscorides. See Lewis (Mat. Med. i, 178); Rutty (Mat. Med. 43); Gray (Suppl. to Pharmacop. p. 38.) Although not excluded from our Dispensatories, less attention is now bestowed on the asarabacca than it would seem to deserve. See Royle (M. M. p. 548.) Ipecacuanha has nearly superseded it as an emetic in this country. The asarum is still retained in the modern Greek Pharmacopœia (p. 22.)

Ἀσβόλη,

Fuligo, _the Soot_ which painters use. It is taken from glassworks, and is possessed of discutient and acrid powers, so as to burn and occasion putrefaction. It cures burns, with rose-cerate.

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COMMENTARY. Dioscorides and some of the other authorities mention the _Fuligo_, or _soot_ of glassworks, in nearly the same terms as Paulus.

Ἀσκαλαβώτης,

Stellio, _the Swift_; this animal is useless for all other purposes, but they say that it is a good application to persons bitten by a scorpion. It is mixed also with venereal excitants.

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COMMENTARY. We have treated of this reptile in the Fifth Book. It is the spotted lizard, _Lacerta stellio_ L. Its aphrodisiacal faculty is alluded to by our author in another place. (B. III, 58.)

Ἀσκληπιάς,

Asclepias, _Swallow-wort_, being hot and dry as to its powers, and consisting of subtile particles, agrees well with tormina when drunk with wine, and in the form of a cataplasm it is a good application to the bites of venomous animals, and malignant ulcers in the uterus and breasts.

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COMMENTARY. There appears little reason to doubt that it is the _Asclepias vincetoxicum_, or Swallow-wort. Our author borrows its medicinal characters from Dioscorides. (iii, 96.) Galen candidly admits, that he had no experience of it as a medicine. Pliny, like Dioscorides and our author, recommends it for the cure of tormina and the bites of serpents. (H. N. xxvii, 18.) Until lately it held a place in our modern Dispensatories, with the characters given it by the ancients. See Quincy (p. 59); Rutty (Mat. Med. p. 44); Gray (Suppl. to Pharmacop. p. 57.)

Ἄσκυρρον is treated of under Androsæmon.

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COMMENTARY. We have stated under ἀνδρόσαιμον the difficulty there is in distinguishing the different species of _Hypericum_ described by the ancients. We cannot pretend to decide whether the present article be the _androsæmum_ or the _perforatum_. Dioscorides recommends the ascyrron as an emmenagogue, in sciatica, and as an application to burns. (iii, 163.) The Arabians treat of it only as being identical either with the hypericum or the androsæmum. See Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 59); Avicenna (ii, 2. 354.)

Ἀσπάλαθος,

Aspalathus, _Rose-wood_, is composed of heterogeneous ingredients, having acrid and astringent powers, and hence it is desiccant. On this account it is useful for mortifications and defluxions.

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COMMENTARY. We must not enter into the discussion regarding this article; suffice to say, that we have now arrived at the conclusion that it was either the _Lignum rhodium_, or a substance so near to it in qualities, that the latter came to be substituted for it. We need scarcely say, that there is great difference of opinion among the botanical authorities what tree or shrub it is which produces the _Lignum rhodium_. Upon the whole the predominence of evidence is in favour of some species of _Cytisus_. Dioscorides recommends the aspalathus when boiled in wine as a gargle in aphthæ, as an injection in spreading and impure ulcers of the genital organs (_chancres?_), in dysuria, flatulence, and other complaints. (i, 19.) Now it will be observed that the distilled oil of _Lignum rhodium_ has been recommended in similar cases by modern authorities. See Moses Charras (Royal Pharmacopœia, Chemical, iii, 1, 24.) The Arabians give the aspalathus the same characters as the Greeks. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 206); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 251.) The aspalathus of Celsus (v, 24) was, no doubt, the same as that of Dioscorides. It is probably the μέλαινα ῥίζα of Hippocrates.

Ἀσπάραγος,

Asparagus, _the Rock Asparagus_, or _Myacanthinus_, is detergent, but of a middle temperament as to heat and cold; it is deobstruent of the kidneys and liver, especially its roots and seed. It also cures toothache.

