Chapter I: AN ACCOUNT of THE KINGDOM OF BOKHARA (2)

The Oxus is subject to a periodical swell, as are all the great rivers which flow from the south of the same stupendous chain of mountains in which it has its rise. In both cases the causes are similar,--the melting of the snows in elevated regions. The inundation commences in May, and ceases in October; but it is also subject to a second and lesser flood during the rains of spring. It fluctuates in its rise and fall with the state of the weather, rising under the sun of a cloudless sky, and sinking with a denser atmosphere; while on its banks, in June, it subsided a foot and a half in thirty-six hours, and it had not then attained its height. The influence of the waters is rarely felt for half a mile beyond the channel of the river, though its inner banks are low and depressed, but there is a second bank varying in distance from a mile and a half to two miles on either side, and in some places more distant. The valley thus formed is clothed with verdure and moistened, though seldom inundated by the swell. Here it is that the inhabitants cultivate the land, and water it by industry and art. In some instances the aqueducts extend inland for a distance of four miles, and the water must then be raised by the Persian wheel for irrigating the fields. On leaving this tract the scene changes to sterility and desolation: the valley itself is in many places overgrown with a bastard indigo, tamarisk, and rank weeds, and neglected by the inhabitants. In winter, when the river has retired to its bed, it is contracted to a space of 400 yards, but is never fordable. During the swell, the waters of the Oxus are tinged by the soil of the mountains, and assume a reddish hue. I ascertained that one fortieth of their body consisted of silt suspended in the stream; while under the influence of this snowy water, the river had a temperature of 73° at the summer solstice, when the thermometer rose to 103° in the air.

~Freezing of the Oxus.~

It would not have been suspected that so vast a river, in so low a parallel as 38° north latitude, should be frozen during winter, which is no rare occurrence with the Oxus. The upper part of its course above Koondooz freezes annually, and passengers and beasts of burden cross it on the ice, on their route to Yarkund; but there it flows in an elevated region. In the desert, however, its waters are also congealed in a severe winter. Below Khiva it freezes annually; and at Charjooee, which is about seventy miles from Bokhara, it was frozen last year from bank to bank. The season was remarkably cold, and the caravans passed it on the ice. At Kirkee, half-way to Balkh, it was also frozen; but at the ferry of Kilef, opposite that city, there was a narrow channel in the middle of the stream, which prevented the passage of both boats and caravans for a month. A stone could be thrown from the ice of one bank to that of the other; and it is not doubted that the only hindrance to their junction in this narrow part of the Oxus arose from the rapidity of the current, that was hemmed in by a confined bank. It is an established fact, that the temperature of deserts is both colder and hotter than countries which are more favoured by nature. In the torrid deserts of Toorkistan, there is a cold bleakness during winter, which will account for the congelation of the Oxus; it is nevertheless a curious fact in physical geography, since the Danube, which flows parallel with the Oxus, and in a higher latitude by seven degrees, is not subject to a like phenomenon. In winter, if the Oxus be not frozen, the passage of boats is sometimes endangered by the masses of ice which are floated down from the upper part of its course. These have been known to sink a boat, and require attention on the part of the ferrymen.

~Craft on the Oxus. Their build and number, &c.~

The boats which are used on the Oxus are of a superior description, though they have neither masts nor sails. They are built in the shape of a ship, with a prow at both ends, and are generally about fifty feet long and eighteen broad. They would carry about twenty tons English; they are flat-bottomed, and about four feet deep: when afloat, the gunwale is about two and a half or three feet above the stream; for they do not draw much more than a foot of water when laden. They are constructed of squared logs of wood, each about six feet long, formed of a dwarf jungle-tree, called “pukee,” or “sheeshum,” which grows in great abundance throughout the banks of the river, and cannot be procured of greater dimensions. These trees are felled, their bark is peeled off, and they are chipped into a square shape, which makes them ready for the workmen. The logs are clamped with iron, and, though these boats have a rude appearance, there is a strength and solidity in their build that admirably fits them for the navigation of such a river. There are few boats in the higher part of the Oxus above Charjooee. From that place to where it becomes fordable, near Koondooz, there are about fifteen ferries, and as each is provided with two, we have only a tonnage of thirty vessels in a distance of three hundred miles. The reason is obvious, for the inhabitants make no use of the navigable facilities of the Oxus. Below Bokhara the supply increases, and there are about 150 boats between it and the Delta, chiefly belonging to Orgunje. Here they are not appropriated as ferry-boats, but used in the transport of merchandise to and from Bokhara. The embarkations take place at Eljeek, on the north bank of the river, about sixty-five miles from the city. Below the Delta there are no boats; and I am informed that the sea of Aral is without vessels of any other description than small canoes. In ascending, the boats are dragged against the stream; and in dropping down make for the middle, where the current is rapid, and float down with their broadsides to it. Neither rafts nor skins are used on the Oxus.

~Mode of navigating the Oxus.~

The manner of ferrying across is novel, and, I believe, peculiar to this river; the boats are dragged across by horses, as I have fully described in the narrative: nor should such a contrivance be lost sight of by those who may use the Oxus as a navigable river.

