Chapter I: On the Punjab, as Ruled by Runjeet Sing (3)

The importance of Bokhara does not arise from the extent of its territories, but the position in which they stand. The fame which it enjoys as a kingdom is to be traced to the days of the Chaghtyes. It then included all Mawur ool Nuhr, or the country _between_ the rivers Oxus and Jaxartes, extended to Kharasm and the Caspian, and far into Khorasan. That age of splendour has long since passed; but the favourable site of the capital still invests it with a great influence among the natives of Transoxiana. Situated between the richest regions of Europe and Asia, and in a tract surrounded by steppes and deserts, Bokhara becomes the resting place of the merchant and the traveller, and the centre of an extensive commerce. Viewed either in a military or political light, its situation is commanding, and in the highest degree valuable. Blessed with an exuberance of the productions of the soil, in a land of barrenness it arrests the attention of remote and neighbouring nations. In former times, it attracted the cupidity of the Greeks and the Arabian Caliphs. It was overrun by the hordes of the North; and from it, as a base, the renowned Timour led his legions victorious to the remote countries of Asia. In modern days, it has received ambassadors from the emperors of China and Russia, the Sultan of Constantinople, and the monarchs of Persia and Cabool. It likewise holds a supremacy among the surrounding Uzbek nations, who look up to it as the capital of their tribe, and render a voluntary, though nominal, homage to the ruler.

~Power and character of the King.~

The King of Bokhara rules, as in other Asiatic nations, a sovereign despot; nevertheless, he is controlled in every action by the authority of the Moollahs, or priests. This arises from no inability on his own part to assert his power, but from the constitution of the monarchy, which is exclusively based on the laws of the Koran, here more strictly enforced perhaps than in any other Mahommedan country. The reigning King of Bokhara, Nussier oollah, or, as he is styled, Buhadoor Khan, is a young man of twenty-seven years of age. He takes the title of Ameer ool Moomuneen, or Commander of the Faithful, and is always addressed by the name of Huzrut; which is only used by the Mahommedans of Toorkistan in speaking of their prophets. The name of King is seldom mentioned in official documents; that of Ameer is preferred, which without the affix of “ool Momuneen,” was the title by which Timour and his successors were designated, down to the days of Baber. It has a religious signification, which particularly unites it to the King of Bokhara. He looks upon himself as one of the heads of the Mahommedan religion. A respect is, nevertheless, paid to the Sultan of Constantinople, as he is here styled the Caliph of Rome; and the King of Bokhara is proud to hold the title of his bow-bearer.

The reigning King succeeded to the throne seven years since. He is naturally just and liberal, and very strict in the observances of religion. He appears, indeed, to be gradually sinking into the bigoted habits of his father; which the nature of his government renders it difficult to avoid. On his accession he divested himself of all his own and his father’s wealth; which has gained him a high reputation among his countrymen. In all his acts he is guided by the law; and the people pretend that his private expenses are defrayed from the capitation tax; which he exacts from Jews and Hindoos, since it would be sinful to so appropriate the money of true believers. He is of an ambitious and warlike disposition, and employs his revenues in the conciliation of his army; to whom he has endeared himself by profuse largesses.

~The Koosh Begee, or Vizier.~

His minister, the Koosh Begee, possesses great influence over him; and, though chiefly indebted to him for his throne, the King entertains no dread of his power. He never leaves the citadel till his Vizier is present to take charge of it. His Majesty will not receive his food at any other hands but those of his minister. This person is of an advanced age; upwards of sixty. He is an Uzbek, of the tribe of Mungut, possessed of talent and acquirements; and unremitting in his attentions to business. He also trades to a great extent, and is fond of money, but strictly just in levying the taxes on commerce. The high office of Vizier may be considered hereditary in his family: his father enjoyed it; his brothers hold two of the governments; and his sons, of whom he has thirteen, are employed in different districts or provinces. He has fixed on one of these as his successor. There is a great mixture of cunning in the minister’s character; but he is a liberal-minded man, and favourably disposed to Europeans, and, in particular, the English. The whole wealth and power of the kingdom is at his command; since he receives the revenues, and is able to sway the priesthood, to whom he is ever respectful and conciliatory.