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COMMENTARY. See Book I, 75. The medicinal asparagus of the ancients would appear to have been different from our garden asparagus, from the description of its root given by Dioscorides (ii, 151), and yet there seems to have been very little difference between them in properties, since both are used for the same culinary and medicinal purposes; the ancient, we suppose, must have been the _A. acutifolius_. From Dioscorides down to the present time, the asparagus has been celebrated as being possessed of deobstruent and diuretic powers, and hence it has been given in jaundice, nephritis, and many other diseases of a like kind. Celsus recommends it as a pickle in affections of the spleen. (iv, 9.) It occurs in the Hippocratic collection, and is fully treated of by the Arabians. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 603); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 667.) Symeon Seth, after repeating from Galen that the asparagus acts upon the kidneys and imparts its odour to it, remarks that this need not surprise us, since, by holding a certain herb of a red colour in the hands, the urine is reddened. What herb he alludes to cannot be exactly ascertained. (V. Not. Bogdani.) At all events it is clear from this that the ancients believed in absorption by the cuticle. The Arabians held that it is antiseptic. Casiri (Bibl. Hist. Arab. 337.) The wild asparagus was called _Corruda_ (Cato de R. R.)

Ἀσπλήνιον,

Asplenium, _Spleenwort_, or _Ceterach_, has the properties of a substance which consists of subtile particles, but is not hot. It therefore breaks down stones and dissolves indurated spleens.

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COMMENTARY. The spleenwort, or _Asplenium ceterach_, held a place in the Materia Medica from the earliest times down to a very recent period. Dioscorides commends it in diseases of the spleen (whence it derives its name), in strangury, jaundice, and calculus. Galen briefly assigns it the same character, which is repeated by Aëtius and Oribasius, as well as by our author, and also by Avicenna (630.) We cannot find it mentioned by Serapion or Rhases. It held a place in our Dispensatory in the time of Lewis. (Materia Medica A.D. 1791.)

Ἀσταφὶς,

Uva passa, _the Raisin_; the cultivated is possessed of digestive, astringent, and slightly discutient powers; the wild is possessed of strongly acrid, so as to be strongly phlegmagogue and detergent.

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COMMENTARY. Dioscorides treats much more fully of the medicinal powers of raisins than Galen and our author, recommending them in affections of the windpipe, chest, kidneys, and bladder; for dysentery when eaten with their stones by themselves, or when fried along with millet flour, barley-meal, and eggs; in masticatories with pepper; in inflammation of the testicles, when applied in a cataplasm with the flour of beans and cumin; for epinyctis, carbuncle, fevers, putrid and gangrenous sores about the joints, without their stones, when pounded with rue; for gout in a cataplasm with opoponax, and for the removal of loose nails. (v, 4.) Avicenna and Rhases briefly quote Dioscorides, and supply nothing additional. They hold, like the Greeks, that in particular cases raisins prove injurious to the urinary organs. Symeon Seth mentions that the Egyptians prepared a very sweet wine from raisins and honey. (De Alimentis.)

Ἀστὴρ Ἀττικὸς,

Aster atticus, _Starwort_, is also called bubonium, because it is believed to cure buboes, not only when applied for this purpose but even when appended as a periapt. It is possessed of mixed powers, being discutient and cooling.

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COMMENTARY. Our author’s account of the starwort, _Aster amyllus_, is taken from Galen, who in his turn copies from Dioscorides. In the common editions of Dioscorides there is a passage under this head (which although quoted by Serapion (§ 96), is scarcely considered genuine by Sprengel, seeing it is not alluded to by Galen or Pliny), in which the _Aster atticus_ is recommended for ardour of the stomach, inflammations of the eyes, buboes, and quinsies. The Arabians in treating of the _Aster atticus_ copy from Dioscorides. See in particular Avicenna (ii, 2, 357); Serapion (De Simpl. 96); Rhases (Contin. l. ult. i, 95.) It is not found in the works of Celsus. It held a place in our modern Dispensatory down to a late date. See Quincy (116.)