~Wood of the Oxus.~

Facilities in the navigation of a river rest much on the supplies of the country through which it flows; in particular, of the nature and quantity of wood which is there procurable. The number of boats on the Oxus is certainly small, since they do not amount to two hundred; but there is every facility for building a fleet, the supply of wood being abundant, and fortunately found in single trees along the valley of the river, and not growing in forests on any particular spot. There are no cedar or pine-trees brought down by the inundation, which I hold as conclusive proof that the mountains from which the Oxus and its tributaries flow are destitute of that wood. The only other trees which I saw on the river were mulberry and the white poplar; which last is floated down in quantities from Hissar to Charjooee, and applied to purposes of house-building. In any increase of the tonnage on this river, the immediate resources of the neighbouring country must therefore be called into action; but these are highly important. The nature of the build in the boats of the river requires no skill in naval architecture; the wood is not sawed, and it does not require seasoning, so that the utmost despatch might be used at all times in forming a flotilla, whether it were desired to navigate, cross, or bridge it. I believe that 150 men might be embarked on a boat of the size which I have described. The river could only be bridged by boats, for the wood is too small for an application of it in any other way, and the furze and tamarisk which grow in its banks would supply the place of planks, and make it at once complete and practicable. A bridge of boats was thrown across the Oxus by both Timour and Nadir, and the remains of some temporary buildings erected by the latter conqueror are still shown at the ferry of Kilef, north of Balkh. The river there presents facilities for such an operation, since it has hillocks on both sides, is narrow, and not _always_ rapid. Passengers frequently swim across the river at this ferry. Below the mountains the Oxus has a firm and sandy bed, and boats may be anchored by branches of trees in all parts of its stream.

~Political and commercial advantages of the Oxus.~

The advantages of the Oxus, both in a political and commercial point of view, must, then, be regarded as very great: the many facilities which have been enumerated point it out either as the channel of merchandize, or the route of a military expedition; nor is it from the features of the river itself that we form such a conclusion. It is to be remembered that its banks are peopled and cultivated. It must therefore be viewed as a river which is navigable, and possessing great facilities for improving the extent of that navigation. This is a fact of great political and commercial importance, whether an hostile nation may turn it to the gratification of ambition, or a friendly power here seek for the extension and improvement of its trade. In either case, the Oxus presents many fair prospects, since it holds the most direct course, and connects, with the exception of a narrow desert, the nations of Europe with the remote regions of Central Asia.

CHAP. III.

ON THE VALLEY OF THE UPPER OXUS; BEING A NOTICE OF KOONDOOZ, BUDUKHSHAN, AND THE KAFFIR COUNTRY, WITH THE ADJACENT TERRITORIES.

~Sketch of the countries to be described.~

The countries north of Hindoo Koosh, which lie in the valley of the Oxus, and its tributary rivers, from Balkh upwards, have no general designation; eastward of that city lies Koondooz, under which all the smaller provinces may be classed, since the Meer, or chief of that state, has subdued them. Further to the eastward, we have the province of Budukhshan, also a dependency of Koondooz. To the north of this territory are the hill states of Wakhan, Shughnan, Durwaz, Koolab, and Hissar; which are remarkable, as containing a race of people that claim a descent from Alexander the Great. To the eastward of Budukhshan lies the plain of Pamere, inhabited by the Kirghizzes; and beyond the Beloot Tagh mountains we have Chitral, Gilgit, and Iskardo, that extend towards Cashmere, and are also inhabited by tribes who assert their Macedonian origin. South of Budukhshan is the country of the Siahposh Kaffirs, a most singular people, who dwell among the mountains of Hindoo Koosh. These are the provinces which it is now proposed to describe; but we shall reserve any particular mention of the descendants of Alexander for the following chapter, and proceed, in the first place, to speak of the country and its productions.

~Koondooz.~

Koondooz is situated in a valley among low hills, which extend from east to west for about thirty miles, and from north to south about forty, when it is bounded by the Oxus. It is watered by two rivers, which join north of Koondooz, and are not fordable during the melting of the snows in summer. The climate of this country is most insalubrious: the heat is excessive, yet the snow lies for three months during winter. The greater part of the valley is so marshy, that the roads across are constructed on piles of wood, which are fixed among noxious reeds and vegetation. Rice is reared in such places as are not entirely inundated, and in the drier ground there is wheat and barley. The fruit consists of apricots, plums, cherries, and mulberries, and it ripens at Balkh and Khooloom about a fortnight sooner than at Koondooz. The great mountain of Hindoo Koosh is in sight at Koondooz; but those hills which form the valley on either side do not rise to a height of a thousand feet from the plain. They are long ridgy high-lands, covered with grass and flowers, but free from trees or brushwood, forming valuable pasture lands. The town of Koondooz cannot boast a population of 1500 souls; for it is deserted by the chief and the people. The neighbouring districts do not partake of the unhealthiness of Koondooz. Khooloom, Heibuk, Goree, Inderab, Talighan, and Huzrut Imam, are its subjected districts, and except the last, which lies in the Oxus, they possess a pleasant climate, and have a rich and prolific soil. These districts are watered by rivulets flowing into the Oxus, and the soil is valued by the facilities which it enjoys of being watered. Heibuk and Khooloom stand on the same rivulet, the water of which is dammed up on certain days, and allowed to run on others. The gardens on its banks are rich and beautiful; and among the fruit-trees, one again meets the fig, which does not grow in Cabool.