~Political condition of the Uzbeks.~

Nothing is more remarkable to a traveller in Toorkistan than the entire want of chiefs, or Sirdars, among the people, as in India and Cabool. Here there are no great men, no Khans, or nobles, and no one of consequence, but the court and the priesthood. The whole of the governments are either held by slaves or dependents of the minister; and every town and village is ruled by the Moollahs or Khwajus, the descendants of the first Caliphs. As the base of the government of Bokhara is the Koran, and the whole community are, or desire to be, considered spiritual, it will fully account for the exception in favour of the church. That engine and the state go heart in hand in Toorkistan, and give mutual support to each other. There is no shadow of popular government; but still, there is no evidence of discontent under such a system of rule, though people could not be more thoroughly enslaved than the Uzbeks. We must attribute this universal contentment of the community to the protection which is derived from a strict enforcement of the laws of the Koran. That book, at best, appears but a poor Magna Charta; yet it fixes on a settled basis the principles of jurisprudence; which, no doubt, leads the people to consider the clergy as their best protection against the ambitious power of the government. Their rigid adherence to the written law entitles these doctors to the share of gratitude which they enjoy. No measures of state are ever entered upon without their sanction; and a great portion of the revenues are alienated for the support of the national religion and the colleges which teach it. The surplus revenues of the capital are even divided after this manner; and the whole plan of administration bears a nearer resemblance to a hierarchy than any other government. If a murder be committed; if a robbery occur; if a dispute arise on any subject, it is immediately referred to the priesthood, since the King does not take upon himself to judge of the merits of a case without them. I am assured that this system has existed at Bokhara from the earliest ages of Mahommedanism, and is not coeval with the invasion of the Uzbeks, though it was more firmly established in the reign of the last King, Hyder Shah, who held his creed in bigoted veneration. Whatever may be the opinions entertained of the religion of Mahommed, it is productive of great advantages in the administration of a kingdom, when its laws are rigidly enforced. The police of the city and kingdom of Bokhara is strict and efficient: the largest bales of goods, as I have already stated, are left in open stalls at night without danger, and the roads of the country are free from either robbers or thieves. The uncompromising manner in which offenders are treated, and the summary justice inflicted upon them, instil a salutary terror into the minds of the ill-disposed. The most trivial offences are punished with death: fines, and imprisonment in horrid dungeons, are also employed, but more rarely. The laws of Mahommed are as much enforced as they ever were under his own eye; and the legislation that united the wandering Arabs of the desert has been transferred, without a single improvement or alteration, to a people differing in manners, habits, and languages, and considerably advanced in some points of civilisation.

~Revenues of Bokhara.~

The revenues of the kingdom are levied according to the same standard--the dicta of the Koran. A merchant pays one fortieth as a tax on his goods; a farmer renders one fourth of the harvest of his fields to the King: but the greater part of land in the country has been alienated for the support of the religious men and establishments; and many of these take the higher assessment of three tenths of the crop: nor do the husbandmen complain of this exorbitant impost. In Toorkistan land is valued by the water which it can command; and the individual who distributes that necessary of life into the different aqueducts about the capital holds a high rank in the state. A money-tax is levied on gardens, and orchards, and melon-beds. All the inhabitants of the country, not Mahommedans, pay a capitation tax annually. In time of war, each householder is also taxed. There is a sum of money derived from the customs of Bokhara; but, with this single exception, the whole revenue is raised from the land. The following is an abstract of its amount:--

Tillas.
{ Rametun 4,000
{ Zundunee 6,000
{ Wafkund 3,000
The seven tomuns of { Wurdunzye 3,000
Bokhara { Kyrabad 4,000
{ Wangazye 6,000
{ Kizhdowun 6,000
------ 31,000
{ Sheeraz 6,000
{ Sohood 4,000
The five tomuns of { Afeenkund 6,000
Samarcand { Anhar 5,000
{ Shoudar 12,000
------ 33,000
{ Punjkund 4,000
{ Oometan 2,000
Districts under Samarcand { Pan 2,000
{ Ooroogut 6,000
{ Karratippu 2,000
------ 16,000
{ Katakoorghan 12,000
{ Kutarchee 6,000
Meeankal, or Kuta-Koorghan, { Punjshumbu 5,000
between { Meetan 4,000
Bokhara and Samarcand { Noorator 5,000
{ Engi Koorghan 6,000
{ Chulak 5,000
------ 43,000