Ἀστράγαλος,

Astragalus, _Wild Liquorice_, is a small shrub, having astringent roots, and is desiccative in no contemptible degree. It promotes the cicatrization of old ulcers, and when drunk with wine stops the discharges of the bowels. It is mostly produced in Phæneum of Arcadia.

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COMMENTARY. That the astragalus belongs to the vetch tribe can admit of no doubt, but the particular genus and species have never been determined. All the authorities, both ancient and modern, recommend it as an astringent both externally and internally. We cannot find it in the works either of Hippocrates or Celsus. Our author manifestly borrows from Dioscorides. (iv, 62.) The Arabians do not appear to treat of it.

Ἄσφαλτος,

Bitumen; it is desiccant and calefacient in the second degree: it is therefore agglutinative of fresh wounds.

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COMMENTARY. The asphaltus, or _Bitumen judaicum_, held a place in the Materia Medica from the days of Hippocrates down to a very recent period. It got the name of Jew’s pitch, from its having been principally procured from Judæa, where it is found floating on the surface of the Dead Sea, or Lacus Asphaltites. Some commentators have been puzzled by Dioscorides representing the colour of the finest asphaltus as purplish, but it is to be borne in mind that the ancients applied this term not to a scarlet red but to any rich dark-blue colour, such as that of the sea. All the authorities, ancient and modern, represent it as being emollient, discutient, and emmenagogue. Serapion gives a very interesting account of it. (§ 177.) See also Avicenna (ii, 2, 114); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 88); also Celsus (v, 6.)

Ἀσφόδελος,

Asphodelus, _Kingspear_; its root is possessed of detergent and discutient powers. When burnt its ashes become more calefacient, desiccative, and attenuate. It therefore cures alopecia.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. All the ancient authorities, including Hippocrates and Celsus, treat of the _Aspodelus ramosus_, or Kingspear, and in general are agreed in recommending it internally as being emmenagogue and diuretic, and externally as an application to alopecia or _porrigo decalvans_. The author who treats of it most elaborately is Dioscorides, who recommends it for the purposes we have mentioned, and as an alexipharmic, as a cure for toothache, and many other cases. (ii, 199.) Our author follows Galen. For the Arabians, see Avicenna (ii, 273); Serapion (c. 221); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 26.) They all copy from Dioscorides and Galen. It was sometimes used as a culinary herb. See Vol. I, p. 118. Our old herbalists repeat its ancient characters as a medicine. See Gerard (i, 70.) It has been discarded from the Pharmacopœia for some time past.

Ἀτρακτυλὶς,

Atractylis, _Wild Cnicus_, or _Distaff-thistle_; it is of the thorny tribe, being possessed of desiccative and moderately heating powers.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. In another place (Vol. I, p. 113) we have treated of the atractylis as a culinary herb, agreeing with Sprengel in referring it to the _Carlina lanata_. The commentators on Dioscorides, however, are greatly at variance with regard to it; most of the old herbalists agree with Belon and Fuchsius in holding it to be the _Carduus benedictus_, or blessed thistle. See Gerard’s Herbal (ii, 489.) We cannot help remarking, however, that the virtues of the _Carduus benedictus_ as given by Quincy (English Dispensatory, i, 2) by no means agree with those assigned to the atractylis by Dioscorides; he holds it to be alexipharmical. (iii, 97.) Our author copies from Galen. The Arabians supply no additional information. See in particular Avicenna (ii, 2, 159.)

Ἀτράφαξις,

Atriplex, _Orache_, moistens in the second degree and cools in the first. It therefore opens the belly. Its fruit is possessed of detergent powers, whence it is useful in jaundice and obstructions of the liver.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. We have treated of the orach (_Atriplex Hortensis_) as a culinary herb in Book I, § 74. It is still used as an article of food on the Continent. Our author copies from Dioscorides (ii, 145), whose account of it is amplified and explained by Galen. (De Simpl. v.) It is briefly treated of in like terms by Avicenna (ii, 2, 174); Serapion (c. 146); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 97.) Rhases, after quoting what Dioscorides and Paulus say of it, adds on his own authority that he had known the seed of it prove powerfully emetic and laxative.

