Chapter IV: Section I: The Attack upon Frederick (November 1619-January 1621)

1619 Maximilian of Bavaria prepares for war 39

Vienna fruitlessly attacked by Bethlen Gabor 40

Frederick finds no support in the Union 41

1620 The North German Princes agree to neutrality at
Mar. Mühlhausen 42

June 3. Spinola, the Spanish General, prepares to attack the
Palatinate, and the Union, being frightened, signs
the treaty of Ulm, by which it agrees to observe
neutrality towards the League 42

June 23. Maximilian, with Tilly in command of his army,
enters Austria and compels the Austrian Estates to
submit, whilst Spinola reduces the Western Palatinate 42

Maximilian joins Bucquoi, and enters Bohemia 43

Sep. 28. Frederick, having failed to organize resistance, joins
the Bohemian army 44

Nov. 8. Defeat of Frederick at the Battle of the White Hill,
1619 and submission of Bohemia to the Emperor 45

Jan. 22. Frederick put to the Ban of the Empire 46

SECTION II.--_The War in the Upper Palatinate (January-October 1621)._

1621 Frederick does not abandon hope of regaining Bohemia 47
Jan.

Ap. 12. The Treaty of Mentz dissolves the Union 47

Bad character of Mansfeld's Army 48

May Mansfeld takes the offensive 49

Aug. Recommencement of the War in the Lower Palatinate 50

Oct. Mansfeld unable to hold out in the Upper Palatinate 50

Oct. 10. Signs an engagement to disband his forces, but escapes
with them to Alsace 50

SECTION III.--_Frederick's Allies (October 1621-May 1622)._

1621 James I. of England proposes to take Mansfeld into
his pay, but he cannot agree with the House of
Commons, and is therefore in want of money 50

1622 He then tries to obtain a settlement of the German
disputes with the aid of Spain 51

May A conference for the pacification of Germany held at
Brussels 52

Frederick prepares for War, with the help of Mansfeld,
the Margrave of Baden, and Christian of
Brunswick, the latter being a Protestant Administrator
of the Bishopric of Halberstadt 53

He ravages the diocese of Paderborn 55

SECTION IV.--_The Fight for the Lower Palatinate (April-July 1622)._

Ap. 12. Frederick joins Mansfeld. Tilly defeats the Margrave May 6. of Baden at Wimpfen 57

June Frederick, hopeful of success, refuses to consent to a
treaty, and seizes the Landgrave of Darmstadt 58

But is driven by Tilly to retreat 59

June 30. Defeat of Christian of Brunswick at Höchst 59

July Mansfeld abandons the Palatinate, and Frederick,
after taking refuge at Sedan, retires to the Hague 60

CHAPTER IV.

MANSFELD AND CHRISTIAN IN NORTH GERMANY.

SECTION I.--_Mansfeld's March into the Netherlands (July-November 1622)._

1622 Tilly proceeds to reduce the fortified places in the
Lower Palatinate 60

1623 The Electorate transferred from Frederick to Maximilian
Feb. 13 61

1622 Change of feeling in North Germany 61

Aug. Mansfeld and Christian establish themselves in Lorraine,
and then try to cut their way through the
Spanish Netherlands to join the Duke 63

Aug. 28. Battle of Fleurus. Christian loses his arm 63

Nov. Mansfeld establishes himself in East Friesland 64

SECTION II.--_Christian of Brunswick in Lower Saxony (November 1622-August 1623)._

1622 The Lower Saxon Circle urged by Tilly to join him
against Mansfeld, and by Christian of Brunswick to
join him against Tilly 64

1623 Warlike preparations of the Circle 65
Feb.

Aug. 6. Christian expelled from the Circle, and defeated by
Tilly at Stadtlohn 66

SECTION III.--_Danger of the Lower Saxon Circle (August-December 1623)._

1623 The North German Protestant Bishoprics in danger 66

Aug. Alarm in the Lower Saxon Circle 68

Dec. But nothing is done, and its troops are disbanded 68

SECTION IV.--_England and France (October 1623-August 1624)._

Oct. Foreign Powers ready to interfere 69

Return of the Prince of Wales from Madrid 70

1624 Divergence between the English House of Commons
Feb.-May and James I. upon the mode of recovering the Palatinate 70

Position of the Huguenots in France 72

SECTION V.--_Rise of Richelieu (August 1624-September 1625)._

Aug. Lewis XIII. makes Richelieu his chief minister. He
is divided between a desire to combat Spain and a
desire to reduce the Huguenots to submission 72

Richelieu's position less strong than it afterwards
became. He has to make great allowances for the
King's humour 74

Dec. French attack upon the Spanish garrisons in the
Valtelline 75

1625 Failure of Mansfeld's expedition intended by James
Jan.-June to recover the Palatinate 76

Jan. Richelieu's plans for engaging more deeply in the
war frustrated by the rising of the Huguenots of
Rochelle 77

Sept. The Huguenot fleet is defeated, but Rochelle holds
out 77

CHAPTER V.