Kermina { Kermina 12,000
{ Zoodeen 15,000
------ 27,000

Jizzak Jizzak 8,000
------ 8,000

{ Kurshee 12,000
{ Khozar 6,000
Kurshee { Sheerabuel 5,000
{ Sadabad 4,000
{ Chiraghchee 5,000
------ 32,000

{ Narazsee 5,000
Banks of the Oxus, { Kukee 4,000
called “Lubab” { Charjooee 8,000
{ Ootar 5,000
------ 22,000

Karakool Karakool 15,000
------ 15,000

City of Bokhara Bokhara 50,000
------ 50,000
-------
Grand total of tillas (or rupees 18 lacs) 277,000
-------

From Balkh the crown receives nothing; the revenue is said to have declined with its population, and the scanty returns from it, amounting to 20,000 tillas, are granted to the chief, Eshan Khoju, who protects it. Both Balkh and Jizzak are late acquisitions to the kingdom. As far as an opinion can be formed on such subjects, I am led to believe that the net land revenue of this kingdom amounts to about thirty-six lacs of rupees, or double that which is received into the royal treasury, since about half the land is enjoyed by the church. All the names mentioned in the enumeration of the revenue are market-towns or places, except the five “tomuns” of Samarcand. These are old names. The idea which we have of towns and villages must be received with considerable qualification in Toorkistan. A bazar, or market-place, is sometimes a small village, and the inhabitants, instead of living in it, reside in “robats,” at a distance, visiting it on market-days from a circuit of ten or fifteen miles. The bazars of the country are held on fixed days, with great regularity, as in Europe.

~Military force, &c.~

~Spirit of the Uzbeks.~

The military force of Bokhara is levied from the different districts of the kingdom, and has no discipline. It consists of about 20,000 horse and 4000 infantry, with forty-one pieces of artillery. There are likewise a description of troops, called “eeljaree,” or militia, which are formed of the dependents and servants of the government, and amount to about 50,000 horse, 10,000 of which are from Balkh and the countries south of the Oxus. It might be further increased by levies among the Toorkmuns; but the services of that tribe can only be commanded by the individual who can enforce them. This is no great number, where almost every individual, rich and poor, has a horse of some description. These troops are seldom or ever called upon to serve, and, when embodied, receive no pay. The registered, or “duftur,” troops are paid in grain, and the chiefs have assignments of land. Each soldier receives yearly eight Bokhara maunds of grain, each of which is equal to 256 lbs. English. It consists of wheat, barley, juwaree, and urzun. The infantry receive the same allowances as the cavalry, and, what is singular, they come into field on horseback, and then dismount. They arm with matchlocks, and are called “khusa burdar.” The horsemen have swords; sometimes long knives, and heavy spears, about twenty feet long, with a short blade. These lances are constructed of different pieces of wood (generally of willow), and have an unwieldy appearance; they never break at the joinings. The Uzbeks have few fire-arms, and use them indifferently. An Indian or an Afghan never sets out on a journey but he bristles with arms. The Uzbek, on the other hand, contents himself with a lance, or the knife which he usually wears in his girdle. From what I hear, the Uzbeks are not much to be dreaded as enemies. Their manner of fighting wants spirit and courage; they vociferate loudly, and the fate of the advanced guard decides the conquest. They are a superior description of irregular cavalry, but poor soldiers. The park of cannon lies neglected in the citadel, for the Uzbeks do not properly appreciate the value of artillery, and the King has only to contend with horse. There are no native artillerymen, and the guns lie separated from their carriages, which, as may be imagined, are by no means efficient. The train could, however, be easily put in order by some of the Russian slaves. All the cannon are brass; three-fourths of them appeared to be small field-pieces, four and six pounders. There are four mortars; the rest are large guns. The powder of the country is serviceable.