Ἀφάκη,

Aphace, _Wild Vetch_, is possessed of astringent powers like the lentil; but when eaten it is more difficult to digest than the lentil, and is more strongly desiccative, with a moderate degree of heating properties.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. This is clearly a species of _Vicia_, but whether the _bithynica_, _lutea_, or _hybrida_ cannot be satisfactorily determined. It is treated of by our older herbalists, who agree with the ancients in assigning to it astringent powers. The Arabian authorities would appear to have overlooked it. Our author is indebted to Dioscorides (ii, 177) and Galen (De Simpl. v.)

Αφρόνιτρον,

Aphronitrum is possessed of discutient and detergent powers, so as not only to cleanse those parts which are foul, but also to cure pruritus. But when drunk it is bad for the stomach.

Ἀφρὸς νίτρου,

Spuma nitri; it has powers like those of natron, but its substance is more attenuate, and therefore it is smooth like flour.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. As Dr. Coray’s account of the _Nitrum_, _Aphronitrum_, and _Spuma nitri_ of the ancients is of high authority, we are induced to give it in his own language literally translated. “The nitrum of the ancients was not that substance which modern chemists call by the name (nitre or nitrate of potass), being a composition of nitric acid and a vegetable alkali, but that which is called natron, being a native combination of carbonic acid and an alkali (natron or native carbonate of soda.) And they called the harder and more stony lumps nitrum or litrum, and the more spongy and softer aphronitrum or aphrolitrum; and spuma nitri or litri, the superficial efflorescence of the nitrum and floury part, which was easily scraped off.” (Ad Xenoc. et Galen. de Al. ex Aquat.)—From this account it appears that the firmer and harder lumps of the native carbonate of soda were called nitrum; the softer and more spongy pieces aphronitrum, and those kinds which had a bright florid appearance externally and readily crumbled down into a powder, the spuma nitri. Dioscorides gives a more lengthy account of its medicinal properties than either Galen or our author, not only recommending it externally as a stimulant and discutient application to various cutaneous diseases and the bites of mad dogs, but also internally as an antidote to poisonous mushrooms, buprestis, bull’s blood, &c. (v, 129.) Serapion has a very interesting chapter on nitrum and aphronitrum, but it is in a great measure made up from Dioscorides and Galen (c. 411.) For a further account of the ancient nitrum, see under _Litrum_ in this section. We may just mention in this place that the aphronitrum would appear to have been merely _Afrum nitrum_, that is to say, a variety of the nitrum or natron found in Africa.

Ἀχρὰς,

Pyrum silvestre, _the Wild Pear_; its properties are like those of the common pear, but more intense. It therefore agglutinates large wounds.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides mentions that it is a species of wild pear. He recommends it as an antidote to mushrooms. (i, 168.) Serapion and Mesue give it the same character.