~Budukhshan.~

The countries that lie higher up the Oxus have none of the defects of climate which are peculiar to Koondooz, and both natives and foreigners speak in rapture of the vales of Budukhshan, its rivulets, romantic scenes and glens, its fruits, flowers, and nightingales. This district lies along the valley of the Oxus; but its capital is further to the south, and eastward of Koondooz. It is sometimes called Fyzabad, but its more common and proper name is Budukhshan. This once celebrated country is now almost without inhabitants; it was overrun by the chief of Koondooz about twelve years ago: its ruler has been dethroned, and his substitute exists as a mere pageant; its peasants have been marched out of the country, and a rabble of lawless soldiery is now quartered in the different provinces. It also suffered from an earthquake in January, 1832, which destroyed many villages, and a great part of the population. The roads through many parts of the country were blocked up by the falling of stones, and the river of Budukhshan was hemmed in for five days, by a hill that tumbled in upon it. This great convulsion of nature occurred at midnight, and scarcely a family in the country but deplored the loss of some of its members. It was felt at Mooltan and Lahore, but the centre of its violence appears to have been the valley of the Oxus. The natives of Budukhshan are Tajiks; they are very fond of society, and such is their hospitality, that, it is said, bread is never sold in the country. Their language is Persian, which they speak with the broad pronunciation of a native of Iran. It is related that Budukhshan was peopled from the Persian city of Balkh, and most of the inhabitants are Shiahs. Neither the Uzbeks, nor any of the Toorkee families, have settled in the country, and the people have yet the manners and customs that obtained north of Hindoo Koosh before the invasion of the Tartars.

~Ruby mines.~

Budukhshan has acquired great celebrity for its ruby mines, which were well known in early times, and also to the emperors of Delhi. They are said to be situated on the verge of the Oxus, near Shughnan, at a place called Gharan; which may simply mean caves. They are dug in low hills; and one man assured me that the galleries passed under the Oxus; but I doubt the information. It is a mistake to believe that they are not worked, as the present chief of Koondooz has employed people in digging them since he conquered the country. These persons had been hereditarily engaged in that occupation; but, as the returns were small, the tyrant of Koondooz demanded their labour without pay; and on their refusing to work, he marched them to the unhealthy fens of Koondooz, where their race has almost become extinct. In the search of rubies, it is a popular belief that a pair of large ones will be always found together; and the workmen will often conceal a gem till its match can be found, or break a large ruby into two pieces. The rubies are said to be embedded in limestone; and to be found like round pieces of pebble or flint, which exist in such deposits.

~Lapis lazuli.~

In the vicinity of the ruby mines, great masses of lapis lazuli are found on the verge of the Oxus. The mode of detaching it from the cliffs appeared to be ingenious, though I think I have heard of similar means being used to quarry stone in other quarters. A fire is lit over the block of lapis lazuli, and when the stone becomes sufficiently heated, cold water is dashed upon it, and the rock is thus fractured. The lapis lazuli of the Oxus was sent in former years to China; but the demand has lately decreased. I have seen many specimens of this stone, with veins, which were said to be gold; but I imagine they were mica. Lapis lazuli and rubies are only collected in winter.

~Mountain districts north of Budukhshan.~

North of Koondooz, and Budukhshan, and beyond the Oxus, we have the small hill states of Hissar, Koolab, Durwaz, Shoognan, and Wukhan: the whole of them are mountainous. Hissar is finely watered, and a rice country, independent of Bokhara and Koondooz. It is held by four Uzbek chiefs, who divided it among themselves on their father’s death; its capital stands on a hillock forty miles east of Dihnou. A range of hills called Kohitun, which are about 4000 feet high, traverses the district from north to south. There is an extensive deposit of red rock salt in it, which is exported to other countries. The saddle used by the natives of Hissar differs from others in Toorkistan. The tree, or seat, is scooped out like a bowl, and is then covered with leather: it has a knob in front. The ferry of Tirmez on the Oxus, bounds Hissar on the west; and to the east it has Koolab, which is a small district,--sometimes called Bulgeewan. It has lately been seized by the chief of Koondooz, who forded the Oxus and conquered it. Durwaz is the next territory, and is ruled by a Tajik chief, who is independent. In his territories, the Oxus is most successfully washed for gold. The two next districts of Shughnan and Wukhan are tributary to Koondooz; but there are not more than three or four villages in each of them. Wukhan is the territory mentioned by Marco Polo; and the few specimens which I could collect of its language were as follows:--

Father Fait
Mother Nan
Son Kash
Daughter Poorchad
Fire Rekhnu
Water Yoobk.

The chief of Wukhan is named Meer Mahommed Ruheem Khan, and will allow none of his progeny to leave the hills. The people of Shughnan differ also in their dialect. I give a specimen of three words:--

Bread Gurdu
Son Ghudyk
Daughter Ghuds.

The whole of the population is Mahommedan; and I did not hear of any trace of pristine superstition. They designate the Deity by the Persian word Khooda. I heard of a singular practice among the people of these districts, who shoe their horses with the antlers of the mountain deer. They form the horn into a suitable shape, and fix it on the hoof with horn pins, never renewing it till fairly worn out. It is said that the custom is borrowed from the Kirgizzes.

~Plain of Pamere.~

The high plain of Pamere lies between Budukhshan and Yarkund; and is inhabited by an erratic race, the Kirgizzes. The centre of this table-land is the lake of Surikool, from which the Jaxartes, the Oxus, and a branch of the Indus are said to rise. This elevated plain extends on every side of the lake for a journey of six days; and all the mountains are described as seen under the feet from this great elevation. It is a flat tract, intersected by shallow ravines, and covered with short but rich pasture: it is very cold; and the snow in summer does not disappear from the hollows. The inhabitants robe their whole bodies, even their hands and faces, in sheepskins, from the severity of the cold. There is no grain in the country; for the Kirgizzes subsist on flesh and milk: they do not even know the use of flour; and, if it is given them, they mix it up with their soup, but never bake it into bread. They live on round khirgahs, like the Toorkmun tribes, and wander from one place to another.

~Singular animal that inhabits Pamere.~

I heard of an animal called “Rass” by the Kirgizzes, and “Kooshgar” by the natives of the low countries; which is described as peculiar to Pamere. It is larger than a cow, and less than a horse; of a white colour, with pendent hair under its chin, and crowned with horns of huge dimensions. These are described to be so large, that no one man can lift a pair of them; and, when left on the ground, the small foxes of the country bring forth their young inside them. The flesh of the “Rass” is much prized by the Kirgizzes, who hunt and shoot it with arrows. This animal is said to delight in the coldest climate; and would appear, from its beard, to be of the goat species, or, perhaps, the bison. A common-sized “Rass” will require two horses to bear its flesh from the field.

~Countries of Chitral, Gilgit, and Iskardo.~

The tract that lies beyond the Beloot mountains and Budukhshan, and between it and Cashmere, is filled up by the cantons of Chitral, Gilgit, and Iskardo, all of which are held by Shiah Mahommedans. There is another district to the north-east of Chitral, which is called “Gunjoot,” from the gold which is found in it. The countries of which I now speak have been designated by the general name of Kaushgar, by Mr. Elphinstone; and are separated from Budukhshan by the range of Beloot. Kaushgar itself is a small district near Deer, north of Peshawur; and I never heard a native of Budukhshan or Yarkund speak of the country under that general name. They had not even heard of any Kaushgar but that in the vicinity of Yarkund. Chitral is situated on a branch of the Cabool river, and is subject to the chief of Koondooz, who has at times entered the country; and new demands a yearly tribute of slaves, who are sent to Bokhara for sale. The chief has the title of Shah Kuttore, and boasts of his Macedonian lineage. The dialect of Chitral differs again from that of the neighbouring states; and I fortunately met a native who was acquainted with it: he gave me these specimens:--

Mother Nunan
Son Dirk
Daughter Jaor
Man Mach
Woman Kumoor
Water Oogh
Fire Ungar
Above Acha
Below Aye
Mountain Koh
Fort Noghar
I go Booghdo
Where do you go? Koora roobas.

The next district is Gilgit, or Gilgitty, where the dialect also differs from Chitral: it is a strong country, and independent of Koondooz. The remaining division lies further eastward, bordering on Baltee or Little Tibet, and bears the name of Iskardo. The principal place of the same name is a large fort of irregular construction, which is built on the banks of the Indus, and is said to be but eight marches north-east of the City of Cashmere. The country is independent.

~The Kaffirs.~

~Their descent from Alexander doubted.~

On the south-eastern corner of Budukhshan, and on the mountains between it and Peshawur, we find that extraordinary people, the Siahposh Kaffirs, or Black-vested Infidels, as called by their Mahommedan neighbours, from their wearing black goat-skin dresses. This race is entirely confined to the mountains, and persecuted by all the surrounding nations, who seek to capture them as slaves. The chief of Koondooz made an inroad into their country some years since, and lost half of his army in the campaign. I can offer no further addition to the notice of their religion and country, than is to be found in Mr. Elphinstone’s work, though I met the worthy and faithful man Moollah Nujeeb, who was sent into Kaffiristan for the purposes of enquiry. I had much conversation with people who had been brought into contact with them, and in Cabool was fortunate enough to see a Kaffir boy about ten years old, who had left his country for a period of two years; his complexion, hair, and features, differed from those of Asiatics: his eyes were of a bluish colour. The boy replied to many questions that were put to him about his country, and gave specimens of his language, which assimilated with the Indian dialects. The Kaffirs appear to be a most barbarous people, eaters of bears and monkies, and fighting with arrows, and scalping their enemies. The greatest intercourse which takes place between them and the Mahommedans is carried on from the country of Lughman, between Cabool and Peshawur, where a tribe of people reside who are called “Neemchu Moossulman,” or half Mahommedans. The Kaffir country is strong and mountainous. The people are much addicted to wine. Gold is found in its native state among their mountains, and formed by them into vessels and ornaments. These circumstances, with their appearance and complexion, have given rise to an opinion, that they are the descendants of the Greeks. Both Baber and Abool Fuzzil have made mention of this supposition; but they have confounded the claims of the chiefs on the Oxus to a Macedonian descent with the Kaffirs, who have no such tradition of their origin. The great elevation of the country which they inhabit, would appear to account satisfactorily for all their physical peculiarities; and I believe it will be found that this people are none other than the aborigines of the plains, who fled to their present abode on the conversion of the low countries to the religion of Mahommed: the Afghans, at least, tell you so, and the name of Kaffir, or Infidel, seems a strong corroboration of the opinion. The Kaffirs are a race of savages, and there is nothing either in their customs or religion which seems to be anywise remarkable among a people at their state of civilisation. The hill tribes in India have a religion which differs as much from Hindooism as that of the Kaffirs; and the reason is obvious: they inhabit remote regions, that were not accessible to the manners and alterations which found their way into the more favoured plains. The Kaffir women do all the out-door work, and follow the plough: it is even said that they are sometimes yoked in it along with an ox.

CHAP IV.

ON THE REPUTED DESCENDANTS OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT IN THE VALLEY OF THE OXUS AND INDUS.

~Traditions of the descendants of Alexander the Great.~

In speaking of the existence of Grecian colonies in the remote regions of Asia, and said to be descended from Alexander of Macedon, it is necessary to premise that I am not indulging in speculation, but asserting a lineage of various tribes of people, that is claimed by themselves, and meriting, therefore, our attention. Marco Polo is the first author who mentions the existence of such a tradition, and informs us that the Meer of Budukhshan laid claim to a Grecian origin. The emperor Baber corroborates the testimony; and Abool Fuzzul, the historian of his grandson, Acbar, points to the Kaffir country north of Peshawur as the seat of these Macedonians. Mr. Elphinstone has, I think, successfully refuted the supposition of this historian; for the Kaffirs are a savage and mountainous tribe, without a tradition on the subject, as has been noticed in the preceding chapter. Mr. Elphinstone, however, confirms the statements of Marco Polo, by the information that the chief of Durwaz, in the valley of the Oxus, claimed a descent from Alexander, which was admitted by all his neighbours. Such was the extent of information with which I entered these countries, sufficient, it will be said, to excite the utmost curiosity; and it will be seen that I found ample encouragement in the investigation of such traditions while in the valley of the Oxus, and in the very seats of their existence.

~Their actual condition.~

If it was believed that the chiefs of Budukhshan and Durwaz alone laid claim to these hereditary honours, what was my surprise to find that there were _six other_ personages established, to the satisfaction of the people, in like honours. The chiefs that extend eastward of Durwaz, and occupy the provinces of Koolab, Shughnan, and Wakhan, north of the Oxus, claim the same descent. The chief of Budukhshan received in modern times the same honours as have been ascribed to him by the Venetian traveller. He has the title of Shah and Malik, or King, and his children that of Shahzadu; but this ancient house has been subverted within these twelve years by the Meer of Koondooz, and Budukhshan is now held by a Toork family. To the eastward of Budukhshan, and extending to Cashmere, lie the hill states of Chitral, Gilgit, and Iskardo, where the claims to a Grecian descent are likewise conceded to each of the princes. The first of these has the title of Shah Kuttore. The present ruler is of small stature, and, in these countries, has as great a celebrity for his long beard as the Shah of Persia. The chief of Iskardo occupies a singular fortress on the Indus, which he has the hardihood to assert was constructed in the days of Alexander himself. The country borders on Little Tibet, or Baltee. Nor is this the ultimate limit of the tradition, for the soldiers of the Toonganee tribe, who are sent from the western provinces of Chinese Tartary, and garrison Yarkund and the neighbouring cities, claim also a Grecian origin. They, however, seek, with greater modesty, a descent from the soldiers of Alexander’s army, and not from the conqueror himself.

~Examination of these claims.~

Such is a correct list of the reputed descendants of Alexander, and it is in some degree confirmatory of their claim, that the whole of these princes are Tajiks, who were the inhabitants of this country before it was overrun by Toorkee or Tartar tribes. But how shall we reconcile these accounts with the histories that have travelled down to our times, whence we learn that the son of Philip did not even leave an heir to inherit his gigantic conquests, much less a numerous list of colonies, which have survived a lapse of more than 2000 years in a distant quarter of Asia? Whether their descent is viewed as true or fabulous, the people themselves acknowledge the hereditary dignity of the princes; and they, in their turn, claim every royal honour, and refuse to give their children in marriage to other tribes. These Tajiks being now converted to Islam, view Alexander as a prophet; and to the distinction which they derive from his warlike achievements, they add the honour of being related to one of the inspired messengers of the Deity. I have had opportunities of conversing with some members of the Budukhshan family, but there was nothing in form or feature which favoured their Grecian lineage. They are fair-complexioned, and not unlike the Persian of modern times; while there is the most decided contrast between them and the Toorks and Uzbeks.

~Conjectures regarding them.~

We learn from the historians of Alexander’s expedition, that he warred in the kingdom of Bactriana. The city of Balkh, which lies in the vicinity of these territories, is readily fixed upon as the Bactra of the Greek monarchs. Setting aside every local identity, the modern inhabitants state, that the country between Balkh and Cabool had the name of “Bakhtur Zumeen,” or the Bakhtur country, in which we recognise Bactria. The fact renders it by no means improbable, that a Grecian colony had some time or other existed in the country. It may, therefore, be supposed, that the Grecian dynasty, which succeeded Alexander in his empire, ascended the valley of the Oxus, the fertility of which would attract them. They would have been conducted at Iskardo into Baltee, or Little Tibet, and the neighbourhood of Cashmere; and we may perhaps account for the early civilisation of that beautiful valley in such a migration of Grecian colonists. The introduction of the religion of Mahommed into every country seems to have been fatal to its historical annals; and I doubt not that any traces which here existed of the Macedonian inroad, or of the Seleucidæ, their successors, were effaced in that great revolution. I have already observed, that the countries on the upper course of the Oxus seem to have lain out of the channel of Tartar invasion, and I infer, from their language and connection with Persia, that they followed the destinies of that country, which would be favourable to their having been conquered by Alexander. If we cannot bring ourselves to concede to these moderns the illustrious lineage of Alexander of Macedon, we must yet receive their tradition as the most concurring proof of his having overrun these countries; and, till some well-grounded arguments can be brought forward to the contrary, I cannot, for my own part, deny their title to the honours which they claim. I received the information from several natives of the country; and, as they entertained no doubt of its being genuine and authentic, I have contented myself with recording that which will enable others to enlarge and speculate upon it.

CHAP. V.

ON THE SOURCES OF THE INDUS.

~Interest attached to the sources of the Indus.~

The sources of the different great rivers of the world have at all times excited the particular attention of mankind. Of none has our information been more conflicting and obscure than the upper course of the Indus. I record the following particulars relating to this most interesting geographical subject, the result of my intercourse with the people of the neighbouring countries. My enquiries have been materially assisted by the labours of Lieutenant Macartney, though a wide difference will be found between the heads of the Indus, as now described, and their delineation in that officer’s map. Great, however, is the aid which one derives from the records of a preceding enquirer. The papers of Mr. Moorcroft ought to furnish us with some information on this point; but they are still unpublished, and his journey, though it extended nearer to the scene than that of any other modern traveller, was yet distant from the source of the Indus.

~Received opinions.~

~Errors.~

The following are our present and received opinions regarding the source of the Indus. The river of Ladak, joined by the Shyook, falls into the Indus at Draus, and these united streams form the great river which runs north of Cashmere, and is joined by the Aboo Seen before passing Attok. The town of Leh, or Ladak, is placed above the parallel of 37° N. latitude, and Draus lies nearly half way between it and the city of Cashmere. This account differs materially from the information which I have received. The river of Ladak, and the Shyook, instead of existing as two minor tributaries of the Indus, form of themselves that great river; the one rising near the lake of Mansurour, and the other in the mountains of Karakorum. They unite N.W. of Ladak, and pass through the country of Little Tibet, or Baltee, and a snowy range separates them from Cashmere. Ladak lies nearly eastward of Cashmere, which places it three degrees of latitude below the parallel given to it by Mr. Macartney; and Draus is on the road to Ladak.[24] No such junction as is given in the map takes place at Draus, and the rivulet that passes that village, instead of forming a portion of the waters of the Indus, runs among the mountains of Cashmere, and joins the Jelum, or Hydaspes, at Moozufferabad, as it leaves the valley. This fact is mentioned in a note in Mr. Elphinstone’s book, on the authority of a journal of Meer Izzut Oollah, which he received after his own account was written. It may have been owing to this last circumstance that he overlooked the inconsistency of Izzut Oollah’s statement with the existence of Mr. Macartney’s eastern branch of the Indus. Mr. Elphinstone, indeed, observes, that Izzut Oollah did not see the junction of that branch with the river of Ladak; but he accounts for it by supposing the confluence to lie to the south of the place called Draus in Izzut Oollah’s route. If that route be protracted, however, it will show that the river of Ladak could not well have passed to the south of Draus without falling into the course of the Kishun Gunga; and that, even if the junction had taken place to the south of Draus, both rivers must still have been crossed (either united or separately) by Izzut Oollah before he reached Draus.

It is evident, therefore, that the rivers do not meet at or to the south of Draus; and, as Izzut Oollah went from Draus to the river of Ladak, and accompanied that river to the town from which it takes its name, without seeing the junction of any other river from the east, his account may be regarded as a confirmation of the fact which I have stated, that no such eastern branch exists. It is worthy of observation, that Mr. Macartney’s account of the eastern branch of the Indus appears to have been only communicated by one person.

~Description of the two great branches which form the Indus.~

That the river of Ladak has its source near the lake of Mansurour has been satisfactorily established by Moorcroft. The course of this branch of the Indus is, therefore, of great length; but the volume of water has been described to me as very small, though it receives several tributaries. The Shyook, on the other hand, is said to be a vast river, formed of many small ones, and discharges the water and melted snows of the Kara Korum mountains. Three days’ journey from Ladak, on the route to Yarkund, it is crossed at a breadth of 1000 yards in March; but widely spread and fordable. This is considered by the natives as the great trunk of the Indus, and its source, to the N.E. of Ladak, is, consequently, that of the Indus. The united streams of the river of Ladak and Shyook pass south of the territories of Iskardo, Gilgit, and Chitral. They are then joined by the Aboo Seen, as described by Mr. Elphinstone, and at Attok, by the river of Cabool, here called the Lundee, which falls into the Indus, close upon the fortress, and not some miles higher up.

~Western branch of the Indus.~

The sources of this river, commonly called the River of Cabool, are nearly as remote as those to the eastward, which we have now described. The River of Cabool actually rises near Ghuzni; but, in its course eastward of Jullalabad, is joined by a great river that has been called the Kameh, though it is unknown to the natives by such a name. This river is traced to the same source as the Oxus; where it is said to spring from a glacier.[25] That it rises in the same neighbourhood as the Oxus, I have been also informed; but that river (as I have stated when speaking of it) flows from the plain of Pamere, near Lake Sirikol, and not from the ranges of mountains which support that elevated region. This great western branch of the Indus, therefore, rises under a much higher parallel of latitude than the Shyook.

~Cashgar; erroneous opinions regarding it.~

The country, which is enclosed by these different branches of the Indus, has been called Kashkaur, or Cashghar, in our late maps; which Mr. Elphinstone warns the reader not to confuse with Cashgar, near Yarkund. At Peshawur, I certainly heard of a small mountainous district, near Deer and Gunjoom, called Cashgar, and which is well known for its coarse blankets; but the name has been applied to a far greater extent of country than is even known to the natives of Peshawur. North of Hindoo Koosh, in Koondooz, and the borders of Budukhshan, I could find no person who was acquainted with any country under the name of Cashgaur, but that of Yarkund. They spoke of Chitral and Gilgit, which form part of it, according to the modern nomenclature of our maps, but knew nothing of the southern Cashgar as a separate territory; doubtless from the smallness of the district and its remote position[26]. Since the whole of the information contained in this chapter rests on the authority of others, the credence to which it is entitled must be well weighed. I have the information from people who had seen these rivers and countries, and I have given the facts, after due corroboration and enquiry.

CHAP. VI.

NOTICE ON YARKUND, AND ITS INTERCOURSE WITH PEKIN, BOKHARA, AND TIBET.

~Chinese provinces of Yarkund.~

Yarkund is one of the frontier positions of the Chinese empire towards the west, and a five months’ journey of a caravan from the seat of government, Pekin. The productions of China are transmitted to this province, and sold to the natives of Bokhara and Tibet, who are permitted to frequent certain fixed markets; of which the greatest is Yarkund. No Chinese crosses the frontiers; and the trade into Bokhara is carried on by Mahommedans, who visit Yarkund for that purpose. The same vigilance to prevent the ingress of foreigners is here exhibited as upon the sea-coast. In my communications with the Uzbeks of Bokhara, I heard much of the Chinese peculiarities, and I had an opportunity of travelling with a tea caravan from Yarkund; which leads me to believe that a notice of this country, imperfect as it must be, will not be uninteresting.

~Sketch of its history.~

Yarkund, with the adjacent province of Cashgar, formed the principality of a Mahommedan ruler, known by the name of the Khoju of Cashgar, a family of religious influence, who once exercised great authority. The people of these parts superstitiously believed its members to be invulnerable in battle, and able to use extraordinary means for the discomfiture of their enemies, and yet think it impossible for any one to prosper who injures a Khoju. Dissensions, however, arose in this family about eighty years since, and they called on the Chinese government, or the “Khitais,” (so they are here named,) as a mediator, which, as not unfrequently happens, acted the part of conqueror. Since that time, the Chinese have retained the whole of their lands; not, however, without many endeavours, both by war and conspiracy, on the part of the dethroned family, at restoration. The last of these attempts occurred about five years since, aided by the Uzbeks of Kokan; but the Chinese assembled an army from their most distant provinces, and, advancing into that country, captured the rebellious Khoju, and sent him in a cage, or covered cart, to Pekin. The Khan of Kokan, though he was defeated, has since arrogated to himself the title of “Ghazee,” from having warred with infidels. On the first overthrow of this family, some of the Khojus fled to Budukhshan, and the chief of that province put them to death: for which _good office_ the Chinese sent him a yearly present, till within these five or six years, when his country was seized by the Meer of Koondooz. The bigotted Mahommedans attribute the misfortunes of the Budukhshan family to the injuries offered to the Khoju of Cashgar. While such opinions prevail, the members of it must continue to be disagreeable neighbours to the Chinese.

~Mode of government under the Chinese.~

The period which has elapsed since the capture of Yarkund has no way diminished the precautions of the Chinese government. Yarkund is still considered but an outpost, and the communication between it and Pekin maintained in a most characteristic manner. The government of all the cities is left in the hands of Mahommedans, and there are not above 5000 Chinese in Yarkund. The garrisons are recruited from boys of fourteen and fifteen, who are sent back after about as long a period of service. These soldiers are drawn from the tribe of Toonganee, who claim relationship to the army of Alexander: they are Mahommedans, from the adjacent provinces, but dress as Chinese. They are never permitted to marry, or bring their families within fifteen marches of the country, and are regarded as troops on foreign employ. The natives of the country rule, under the superintendence of the Chinese officers. The governor of Yarkund, who has the title of Hakim Beg, is subject to Cashgar; and he, again, is under the Junjoom of Eela, a large city, forty marches north of Yarkund. The principal places in these frontiers are, Eela, Yarkund, Cashgar, Aksoo, Karasoo, Yengi hissar, &c. Eela is said to have a population of 75,000 souls. Yarkund ranks next in importance, and has 50,000; while Cashgar is smaller than both. Yarkund stands on a river, in a fertile plain, which is rich in fruit and grain. It is surrounded on all sides but the east by hills, where the river flows. The climate is dry and agreeable; snow seldom falls, and even rain is scarce.

~Communication with Pekin.~

The mode of communication with Pekin, or, as it is called, Bajeen, and their eastern provinces, is carried on with an arrangement and expedition purely Chinese. The usual journey exceeds the period of five months; but an express may be sent in thirty-five days. Under great emergency, it is conveyed in twenty, and even fifteen days. “Oortungs,” or stages, where there are relays of horses, are erected every eight or ten miles, and one messenger is not even permitted to exchange a word with another. At each of these stages there are piles of wood, which are directed to be set fire to on the intelligence of arising or invasion of the Mahommedans; and by this means intelligence has been sent from Yarkund to Pekin in six days. I have heard that fire-balloons are used instead of piles of wood; but I believe that in the latter we have the more simple and correct version of the tale. It was on this intimation that the last Chinese army was marched into Kokan; and it is said to have been assembled from all the cities of the empire, and amounted to 70,000 men. The military appearance of this body is said to have been truly singular. A great portion of the soldiers were armed with large matchlocks, each of which was borne by two persons.

~People of Yarkund.~

The Chinese of Yarkund interfere but little with the affairs of the country, and leaving it and its trade to the Mahommedan portion of the population, the authorities levy a duty of one in thirty; and their commercial regulations are just and equitable. The word of a Chinese is not doubted, nor does the tea ever differ in quality from the sample. The Mahommedans of Yarkund amount to about 12,000 families. They are Toorks, and speak a dialect of Toorkee that is perfectly intelligible to the natives of Bokhara. The country people are sometimes called Moghuls by those who live in cities; and from this may have originated our vague name of Mongolia. There are Calmuk Tartars settled around Eela and Yarkund, who have a singular custom to distinguish their chiefs and grandees, by fixing deer’s horns on their skull-caps. The size and beauty of the antlers mark the dignity, and are the red ribbons of a Calmuk Tartar. The laxity of their females, I am assured, entitles them to the honour of wearing such an ornament. The Chinese employ Calmuks in the protection of their frontier. The Mahommedans of Yarkund appear to differ from their brethren elsewhere, for the fair sex have a power and influence not known in other places. They take the seat of honour in a room, associate freely with the men, and do not veil; they wear high-heeled boots, richly ornamented; their head-dress is described as very handsome, being a high tiara of cloth; the features of the fair ones themselves are said to be most beautiful. When a Bokhara merchant visits Yarkund, he marries one of these beauties during his sojourn in the city; and the pair separate, as they joined, quite as a matter of convenience, when he leaves the country. Their wives are as cheap as beautiful, and purchased at a premium of two or three tillas (twelve or eighteen rupees); and the merchants, long after leaving the country, sing the praises of the fair ones of Yarkund. I could not discover what had given rise to their appearing without veils and being invested with such influence; but I congratulate them on two such infringements of Mahommedan usage. Besides the native Chinese, who frequent Yarkund, I am informed that Christian merchants, probably Armenians, also visit it from the eastward: they dress as Chinese.

~Intercourse with Tibet.~

The intercourse from Tibet and Bokhara is carried on by regulations that are truly energetic. The natives of these countries are not permitted to proceed beyond Yarkund and the neighbouring towns, and, as they enter the Chinese dominions, are placed under certain persons, who have a knowledge of the countries from which they come, and made responsible for their behaviour. So thoroughly organised is this system of police, that it is said to be impossible to elude its vigilance. A native who was suspected in these countries, and was afterwards in my service, remained in confinement for three months, and was at length dismissed by the route he had come, but not till a likeness of him had been first taken. Several copies of the picture were despatched to the frontier towns, with these instructions:--“If this man enters the country, his head is the Emperor’s, his property is yours.” I need not add, that he has never since sought to extend his acquaintance in the Chinese provinces of Yarkund.

~Country between Yarkund and Tibet.~

I had a most interesting account of the country lying between Yarkund and Ladak, in Tibet, from a native who had travelled there, and which will convey any but favourable notions of this channel of commerce, frequented, as it appears partially to be. The traveller set out from Ladak in March, and reached Yarkund in sixty days, after encountering a series of disasters and difficulties from a storm that arose in passing the mountains of Kara Korum. The number of actual marches does not exceed twenty-eight, but seven whole days were occupied in crossing Kara Korum; which is described as a low ridge, at the eighth march. Such was the violence of the north wind, and the drifting of the snow, that for some days the party only made a progress of a hundred yards. Though Kara Korum is not a high range of mountains, it must be elevated, since a difficulty of breathing was experienced; also vomiting, giddiness, and loss of appetite. For all these tea was considered a specific. The storm abated, and enabled the travellers to proceed; but eight of their ponies had died, and the whole party must soon have perished, for the animals had ate up the straw of their saddles and cushions before regaining the inhabited country, which commenced at the eighteenth march from Ladak. There they met a few huts, inhabited by the Wakhanees, of whom I have before spoken. They carried every supply for themselves and their horses. At the seventeenth march the travellers encountered a defile among hills which extended for five or six miles, and is called Yengi Dabban. The road led entirely over ice, which was notched into steps before they could proceed. On returning to Ladak in June, the ice had entirely disappeared: even Kara Korum was free from snow. This is singular, as it must be higher than Hindoo Koosh, which is covered by eternal snow. To the south of Kara Korum all the rivers join the Shyook; and it is evident, therefore, that that ridge, low as it actually appears, is the highest part of the range. North of it the water flows into the river of Yarkund, and the road follows these defiles, and, in one short distance, is said to cross a rivulet three hundred and sixty times. The last passage is called “Khilastan,” from being relieved of its further inconvenience. The greater part of this country is destitute of fixed inhabitants, but the wandering Kirghizzes frequent it with their flocks during summer; this road is then passed in twenty days. The number of horses which perish on this line of route is great; and it is not an unusual thing for an owner to pick up his goods next year on the spot where they were left. There are no robbers: the wild horse is the solitary inhabitant of this wilderness.

~Communications of Yarkund with Bokhara.~

~Notice of Kokan.~