INTERVENTION OF THE KING OF DENMARK.

SECTION I.--_Christian IV. and Gustavus Adolphus (1624)._

Character and position of Christian IV., King of
Denmark 78

Genius of Gustavus Adolphus 79

Sketch of the earlier part of his reign 80

His interest in German affairs 82

SECTION II.--_English Diplomacy (August 1624-July 1625)._

1624 The Kings of Denmark and Sweden asked by James
Aug. I. to join him in recovering the Palatinate 84

1625 The English Government, thinking the demands of
Jan. Gustavus exorbitant, forms an alliance with
Christian IV. 85

June _Meeting of the first Parliament of Charles I._

June Gustavus directs his forces against Poland 86

Mar. 27. Death of James I. Accession of Charles I. 86

July 18. Christian IV., at the head of the Circle of Lower
Saxony, enters upon war with the army of the
League commanded by Tilly 87

Aug. _Dissolution of the first Parliament of Charles I._

SECTION III.--_Wallenstein's Armament (July 1625-February 1626)._

The Emperor needs more forces 87

Wallenstein offers to raise an army for him. Account
of Wallenstein's early life 89

The system by which the army is to be supported is
to be one of forced contributions 90

Oppressive burdens laid thereby on the country 91

Wallenstein enters the dioceses of Magdeburg and
Halberstadt, and lies quietly there during the winter 92

1626 Failure of negotiations for peace 93
Feb.

SECTION IV.--_Defeat of Mansfeld and Christian IV. (February-August 1626)._

1626 Numerical superiority on the side of the King of
Feb. Denmark, but the Imperialists are superior in other
respects 94

Failure of the supplies promised to Christian by
Charles I. 95

Feb. _Meeting of the second Parliament of
Charles I.--Impeachment of Buckingham_

Ap. 25. Mansfeld defeated by Wallenstein at the Bridge of
Dessau 96

June _Dissolution of the second Parliament of Charles I._

Aug. 27. Christian IV. defeated by Tilly at Lutter 97

Wallenstein pursues Mansfeld into Hungary 97

CHAPTER VI.

STRALSUND AND ROCHELLE.

SECTION I.--_Fresh Successes of Wallenstein (August 1626-October 1627)._

1626 Divergence between the League and Wallenstein 98

Nov. Wallenstein advocates religious equality and the
predominance of the army 98

1627 He persuades Ferdinand to increase his army, and is
Jan. created Duke of Friedland, in spite of the growing
dissatisfaction with his proceedings 100

May-Aug. The King of Denmark hopes to resist Tilly, but
Wallenstein returns from Hungary, and gains possession
of Silesia 101

Sept. 20. Defeat of the Margrave of Baden at Heiligenhafen 102

Oct. Christian IV. flies to the Island of Fünen, leaving
Jutland to Wallenstein 102

SECTION II.--_Resistance to Wallenstein in the Empire (October 1627-February 1628)._

1627 Meeting of the Electors at Mühlhausen. They complain
Oct. of Wallenstein 103

1628 The commercial towns of North Germany jealous of
Wallenstein 105

Feb. The Emperor declares the Dukes of Mecklenburg to
have forfeited their lands and titles, and pledges the
territory to Wallenstein 106

Wallenstein tries in vain to gain over the Hanse
Towns 106

He attempts to establish himself on the coast of the
Baltic by getting possession of the towns 108

SECTION III.--_The Siege of Stralsund (August-February 1628)._

Feb. As Stralsund refuses to admit a garrison, it is
attacked by Wallenstein's orders 108

May It is succoured by Denmark and Sweden 109

Aug. 3. The siege is raised 110

SECTION IV.--_The Siege of Rochelle (1625-1628)._

1625 Richelieu would have made peace with the Huguenots
if he had been able 112

1626 An agreement is effected, but comes to nothing
through the jealousy of Charles I. 112

1627 War between France and England, Buckingham's
expedition to Rhé 113

Nov. Richelieu besieges Rochelle 114

1628 Mar. _Meeting of the third Parliament of Charles I._

May Failure of an English fleet to succour Rochelle 115

June _The Petition of Right granted_

Aug. Murder of the Duke of Buckingham 115

Nov. 1. Surrender of Rochelle 115

Contrast between France and Germany. Toleration
granted to the Huguenots 116

CHAPTER VII.

THE EDICT OF RESTITUTION.