Ἀψίνθιον,

Absinthium, _Wormwood_; it is heating in the first degree, but drying in the third, being possessed at the same time of astringent, bitter, and acrid qualities. It therefore evacuates bilious humours in the stomach by the bowels and by urine. But in collections of phlegm it is of no service, owing to its astringency. The juice of it is much hotter than the herb itself.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides also describes two other species, the one being clearly the _Artemisia maritima_, and the other not the santonica, although it bears that name, but rather the _palmata_, according to the best modern commentators. Dioscorides recommends the true wormwood (_Artemisia abrotanum_) in a great many cases, both externally and internally; as being diuretic and preventing surfeit when taken beforehand, relieving flatulence of the stomach and bowels; proving emmenagogue in a potion or pessary, removing the feeling of suffocation induced by mushrooms, when drunk with vinegar, and when with wine counteracting the poisonous effects of ixia and hemlock, the bites of the shrew mouse and sea dragon; its vapour removing toothache, and a cataplasm the intense pains of ophthalmy; as suiting in dropsical affections and diseases of the spleen, and in many other cases. He mentions a wine of wormwood made by the people about Propontis and Thrace, which they used for the aforesaid purposes in the absence of fever. (iii, 23.) Pliny enumerates fully the many medicinal properties which were ascribed to it. (H. N. xxvii, 28.) Galen says that it is less attenuant but as desiccative as southernwood. Apuleius calls it anthelminthic. The Arabians recommend it with the same intention. Casiri (Bibl. H. A. 336.) All the authorities hold that it is cholagogue. See in particular Avicenna (ii, 2, 2), who is very full in describing the medicinal properties of wormwood, recommending it in infusion, in decoction, in the form of syrup, and in wine. See also Serapion (c. 14); Averrhoes (Collig. v, 42); Rhases (Cont. l. ult. i, 9.) The last of these, after giving the opinions of Dioscorides, Galen, Ruffus, Pythagoras, and Oribasius, quotes Musy (Mesue?) as saying of it that it is stomachic, a whetter of the appetite, useful in jaundice, quinsy, inflammation of the eye and ear, hardness of the liver, spleen, and womb, and in dropsy. One of Serapion’s Arabian authorities commends it as a deobstruent, and in cases of jaundice. It occurs in the list of medicinal substances used both by Hippocrates and Celsus. The latter recommends it as being both stomachic and diuretic. Although its use as a febrifuge has been superseded by a more popular medicine of the same class, we need scarcely remark that it still holds a place in our Dispensatories. The modern Greek Pharmacopœia contains the two species which are described by the names of _Artemisia Absinthium_ and _Artemisia contra_. The latter is the santonicum, its name being an abbreviation of _contra vermes_. See Lindley (Veg. Kingd. 705.)

Βάλανος Μυρεψικὴ,

Glans unguentaria, _Nut Ben_; its inner and, as it were, fleshy parts have detergent and incisive powers along with astringency: and therefore when drunk with honeyed water, to the amount of a drachm weight, it occasions vomiting and loosens the lower belly. But when taken with oxycrate it is of use for obstructions of the viscera. It proves detergent in affections of the skin when rubbed in with vinegar. Its bark is very astringent.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. There can be no dispute that this is the ben nut, the term ben being derived from the Arabians. The tree from which it is procured is said to be the _Hyperanthera moringa_ Vahl. See Ainslie (Mat. Med. i, 197.) It is further called _Myrobalanum_, but the coincidence of name must not lead the reader to identify it with the myrobalans of the Arabians, of which we shall have occasion to give some account in another place. Pliny gives an interesting account of it, representing the Arabian as being the best oil in quality, and the Troglodytic or Ethiopian, as the worst. (H. N. xii, 47.) Being principally used in unguents, it has often got the name of glans unguentaria. Dioscorides writes fully of its medicinal properties, recommending it in particular inwardly, as an emetic and purgative, and externally, as an application to various cutaneous diseases, such as psora and leprosy (iv, 157.) Celsus recommends it in several places as an ingredient in emollient ointments, more especially for indurations of the spleen (iv, 9; v, 18, 4.) The Arabians, especially Avicenna and Serapion, treat of it at great length, but in nearly the same terms as Dioscorides and Galen. Of late years nut ben has been excluded from our Dispensatories; but our older authorities in modern times confirm the characters of it given above from Dioscorides, that is to say, that it acts both as an emetic and a purge, but in the latter capacity slowly and with pain. See Hill (Mat. Med. 4, 94); Rutty (Mat. Med. p. 52.)

Βάκχαρις,

Baccharis, _Spikenard_, is a fragrant herb, like cinnamon, used for garlands. It is acrid; and its root when boiled is deobstruent, diuretic, and emmenagogue. But its leaves being astringent are beneficial in fluxes.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Regarding this much disputed article, the predominance of authority, as we think, is in favour of its being some species of _Conyza_. Old Gerard gives it the English names of ploughman’s spikenard and cinnamon-root, and repeats the characters of it given by the ancient authorities. It has been long since expelled from our Dispensatories. Galen, in his Commentary on the Glossa Hippocratica, mentions that the name is applied both to a herb and a Lydian ointment. It does not occur in the works of Celsus nor in those of the Arabians. Our author draws his characters of it from Dioscorides, who recommends it, among other purposes, as being emmenagogue and promoting parturition (iii, 44.)

Βαλάυστιον,

Balaustium, _the Flower of the Wild Pomegranate_; it is powerfully astringent, having also desiccant and cold powers. It heals superficial sores, and stops defluxions.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. _Balaustine_, or the _Flower of the double Wild Pomegranate_, is an astringent medicine much used by the ancient physicians. Dioscorides recommends it principally as an anthelminthic to kill the broad ascaris, by which he meant the tænia. (See ii, 147.) Galen writes very elaborately on this article, contending that it is a good example of a plant possessed of an astringent quality, and stating that it was in general use with this intention externally in intertrigo and other ulcers, and internally in cases of hæmoptysis, dysentery, and in all defluxions from the stomach or womb. The Arabians give a similar account of it, and further recommend balaustine as a whetter of the appetite, and a restorative from the ill effects of intoxication, and a medicine calculated to stop vomiting. See in particular Serapion (129), and Avicenna (ii, 2, 109.) Although modern authority is not wanting to confirm what the ancients have stated regarding the efficacy of balaustine as an astringent in diarrhœa, dysentery, and menorrhagia, it has been excluded of late years from our British Dispensatories. Our continental brethren still make use of it. The modern Greek Pharmacopœia does not retain the leaves.

Βάλσαμον,

Balsamum, _Balsam-tree_; that part of it which is like its wood is desiccant and heating in the second degree. It is also composed of subtile particles, but the juice of it is much more so. Its fruit is possessed of similar powers, but its particles are less subtile.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. This clearly is the _Balsamum Gileadense_, or Balm of Gilead, being procured, as Dr. Pereira states, from the _Balsamo-dendron Gileadense_, a middling-sized tree growing in Arabia. He says, it is rarely or never employed by Europeans; but is adapted to the same cases as the terebinthinates. The Asiatics use it for its odoriferous as well as its medicinal properties. Dioscorides certainly writes strongly in its favour, recommending it as a detergent application to sores and complaints of the eyes, and internally as an emmenagogue and diuretic, and as an antidote to poisons and venomous animals. Galen treats of it much more reservedly (i, 18.) The balsam occurs in Celsus’s list of articles which concoct and promote suppuration (v, 3.) The Arabians fully coincide with the character of it given by Dioscorides. See in particular Serapion (c. 160); Avicenna (ii, 2, 81.) Though this article has almost ceased to be employed in the practice of the scientific physician, it was the instrument by which one of the most successful pieces of empiricism was perpetrated in the beginning of this century. We allude to Dr. Solomon’s celebrated Balm of Gilead.

Βαλωτὴ,

Balote, by some called _Black Horehound_; it is possessed of acrid and detergent powers; therefore, when applied with salts, it relieves the bite of mad dogs.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. There appears little reason to doubt that this is the _Ballote nigra_, or stinking horehound of our herbalists. Our author’s account of it is abridged from Dioscorides. It is not treated of by Galen, Aëtius, nor Oribasius, neither is it found in Celsus. Avicenna and Ebn Baithar we believe are the only Arabians who notice it, and they copy from Dioscorides (ii, 2, 553, and i, 166.)

Βάτος,

Rubus, _the Bramble_; its shrubby part is moderately astringent and desiccant, and therefore agglutinates wounds and stops defluxions. The root, in addition to its astringency, is attenuate in no small degree. It therefore breaks down renal calculi. Its ripe fruit is hotter, and has a moderate astringency. It is therefore edible; but the unripe is sour and powerfully desiccant, more especially if dried. In like manner also the flower.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. The first species of bramble described by Dioscorides is probably that well-known one the _Rubus fruticosus_, the other is the _Rubus Idæus_, or raspberry bush. The Β. Ἰδᾶιος of Dioscorides was supposed by Ruellius and others to be the _Fragaria_ or _Strawberry_, but with this supposition we cannot agree. Strawberries are not noticed by any Greek writer, but are first mentioned by Ovid (Met. i, 104); and then by Pliny (H. N. xxv, 62.) The μόρον βατῶδες, of which mention is occasionally made by our author, was the fruit of the bramble, being so called, according to Eustathius, from its resemblance to mulberries. (Ad Iliad. xiii, 121.) Our author abridges Galen, who is at great pains in defining the powers of the batos, which he makes out to be moderately astringent and desiccative; and hence he pronounces it to be useful in dysentery, fluxes of the bowels, atony, hæmoptysis, and in calculus as a lithrontriptic. Dioscorides indulges in a still more lengthened exposition of its virtues, recommending the decoction of it as an astringent in looseness of the bowels, and in fluor albus, as an antidote to the sting of the serpent Prester; its leaves when chewed, to strengthen the gums and cure the aphthæ of children, and externally, for the cure of herpes, achor, procidentia oculi, and many other diseases (iii, 36.) It is briefly alluded to by Celsus in treating of lientery (iv, 16.) The Arabians, as usual, copy from Dioscorides and Galen. See Serapion (De Simpl. 124); Avicenna (ii, 2, 572.) The rubi held their place and ancient characters in our Dispensatories down to a late date. See Quincy (p. 94.) Even yet several of the rubi are still kept in the shops for medicinal purposes. See Gray (Suppl. to Pharmacop. p. 89.)

Βατράχιον,

Ranunculus, _Crowsfoot_, consists of four varieties, all of which are possessed of powerfully heating and desiccant powers, and also of acrid and caustic, so as to occasion ulceration with pain; but when moderately used, it proves only detergent of the skin. The dried root is a sternutatory.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. According to Sprengel, the first species is the _Ranunculus Asiaticus_; the second, the _R. lanuginosus_; the third, the _R. muricatus_; and the fourth, the _R. aquatilis_. Galen recommends it as a powerful escharotic, and our author evidently copies from him. Dioscorides gives a similar account of the ranunculi, recommending them for the removal of leprous nails, psora, stigmata, and other tumours, as a fomentation to chilblains, and as an application to remove toothache. The Arabians treat of the ranunculi in the same terms as the Greeks, copying their medicinal characters from Dioscorides and Galen. See Avicenna (ii, 2, 368), and Ebn Baithar (ii, 343.) Neither of them gives anything original of his own, nor from any Arabian authority. The ranunculi, we need scarcely mention, have now been discarded by the regular practitioner; but yet several of them are still kept in the shops, and have the reputation of being excellent vesicants. Gray (Suppl. to Pharmacop. p. 122.) In like manner old Culpeper affirms that the crowsfoot is an effectual and a much safer blister than cantharides (p. 59.) The modern Greek Pharmacopœia does not contain it.

Βάτραχοι,

Ranæ, _Frogs_; they are eaten when made into a soup for the bites of venomous animals; when burnt, their ashes become very desiccant; and stop hemorrhages, and cure alopecia, along with liquid pitch.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides, Galen, and Serapion recommend them in the cases mentioned by our author. The species with which they must have been most familiar is the green frog. We have stated in another place that the Greeks and Romans did not use the frog as an article of food. (Vol. I, 166.)

Βδέλλιον,

Bdellium; both the Scythian and Arabian are possessed of powers which prove emollient of indurated tumours, more especially the recent. The Arabian is also diuretic, lithontriptic, and digestive.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dioscorides, as Dr. Ainslie remarks (Mat. Ind. i, 30), has sufficiently well described this article; and yet he adds afterwards, it is a lamentable fact that the actual tree from which bdellium is got has not hitherto been clearly ascertained by botanists. He rejects the conjecture of Sprengel, although supported by the high authority of Kæmpfer and Rumphius that it is procured from the _Borassus flabelliformis_, and also that of Matthiolus, who maintained that it is procured from the _dwarf palm_, or _Chamœrops humilis_. Upon the whole, the opinion of Virey, founded on the authority of Forskael, that it is got from some species of _Amyris_, seems to be the most probable. Dr. Pereira gives the following account of this article: “The term _Bdellium_ is applied to two gummy resinous substances. One of these is Indian bdellium, or false myrrh, the bdellium of Scripture, which is obtained from _Amyris (Balsamodendron?) Commiphora_. See further Royle (Hindoos Med. p. 90.) The other kind is called _African Bdellium_, and is obtained from the _Heudolotia Africana_.” (Mat. Med. 1634.) On the _Bdellium_, see further what we have said in the Appendix to Dunbar’s Greek Lexicon. The ancients would appear to have been well acquainted with both these kinds of bdellium; at all events they were acquainted with the Indian, for Dioscorides has described it. He represents the bdellium to be calefacient, emollient, and dissolvent, and recommends it for dissolving hard tumours, for promoting menstruation in pessaries, and fumigations, and as an emetic, diuretic, and expectorant (i, 80.) The Arabians were evidently still more familiar with the bdellium than their Grecian masters; but have supplied little or no additional information respecting it. See in particular Serapion (De Simpl. 117), and Avicenna (ii, 2, 112.) Celsus recommends it frequently as an ingredient in external applications. As far as we have been able to discover, it does not occur in the works of Hippocrates.

Βεττονικὴ,

Bettonica, _Bettony_, is a herb having slender branches like those of the pennyroyal, but still more slender, and is possessed of scarcely any quality to the taste. It grows mostly in rocky situations, and is used for the composition of nephritic medicines. There is among the Romans another herb called bettonica, to which Dioscorides gives the name of cestrum; but others name it psychotrophon, because it delights in cold situations, having no resemblance to the aforementioned, except its medicinal powers. In addition to its action as a diuretic, it is useful for many other purposes; for its root in particular, when drunk with hydromel, occasions vomiting, and the leaves open the bowels.

* * * * *

COMMENTARY. Dr. Alston says, “There is a Libellus (De Betonica) attributed commonly to Augustus’s physician, Antonius Musa, by some to L. Apuleius, of which there are said to be very ancient MSS.” We have seen the work mentioned by Alston. It is published _Tiguri_, A.D. 1537, with notes by Humelbergius. It is a small work, occupying scarcely four leaves in octavo. The author commences with a dedication to Augustus, in which he informs the emperor that the betony is useful for forty-seven complaints, which he proceeds to enumerate, after giving a short description of the herb. He says of it, “Cestron vocatur, etiam psychotrophon, siquidem frigidis reperitur in locis, radicibus tenuibus, thyrso tenui ultra cubitum quadrangulo, foliis quercui similibus, boni odoris, semine in summitate thyrsi spicato, modo thymbræ.” The following are some of the cases in which he recommends it: For fractures of the head, as an external application; for pains of the eyes in a fomentation; for pains in the teeth, boiled in old wine or vinegar; for consumption and difficulty of breathing; for complaints of the liver, spleen, and kidneys; as a purgative when given to the amount of four drachms in eight cyathi of hydromel; for calculus; for dropsy; to prevent intoxication; as an antidote to poisons and the bites of venomous reptiles and mad dogs; for gout, &c. Many different opinions, as stated by Sprengel, have been entertained respecting this herb. Perhaps, as he suggests, it may have been the _Rumex Hydrolapathum_ or _Aquaticus_. The κεστρεὺς of Dioscorides he thinks is the _B. alopecurus_. But for the general literature of this subject, we must refer to our discussion on it in the Appendix to Dunbar’s Greek Lexicon. The betony held a place in the Materia Medica down to a very late period. Both Dioscorides and Pliny recommend it in hæmoptysis and purulent affections of the chest, and it enters as an ingredient into several of Myrepsus’s antidotes for dysentery and cæliac affection. Celsus mentions it only in one place, where he says of it, that it is an useful application to the stings of venomous snakes (v, 27, 10.) For the Arabians, see in particular Serapion (322), and Averrhoes (Coll. v, 42.) Our old herbalists and other modern authorities who treat of betony, praise it as a vulnerary herb, and as being possessed of diuretic and emmenagogue faculties.

Βηχίον,