~Detail of the military force.~

The following detail of the military force of the kingdom will afford an insight into the power of the several districts, and serve also to mark the great Uzbek tribes at present existing in the country. The first list is composed of cavalry; I also add the names of their chiefs, here called “Bee,” which is a Turkish word, better known in Europe as Bey.

---------------+-------------------+-------------------+---------------- Tribes. | No. | Chiefs. | District. ---------------+-------------------+-------------------+---------------- Kongrad | 1,000 | Moorad Bee | Kurshee. Suraee | 1,000 | Ashoor Bee. | Yaboo | 2,000 | Md. Ameer Bee. | Khitai | 500 | Hoosun Bee | Yargi Koorghan. Kipchack | 500 | Mahmood Bee | Chuluk. Surkh Khitai | 800 | Aderagood Bee Kut | Koorghan. Kara Kilpauk | 400 | Thikeem Bee | Sheeraz. Kur Khyooz | 500 | Shade Bee | Jizzak. Dyakhlee | 600 | Alum Bee | Punjenud. Meeng | 2,000 | Kut Bee | Ooloogut. Nymun | 500 | Kalaitoksa Bee | Zeodeen. Julaee | 400 | Roostum Bee | Punjshumbu. Meetna | 400 | Abdoo Jubbar Bee | Meetum. Bahreen | 500 | Kobad Bee | Katurchee. Boorkoot | 500 | Abdoo Jubber Bee | Nooratun. Kulloogh | 600 | Abdoo Russool Bee | Kermina. Huzara | 300 | Abdoo Jubber Bee | Ditto. Kutghun | 300 | Doulut Bee | { Ditto from | | | { Koondooz. Arabuchee | 400 | Good Md. Bee | Karakool. Chunder | 400 | Dolmus Bee | Ditto. Toorkmuns N. }| | | { Banks of the of the Oxus }| 800 | Eser Bee | { Oxus. Kalmucks | 1,000 | Rhodaee Nug | Bokhara. Mixed tribes }| | | of Bokhara, }| 2,000 | The King. | Bokhara. called }| | | “Shagird }| | | Peshu” }| | | Mervees | 1,000 } | Mad. Suduk Bee | Ditto. | 500 } Persians.| Moorad Bee Meer | | } | Akhor | Samarcand. Zorabadee | 500 } | Lootf Ali Beg | { Zorabud, near | | | { Kurshee. +-------------------+ | Grand total | 19,500 | | ---------------+-------------------+-------------------+----------------

The infantry is levied on a much smaller scale, and entirely composed of Tajiks, or the mercantile class. They are drawn from the districts as follows:--

Bokhara 1,000
Samarcand 1,000
Kurshee 200
Jizzak 500
Kermina 200
Kut Koorghan 100
Punjshumbu 100
Khojar 100
Sherabul 100
Karabul 100
Narazun 100
Oostee 100
Charjooee 300
-----
Grand total 3,900
-----

That portion of the troops south of the Oxus is only nominally dependent on Bokhara; there the Uzbeks are not numerous; a great proportion of the population, however, are Arabs, who have the same reputation for soldiers as in other countries. They are not at the disposal of the government. Except the territories of Balkh, from which a force of 2000 or 3000 men might be assembled, these people cannot be viewed as available troops, for they are at enmity with one another, and the King takes no pains to reconcile them.

~Foreign policy of Bokhara.~

Bokhara possesses a much higher influence, both physical and moral, than any of the states around it; but its affairs were left in a most embarrassed state by the late King, who bestowed more attention on religion than politics. The Khan of Orgunje or Khiva waged a continual war with him. The Khan of Kokan was also his declared enemy. The chiefs of Shuhr Subz and Hissar acknowledged no allegiance, and the Meer of Koondooz plundered and even seized Balkh. The affairs of the kingdom are at present more prosperous, and the designs and power of the reigning King bid fair to keep pace with one another. He has this year chastised the chief of Shuhr Subz, and seized upon six of his villages. That town, which is famed as the birth-place of Timour, is considered the strongest in Toorkistan, from the marshy nature of the country which surrounds it. The power of Kokan has been also broken, and one of its frontier districts, that of Jizzak, which formed one half of Uratippa, has been annexed to Bokhara within these four years. Hissar might be also overcome, though it is mountainous, since the chief is dead, and his country has been divided among four brothers. The most powerful enemy of the kingdom is the chief of Koondooz; and if the city of Balkh has been wrested from him, he has conceded it to policy, and not to fear. He retains the name of that ancient city on his coin, and there is little amity between the states. The King of Bokhara entertains designs on Koondooz; but the country is distant, and it is very doubtful if he could make an impression upon it, though his formidable title of Commander of the Faithful would secure to Bokhara the aid of the Moollahs and a large army. The enmity of the Khan of Khiva terminated with the death of Mahommed Ruheem Khan, the late chief, who sent an ambassador on his death-bed to ask forgiveness. The sons of the two parents, who were ever at war with one another, are now united. The injuries which Khiva inflicted on the kingdom, determines its influence over the destinies of Bokhara. With an inferior power, the chief of that state plundered its caravans, robbed its subjects, obstructed its commerce, and laid waste its territories. The intervening deserts protected him from reprisal, though a vigorous monarch might successfully invade his territories from the Oxus. If the Khan of Khiva continues friendly, the King will be able to extend his power to the eastward, where he has long meditated an expedition.

~With China, Cabool, and Turkey.~

The connexion of Bokhara with China, Cabool, and Turkey, is friendly; and all of them have sent ambassadors. Last year an envoy from China was deputed to solicit the assistance of the King, in maintaining the peace of the western frontier of China, from the inroads of the Khan of Kokan. His majesty wisely declined all interference, but the chastisement which the Chinese inflicted on the inhabitants of that state some years ago, may relieve the emperor at Pekin from any alarm regarding his frontiers. The commercial relations between Bokhara and China are on a footing favourable to both states; but the Uzbeks are not permitted, more than other nations, to pass beyond Yarkund, Cashgar, and their tributary towns. While the monarchy existed in Cabool, the intercourse between that kingdom and Toorkistan was friendly and frequent, for the Afghans possessed the province of Balkh. The number of Afghans in Bokhara is considerable, and the whole Indian trade is carried on by their intervention. There is, however, no intercourse between the King of Bokhara and the chiefs who have risen on the ruins of the Cabool monarchy: the Uzbeks despise the friendship of Persia, from the hatred which they have for the heretical doctrines entertained by that people. Their only intercourse is commercial, and but few of them engage in trade, which is left to the Persians or Mervees, who are of the Shiah creed. The liberality of the present minister of Bokhara has contributed to soften the asperity of feeling between the Persians and Uzbeks, but it is difficult to say on which side the greatest animosity subsists. The Persians have far the greatest cause, since they are constantly seized and sold into slavery. The fame of the Ottoman empire has extended to Bokhara, but the people have very imperfect notions of the weakness of the Porte. They believe the sultan to be the most potent monarch of the globe, and I have been frequently interrogated as to the extent of tribute which the different European nations rendered to him. We can comprehend the reasons for this assiduous attention of Bokhara, even on religious grounds; but the countries are far apart, and their intercourse is limited to empty expressions of devotion and attachment to one another.

~Connexion with Russia.~

From the time of Peter the Great, there has subsisted a continued communication between Bokhara and Russia, and it has been based on the reciprocal advantages of commerce. The land route between the countries was first opened in the reign of that monarch, and, during the last seventy years, the transit has been uninterrupted. In the reign of Alexander, and about the year 1820, the Russians endeavoured to cultivate a closer connexion, and despatched an embassy to Bokhara. They had failed in the preceding year to open the road between the Caspian and Khiva. It is but fair to believe, that some of the views of this mission were commercial, but they were likewise connected with political ends. The embassy was well received at the capital. A mission was sent in return to St. Petersburgh, and several others have since followed it. From that period, the subjects of Russia have ceased to be sold into slavery in Bokhara; it is supposed that these missions have had reference to the affairs of Khiva, but Russia will require no foreign aid to coerce that chiefship. The Russians have also established a friendly feeling with the chief of Kokan: they have impressed the whole of the Uzbeks with high notions of their power, to the detriment of all other European nations; but they have yet to eradicate, by their future conduct, other opinions, which have been as universally adopted, that they want truth and honour in their diplomacy. Setting aside the physical obstacles which present themselves to the Russians making a conquest of Bokhara, the people are generally inimical to them. It is even probable that Bokhara, with all her pretended amity, would succour Khiva, if attacked by the Czar. Should these countries ever be subdued from that quarter, it would be found most difficult to retain them, or control the wandering tribes around. Regular troops would be useless, and irregulars could not subdue a race who had no fixed places of abode. It is not, however, to be concealed, that the court of St. Petersburgh have long cherished designs in this quarter of Asia.

CHAP. X.

ON THE STATE OF KHIVA, OR ORGUNJE.

~Limits of the principality.~

The delta of the Oxus, or Amoo, before falling into the Aral, forms the state of Khiva, which is more generally called Orgunje by the inhabitants. It is the ancient Kharasm, and occurs in Arrian, under the name of the country of the Chorasmi. It lies about 200 miles W.N.W. of Bokhara. It is a small, but fertile principality. The inhabited part is about 200 miles from north to south, and half that distance from east to west. It is surrounded on all sides by deserts; and, claims a superiority over these that extends its power to the Caspian, and brings it into contact with Persia. It has, of late years, established a supremacy over the Toorkmun hordes, south of the Oxus, and holds Merve, which lies on the high road between Khorasan and Bokhara. There are but two places of note in the country, Orgunje and Khiva; the former is the commercial capital, and the latter the residence of the Khan. Orgunje is situated about six miles from the Oxus, and is the larger place, having a population of about 12,000 souls; Khiva is a modern town, about half that size. Circumstances, which have been detailed in my narrative, prevented our visiting the capital of Khiva, though we travelled for some time in the countries subject to it, and met a portion of its army in the deserts westward of Merve. I shall only, therefore, give a brief outline of the power and politics of Khiva, as far as they came under my own observation, or have been detailed to me by the people. The work of General Mouravief, who was despatched to Khiva in 1820, contains full information regarding the statistics of that country.

~Khan of Khiva. Sketch of his rise.~

The Khan of Khiva is an Uzbek, and rules with all the sway that the lords of that tribe arrogate to themselves. There are no chiefs or nobles to interfere with him. Though the principality is small, it is entirely independent; and, during the rule of the late chief, waged a continued war against the kingdom of Bokhara. The name of that personage was Mahommed Ruheem Khan, a man of daring spirit and great enterprise, who acquired the chiefship by the murder of two brothers, and retained it for a period of twenty-two years by acts of severe justice, and perhaps cruelty. He is often upbraided by his neighbours for his tyranny; but the principality of Khiva acquired an ascendancy under him which it had never before held, and it is not surprising that he was more feared than loved. He fell a victim to a malignant disease about eight years since, and charged his family, on his death-bed, to heal the difference with Bokhara. Before his demise, he despatched an ambassador to the King, and solicited forgiveness for the quarrels which he had so perseveringly promoted, and the injuries he had inflicted on the commerce of that kingdom; since then the states have lived in amity with one another. Ruheem Khan left a family of six sons, the eldest of whom, Ullah Kholi, succeeded him, and is the present Khan of Khiva. He is about forty years of age, and a much milder man than his father. He lives in great concord with the other members of his family, and still preserves all the power which his parent had acquired.

~Power and military strength of Khiva.~

The injuries which the Khivans have inflicted on the neighbouring countries have given them a greater importance than they deserve, for at best they are but an organised banditti, protected by the natural strength of their country. The situation of Khiva, between Russia and Bokhara, makes it the entrepôt of commerce between these kingdoms, which extends its influence. Orgunje itself has no internal trade, and is thinly peopled. It is doubtful if the population amounts to 200,000 souls. Till the time of Ruheem Khan, it was considered a dependency of Bokhara; but there is no proof of its allegiance being other than nominal. The Khan can raise a force of 10,000 men, and has a park of nine pieces of ordnance. His troops are either Uzbeks or Toorkmuns, who are armed in the same manner as the levies in Bokhara: some of the latter carry bows and arrows. The great object of the Khan of Khiva is to subdue the Toorkmun tribes between his territories and Persia, as well to increase his revenue as his power. The position of Khiva has enabled him to exert a greater influence over these wanderers than either Persia or Bokhara; who are thus set at defiance by a body of robbers, holding an oäsis in the desert. In the summer of 1832, the Khan of Orgunje marched his whole military force from Khiva to Merve, and levied contributions on the Tuka, the greatest of the Toorkmun tribes. He fixed a custom-house both there and at Shurukhs, a town held by the Toorkmun tribe of Salore, which is within three marches of Meshid, in Persia; and he now levies duties on the caravans which pass both these places. This advance of the Orgunje army is creditable to the military genius of the Khan. The journey from Khiva to Merve amounts to fifteen marches, and is almost destitute of water, which he procured by digging wells at every stage as he advanced. He commanded in person, and gave out that he had taken the field to resist the Persians, under Abbas Mirza, who threatened him from Meshid. He was accompanied by a vast herd of camels, bearing water and provisions for his troops. About 2000 of these perished from thirst in the steppe. His father surpassed him in this achievement, since he entirely crossed this desert to Persia; he, however, lost the greater portion of his horses in the undertaking, and was compelled to leave his guns in the sand, where one of them still remains.

~Predatory habits of the Khivans. Revenues.~

The chiefs of Khiva have not generally aimed at such combined attacks as here represented, but confined themselves to a marauding life; they continually send detachments to plunder in Persia, and seize the inhabitants. The Khan receives a fifth of all the booty so captured. The power of Khiva over the Toorkmuns gives them great facility in these forays, which are conducted with great success. They also seize upon the subjects of Russia on the Caspian Sea; and both Persians and Russians are sold in this country as slaves. They supply the kingdom of Bokhara, and the whole of Toorkistan, with these Persian captives; and I have it on undoubted information, that there are about 2000 Russian slaves in Khiva. It is impossible to give any estimate of the number of Persians, but both nations are on the increase. The Russians are now not sold out of Khiva, as the King of Bokhara entered into an agreement with the emperor to discourage their purchase in his territories. While the Khivans are thus robbing in every direction, they yet grant a protection to the caravans that pass their territories, on the payment of fixed duties.

Hindoos and Armenians pass through Khiva, but neither they nor foreign merchants, though Mahommedans, feel at ease while in the country. The bales are opened, the caravans are delayed, and much property has been at times extorted; where the chief sets the example of plunder, the people will not be very honest. The Khan demands duties at the port of Mangusluck, on the Caspian, which lies opposite Astracan, and he sometimes enforces them from the caravans which pass the Sir, or Sihon, eastward of the Aral.

The connexion between the Khan and the Russians, regarding the improvement of trade, is mentioned in the chapter that treats on commerce. It is impossible to form any but a vague estimate of the revenue of Khiva: little of it is derived from lawful sources, and the Khan supports his army and himself chiefly at the expense of his neighbours.

~Affairs of Khiva and Russia.~

The affairs of Khiva have excited considerable attention in the Russian cabinet, which has attempted, without success, to form a connexion with it, as well for the advancement of commercial ends, as the suppression of the odious practice of enslaving her subjects. There is great hostility to Russia in the minds of the Khivans, and it would be most dangerous to appear in the character of a Russian in their country; but the Khan is only able to exhibit this hostile feeling from the strength of his position.

CHAP. XI.

ON THE NORTH-EASTERN FRONTIERS OF PERSIA, AND THE COUNTRY OF THE KOORDS AND TOORKMUNS.

~Extent of Persian power over the Toorkmuns.~

It will now be necessary to give a short sketch of those Toorkmun tribes east of the Caspian Sea which lie on and beyond the north-eastern frontier of Persia.

Their country has been partly described in the chapter on Toorkmania; and various incidents illustrative of their national character occur in the narrative of our journey. They stretch from Balkh to the Caspian, and are composed of predatory hordes, with no king, and a most imperfect government to control them. The only portion which owe allegiance to the crown of Persia are the tribes of Goklan and Yamood, the least powerful of all the Toorkmuns.

They occupy the south-eastern banks of the Caspian, having their country westward bounded by the rivers Goorgan and Atruk, and extending about 140 miles eastward of that sea. The Yamoods are farthest to the westward, and consist of 20,000 families. They are succeeded by the Goklans, who amount to 9000 families; the only tribe of Toorkmuns who inhabit a hilly country. These two tribes have been reduced to their present state of dependence within the last thirty years. A guard of about 1000 of them attends on the King of Persia, but the rest of the tribe occupy their native seats, and pay a small tribute in horses or kind to a Persian Governor, who is stationed on the river Goorgan.

~Koord and other chiefs of the Persian frontier.~

The country which lies between these Toorkmuns and the city of Meshid is occupied by the tribe of Koords and other chiefs, who are nominally subjects of Persia. They acknowledge the supremacy of that crown, but commit every act of devastation and plunder, if not restrained by superior force. The Koords were fixed in this part of Persia by Shah Abbas, to strengthen the frontier; but they have proved a complete curse on its peace. The greatest of these chiefs held the fortress of Koochan (also called Kabooshan), and had a force of 8000 men. This place was captured by Abbas Meerza in the autumn of 1832. Near Koochan is the smaller chiefship of Boojnoord, ruled by a Koord, who can raise about 3000 horse. In this neighbourhood lies Kelat, the chief of which is an Afshar Toork, who can muster about 2000 horse. Next in importance to the chief of Koochan is he of Toorbut, Mahommed Khan Kuraee[38], who occupies a portion of the country between Meshid and Herat. He can raise about 6000 men, and is the most notorious freebooter in Khorasan.

About eighty miles eastward of Meshid lies the town of Shurukhs, a Toorkmun settlement, already mentioned as at present owing allegiance to Khiva. It submits to Persia, when the Prince at Meshid is able to enforce his commands. There are 2000 families at Shurukhs of the Salore tribe. This completes the enumeration of the chiefs on the boundaries of Persia.

~Weakness of the Persian frontier.~

This frontier of Persia must be considered exceedingly weak, since the whole of these tribes are imperfectly subjugated, and acknowledge its authority with extreme reluctance. The Toorkmuns view the Persians in the most odious light, from their religious opinions; and the only real advantage which the Shah may be said to have gained over the two tribes near Persia consists in their having discontinued their incursions into the kingdom. This only applies to a very small division of them, for the Salores of Shurukhs, and all the other Toorkmuns, carry on their inroads with a fierce and daring spirit. Their brethren, even on the S.E. shores of the Caspian, frequently exhibit proofs of discontent, and have, as I formerly observed, formed connexions with Russia, that time may improve to the advantage of themselves and that empire. They are not bound by the possession of houses and cities to the lands which they inhabit, and their strength lies in the great facility with which they can move from one country to another. The Koords, on the contrary, are established on these frontiers as citizens. They have exhibited much bravery, and considerable military knowledge in making their strongholds on the plains instead of the hills. The fortress of Koochan is a place of great strength; it is built of mud, and the tenacious nature of the soil is favourable to that kind of fortification, which is common all over Khorasan. These Koords, though Shiahs, form secret connexions with their Toorkmun neighbours, and connive at the capture of the Persians and plunder of the provinces. Their country, although it yields a sufficiency for the consumption of the people, is poor. It does not, therefore, hold out any allurement to the government to retain it; and, since it possesses many strongholds, the chiefs, who are generally in rebellion, can defy every force but an extraordinary one, such as has lately been sent to attack them. Hitherto they have parried off such attacks, by giving tribute, and promising future allegiance; but no sooner have the troops retired, than they have relapsed into the old state of rebellion and defiance. Nor is it likely that the present expedition of the Prince Royal into Khorasan, though much more formidable than any that has preceded it, will effect any permanent settlement of that part of Persia. Khorasan is a province which requires the presence of a foreign force to maintain its tranquillity; but it does not yield revenues to defray the expenses that would be incurred by such an arrangement. This is a line of policy that will not, therefore, be pursued by a court like Persia, which does not lay out the revenues of one province on another.