SECTION I.--_Oppression of the Protestants (March 1628-May 1629)._

1628 Mar. Surrender of Stade to Tilly 117

1629 Jan. Wallenstein fails to take Glückstadt 117

Mar. _Dissolution of the third Parliament of Charles I._

May 22. Peace of Lübeck between Christian IV. and the
Emperor 118

Wallenstein invested with the Duchy of Mecklenburg 118

1628 The Protestants oppressed in the South of Germany 119

1629 Issue of the Edict of Restitution 120
Mar. 29.

SECTION II.--_French Intervention in Italy (1628-1630)._

1628 War in Italy for the succession to the Duchy of
Mantua 121

1629 Richelieu enters Italy, and compels the Spaniards to
Mar. raise the siege of Casale 122

Rebellion of Rohan in the south of France 123

1629 Richelieu again enters Italy, seizes Pignerol and
Saluces, and again forces the Spaniards to raise the
siege of Casale 123

1630 Negotiations between France and Sweden 124

SECTION III.--_Wallenstein deprived of his Command (March 1629-September 1630)._

1629 Wallenstein increases his forces 125

Jealousy between him and the Catholic Electors 126

1630 Assembly at Ratisbon 127

July 3. It demands that Wallenstein be deprived of his
command 127

July 4. Landing of Gustavus Adolphus in Germany 128

Sept. Dismissal of Wallenstein 129

Tilly in command 130

SECTION IV.--_The Swedes establish themselves on the Coast of the Baltic (July 1630-January 1631)._

July Discipline in the Swedish Army 130

The Duke of Pomerania submits to him, but the
Elector of Brandenburg declares himself neutral 130

1651 The treaty of Bärwalde between France and Sweden 132

SECTION V.--_The Fall of Magdeburg (January-May 1631)._

Jan. Success of Gustavus on the Baltic coast 133

March The Electors of Saxony hold a Protestant Assembly
at Leipzig 133

Tilly attacks the Swedes, but is driven to retreat 134

Ap. 26. Treaty of Cherasco between France and the English 135

May 15. Convention between Gustavus and the Elector of
Brandenburg 136

May 20. Magdeburg stormed, plundered, and burnt 136

The Emperor refuses to cancel the Edict of Restitution 137

CHAPTER VIII.

THE VICTORIES OF GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS.

SECTION I.--_Alliance between the Swedes and the Saxons (June-September 1631)._

June 21. Gustavus compels the Elector of Brandenburg to an
alliance 138

July Gustavus at the Camp of Werben 138

Aug. Tilly summons the Elector of Saxony to submit 139

Sept. He attacks Saxony, upon which the Elector forms an
alliance with Gustavus 139

Gustavus joins the Saxons 140

SECTION II.--_Battle of Breitenfeld (September 1631)._

Sept. 17. Victory of Gustavus over Tilly at Breitenfeld 141

Wallenstein's intrigues with Gustavus 142

Wallenstein and Gustavus unlikely to agree 143

Political and military designs of Gustavus 144

He looks for a basis of operations on the Rhine 146

SECTION III.--_March of Gustavus into South Germany (October 1631-May 1632)._

Oct. March of Gustavus to Mentz 148

1632 In spite of the objections of the French, he attacks
Bavaria 149

Ap. 14. Tilly defeated and mortally wounded at the passage
of the Lech 149

May 17. Gustavus enters Munich 150

SECTION IV.--_Wallenstein's Restoration to command (September 1631-June 1632)._

Sept. Wallenstein breaks off all intercourse with Gustavus 151

Nov. Attempts to reconcile the Elector of Saxony with the
Emperor 152

Dec. Is reinstated temporarily in the command of the
Imperial Army 153

1632 Character of that Army 153

April Wallenstein permanently appointed Commander 155

May Offers peace to the Saxons, and drives them out of
Bohemia 155

June Gustavus does not approve of the terms of peace
offered by Wallenstein 156

SECTION V.--_Struggle between Gustavus and Wallenstein (June-October 1632)._

June Gustavus and Wallenstein opposed to one
another at Nüremberg 157

Efforts of Gustavus to maintain discipline 159

Sept. 4. Fails to storm Wallenstein's lines 160

Sept. 18. Gustavus leaves Nüremberg 160

Oct. Wallenstein marches into Saxony 160

SECTION VI.--_The Battle of Lützen (October-November 1632)._

Oct. Gustavus follows Wallenstein into Saxony 161

Nov. 16. Battle of Lützen 162

Death of Gustavus 163

Victory of the Swedes 164

Irreparable loss by the death of Gustavus to the
Protestants 164

CHAPTER IX.

THE DEATH OF WALLENSTEIN AND THE TREATY OF PRAGUE.

SECTION I.--_French Influence in Germany (November 1632-April 1633)._

1633 Differences between Bernhard and Oxenstjerna 166

Ap. 23. The League of Heilbronn signed 167

Firm establishment of Richelieu's authority in
France 168

Richelieu's interposition in German affairs 169

SECTION II.--_Wallenstein's Attempt to dictate Peace (April-December 1633)._

1633 Wallenstein's peace negotiations with the Swedes
and Saxons 170

Oct. He drives the Saxons out of Silesia 172

Nov. Ratisbon taken by Bernhard 173

Spanish opposition to a peace which would leave
Spain exposed to French attacks 173

Dec. Wallenstein thinks of making peace, whether the Emperor
consents or not 175

SECTION III.--_Resistance to Wallenstein's Plans (January-February 1634)._

1634 Oñate, the Spanish Ambassador, persuades the Emperor
Jan. that Wallenstein is a traitor 175

Ferdinand determines to displace Wallenstein 176

Feb. 19. Wallenstein engages the Colonels to support him 177

SECTION IV.--_Assassination of Wallenstein (February 1634)._

Feb. 18. Wallenstein declared a traitor 179

Feb. 21. The garrison of Prague declares against him 179

Feb. 24. Wallenstein at Eger 179

Feb. 25. He is assassinated 181

Comparison between Gustavus and Wallenstein 181

SECTION V.--_Imperialist Victories and the Treaty of Prague (February 1634-May 1635)._

1634 The King of Hungary reorganizes the imperial
Feb. army 181

Sept. 6. In conjunction with the Cardinal-Infant, he defeats
Bernhard at Nördlingen 183

Consequent necessity of an increased French intervention 184

1635 Peace of Prague 184

May 30. It is not universally accepted 185

Miserable condition of Germany. Notes of an English
traveller 187

CHAPTER X.

THE PREPONDERANCE OF FRANCE.

SECTION I.--_Open Intervention of France (May 1635)._

1635 Protestantism not out of danger 189

May Close alliance of some of the Princes with France 190

Importance of the possession of Alsace and Lorraine 191

May 19. France declares war against Spain 192

SECTION II.--_Spanish Successes (May 1635-December 1637)._

1635 Failure of the French attack on the Spanish Netherlands 192

1636 Spanish invasion of France 193

Oct. 4. Baner's victory at Wittstock 194

1637 Death of Ferdinand II. Accession of Ferdinand III. 194
Feb. 15.

Imperialist success in Germany 195

SECTION III.--_The Struggle for Alsace (January 1638-July 1639)._

1638 Bernhard's victories in the Breisgau and Alsace 195

July 8. Death of Bernhard 196

SECTION IV.--_French Successes (July 1639-Dec. 1642)._

French maritime successes 197

1639 Spanish fleet taking refuge in the Downs 198

It is destroyed by the Dutch 198

1640 Insurrection of Catalonia 199

Nov. Independence of Portugal 200

1641 Defeat of the Imperialists at Wolfenbüttel 201

1642 Defeat of the Imperialists at Kempten 201

Aug. _Charles I. sets up his standard. Beginning of the
English Civil War_

Dec. 4. Death of Richelieu 201

SECTION V.--_Aims and Character of Richelieu (December 1642-May 1643)._

Richelieu's domestic policy 201

Contrast between France and England 202

Richelieu's foreign policy 203

1643 Moderation of his aims 204

May 14. Death of Lewis XIII 205

SECTION VI.--_More French Victories (May 1643--August 1645)._

1643 Rule of Cardinal Mazarin 205

May 19. Enghien defeats the Spaniards at Rocroy 206

The French kept in check in Germany 207

1644 Enghien and Turenne. Battle of Freiburg 208

July _Battle of Marston Moor_

1645 Second Battle of Nördlingen 208
Aug. 3.

Mar. 6. Swedish victory at Jankow 209

CHAPTER XI.

THE END OF THE WAR.

SECTION I.--_Turenne's Strategy (June 1645-October 1648)._

1645 Negotiations for peace begun 209

June _Battle of Naseby_

Aims of the Emperor and the Duke of Bavaria 210

1646 Turenne outmanoeuvres the Imperialists 212

1647 Truce between the French and the Bavarians 213
May-Sept.

1648 Defeat of the Bavarians at Zusmarshausen 213
May 17.

SECTION II.--_The Treaty of Westphalia (Oct. 1648)._

1648 Terms of the peace 213

Oct. 24. How far was toleration effected by it 214

General desire for peace 217

SECTION III.--_Condition of Germany._

Debasing effects of the war 217

Decrease of the population 218

Moral and intellectual decadence 218

Disintegration of Germany 220

Protestantism saved, and with it the future culture of
Germany 220

SECTION IV.--_Continuance of the War between France and Spain (1648-1660)._

1648 Recognition of the independence of the Dutch
Republic 221

1649 _Execution of Charles I._

The Fronde 222

Continuance of the war with Spain 223

Alliance between France and Cromwell 223

1660 Treaty of Pyrenees 224

French greatness based on Tolerance 225

Intolerance of Lewis XIV. and downfall of the
French monarchy 226

THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR.