Chapter I (1)

ON THE COMMERCIAL RELATIONS OF THE PUNJAB, AND THE ADVANTAGES OF OPENING THE NAVIGATION OF THE INDUS.

“It has been observed in every age, that, when any branch of commerce has got into a certain channel, although it may be neither the most proper or the most commodious one, it requires long time and considerable efforts to give it a different direction.”--_Robertson’s Disq. on Ancient India._

“When Egypt was torn from the Roman empire by the Arabians, the industry of the Greeks discovered a new channel by which the productions of India might be conveyed to Constantinople. They _were carried up the Indus_, as far as that great river is navigable: thence they were transported by land to the _banks of the river Oxus_, and proceeded down its stream to the Caspian Sea. There they entered the Volga, and, sailing up it, were carried by land to the Tanais, which conducted them into the Euxine Sea, where vessels from Constantinople waited their arrival.”--_Robertson’s America._ Book I., following _Ramusio_.

~On navigating the Indus to the Punjab.~

The navigation of the Indus and its tributary rivers, when laid open to the merchant, must advance the interests of commerce. In the revival of an ancient channel to exchange the goods of distant nations, we behold with equal pleasure the advantages of British supremacy in India, and an increased outlet for the commodities of our commercial country. An enquiry into the condition and manufactures of every region which adjoins this great river, as well as those situated between it and the Caspian Sea, seems, therefore, opportunely to suggest itself. I have also the greatest inducement to enter on the subject, since I have seen the bazars and associated with the mercantile community of these countries.

~Favourable position of the Punjab for trade.~

There is, perhaps, no inland country of the globe which possesses greater facilities for commerce than the Punjab, and there are few more rich in the productions of the mineral, vegetable, and animal kingdoms. Intersected by five navigable streams, it is bounded on the west by one of the largest rivers of the Old World. To the north it has the fertile and fruitful vale of Cashmere to limit its sceptre; so placed, that it can export without trouble its costly fabrics to the neighbouring kingdoms of Persia and Tartary, China and India. Situated between Hindostan and the celebrated entrepôts of Central Asia, it shares the advantages of their traffic, while it is itself blessed with an exuberance of every production of the soil that is useful and nutritious to man.

~Extent and variety of its productions.~

The productions of the Punjab relieve it from any great dependence on external resource. Its courtiers and chiefs may robe themselves in the shawls of Cashmere, and the strong and beautiful silken fabrics of Mooltan. Its citizens and husbandmen may wear the cheap textures of the native cotton. Every animal may be bounteously fed on the grains indigenous to the country, and a range of mountains, entirely composed of salt, furnishes that necessary ingredient of food; while the upland parts yield condiments and fruits to season the daily bread. To such a mart we can export but with dubious success the productions of our own or other countries; yet there are some articles in which the industry of Britain may still cause a rivalry. Towards forming a conclusion on this subject, we shall treat of the different productions of the country, and afterwards point out the probable effects of opening a new door to commerce on its imports and exports.

~Shawls of Cashmere.~

The staple commodity of the Punjab is found in the shawl manufactures of Cashmere, which have been so often described by others, that they merely require a passing notice. They are a fabric which no exertion on the part of foreigners can imitate; and, though the European manufacturer may impart much of the beauty, and copy with success the pattern, his web possesses none of the delicacy of the original, and is equally destitute of that warmth and comfort which the inhabitants of Europe, in their more frigid zone, are so well able to appreciate. Nor are the weavers of the adjoining countries more successful in this branch of art than our own countrymen: the shawls of Lahore and Delhi, though woven by natives of the valley, and with the same materials, are wanting in the fineness of those prepared in Cashmere, and have the degenerated appearance of a coarse woollen, but little superior to our own manufactures. If implicit reliance is to be placed on the people, the shawl derives its beauty from the water in which the wool is dyed, and which is peculiar to Cashmere.

~Extent of the shawl manufactures.~

The yearly revenue from the shawl manufactures, exclusive of every expense, is rated at eighteen lacs of rupees; but, as it is entirely realised in kind, every fraud which the ingenuity of a deceiving people can devise is practised in remitting it to Lahore. Shawls which cannot be valued at a higher price than a couple of hundred rupees, are rated at a thousand; and it is not a subject of surprise that the amount which I have now stated far exceeds the actual realisation by the treasury of Runjeet Sing. With a more judicious system, this Prince might double this source of his revenue. An idea may be formed of the value to which these fabrics may be manufactured, by some shawls having been lately prepared to order, for the Russian and Persian courts, at the enormous price of 30,000 roubles per pair; which is, I believe, about 12,000 rupees. It is a source of complaint among merchants, that the shawls have lately declined in quality, and good articles are now only to be procured by commissioning them from the valley. The article, indeed, has become a drug, and the Punjab government have at present in Umritsir a store of shawls that cannot be valued at less than half a million sterling (fifty lacs of rupees).

~Silks.~

The commercial genius of the people has introduced another manufacture from silk, named “kais,” with a strength of texture and brilliancy of hue, that has secured to the silks of Mooltan a merited reputation in the Indian market. The worm is unknown in the Punjab; but the small bulk and great value of its produce admit of silk being imported from distant countries, and converted with profit by the trader into a rich manufacture. These silken stuffs are only woven in the shape of shawls and scarfs, which have an extensive sale, for the Indian weavers have been, hitherto, unable to rival either their colour or durability. There is also a considerable manufacture of satin in Mooltan, called “atlass;” but it only shares this branch of trade with Umritsir and Lahore. The “kincob,” or brocade, of the Punjab, is inferior to that of Bengal and Guzerat, and cannot, therefore, compete with the cloths of those countries. I should here mention the carpets of Mooltan, which do not equal those of Persia: but even they are far surpassed by the splendid shawl carpets of Cashmere. This manufacture is not to be purchased, and is made, I believe, only for the ruler of the country.

~Cottons.~

The climate of the Punjab is unfavourable to the cotton shrub, which affects another soil; yet it grows in considerable quantities. The plant is chiefly produced in the “doab,” between the Sutledge and Beas Rivers; but, on account of the demand, it is also imported from the dry country, south of the former river, which is known by the name of Malwa. The natives of the eastern portion of the Punjab, about Rohun and Hoshyarpoor, are skilful in the manufacture of cotton; and their looms furnish white cloth of various textures, from the value of a yard, to four times that quantity, for a rupee. The cloth is inferior in appearance to that of British manufacture; but it is stronger and lasts better, while it has the advantage of being much cheaper. The finer cottons of the Punjab are exported to the people south of the Sutledge, who are unable to vie with their manufactures. The chintses of Mooltan were, at one time, much sought for in the Punjab, and territories west of the Indus; but the trade is now ruined by the British imports, as we shall have occasion to mention hereafter.

~Minerals.~

The mineral resources of the Punjab have been but imperfectly explored; yet, from the little that has been laid open, their value must be considerable. A range of hills, extending from the Indus to the Hydaspes, formed entirely of rock-salt, furnishes an inexhaustible supply, and, being closely monopolised, contributes to the enrichment of the ruler. It is in general use throughout the country, and most extensively exported, till it meets the salt of the Sambre lake, and the Company’s territories. There is another deposit of salt on the verge of the mountains towards Mundee; but it is of an inferior description. In the same vicinity, if I can place reliance on my information, some veins of coal have been discovered; and there are also extensive mines of iron. The ore, after being pounded, is pulverised by grindstones, and then smelted: matchlocks and swords are formed from this metal; and the warlike weapons of Lahore are famous among the Indian nations. The precious metals are more scarce; yet gold is found among the sands of the Acesines, as it issues from the mountains. The salt range, as well as the other high lands, yield alum and sulphur. Nitre is gathered in quantities from the extensive plains; and “tooree,” or milk-bush, which gives the best charcoal, completes the enumeration of what is necessary for the manufacture of gunpowder.

~Vegetable.~

The productions of the vegetable world exceed the consumption of the population, and increase in abundance towards the hills. Some of them are exported with advantage to the neighbouring countries; but the surrounding plenty discourages the husbandman. The wheat and barley of the plains are expended within the limits of the Punjab; but such is the number of horses in this country, that gram, moong, mut, bajree, and other grain, reared in a dry soil, are imported with advantage. Rice is exuberantly produced under the mountains; but it is not a diet which suits the palate of the people. The cane thrives luxuriantly, and sugar is manufactured for exportation. The smallness of its stalk is remarkable; but it is said to produce the most saccharine fluid, and is preferred to the thicker canes of India. Indigo is reared about Mooltan and eastward of Lahore, and it is exported to the Mahommedan countries westward, where dark-coloured cloths are more prevalent than in the Punjab. A valuable oil is expressed from the “Sirsya,” or Sesamum plant, and is both used for the lamp and culinary purposes. The esculent vegetables, such as turnips, carrots, &c., are produced every where; and most of the vines and fruit-trees common to Europe may be seen in Kishtwar and Cashmere. The tobacco of Mooltan is only surpassed by that of Persia.

~Advantages of opening the Indus to the Punjab trade.~

Without a longer detail of the resources of the Punjab, it will have already appeared that the nature and extent of its productions forbid any sanguine hope of improving to a considerable degree our commercial communication, even by water, with the countries eastward of the Indus.

A region that yielded corn, wine, oil, and salt was considered, in ancient times, a favoured land; and we have here, likewise, extensive manufactures to keep pace with the modern tastes of mankind: yet the trade in loongees, at Tatta, and in the silks of Bhawalpoor and Mooltan, which still exists, affords undoubted proof of a former line of commerce by the Indus. Trade requires a fostering care, to which even uncivilised nations are no strangers. With such an extensive export trade as this country possesses in the single article of Cashmere shawls, it is evident that there must be equally extensive returns; and it is the province of commerce to effect an interchange of the goods of one country for those of another. An outlet for shawls was formerly found in Delhi; but in later years, since the tranquillity of Rajpootana was restored, they have been exported direct to Bombay, through that country, by Pallee. It may be unhesitatingly averred, that the least inconvenient and expensive route, which leads by the Indus, will turn the commerce into that channel. As we introduce our goods into Central India from other quarters, we must not look to the countries east of the Indus for any great increase to our commercial relations in this quarter. At present the import of European articles into the Punjab is far from trifling; and, as the resistance to the stream is removed, the consumption ought to increase with the diminution of price. It depends on the Lord of Cashmere, whether we receive the productions of his country alike reduced; but, if he properly understood his own interests, he might augment his revenue by diminishing the price, which, it is but reasonable to suppose, would increase the demand.

~Effects of a new route on the manufactures of the towns on the Indus.~

If we ourselves copy the manufactures of Tatta, Mooltan, and Bhawulpoor, as we did the chintses of India, we may supersede the lingering remnants of trade in these cities, since we shall be able, with our machinery, to undersell their merchandise; for there is nothing in them that an European would find it difficult to imitate; but, as I have before observed, we should confine our views to Western Asia. I do not touch upon the policy of supplanting still further the trade of India; but I am certain that, in the present instance, disappointment would follow the speculation, for the consumption of loongees, and silks, which form the apparel of the higher orders, is far less than that of chintses. A trade of ten lacs of rupees in that article has, I am credibly informed, been driven for some years past from Bombay alone to the northern parts of India. With silks it would, I am persuaded, never rise to thousands. I do not, of course, include brocade, which is at present imported.

~European articles for which an increased demand might be looked for. Metals, woollens, &c.~

There are means of improving our exports to the Punjab, if shipped by the Indus. It has been seen that the country is without copper, brass, tin, lead; all of which are bulky articles, difficult of transport by land, and which could be imported with profit. Wrought iron might also be introduced: locks, keys, padlocks, bolts, screws, hinges, and such dead weight have now a steady sale, and are imported by land. But the great desideratum of this country is woollens; and, in a climate where the cold is greater than in other parts of India, they become an object to the people. Their consumption is considerable, and it is vastly increased by the large standing army, which Runjeet Sing entertains and clothes in them. In the time of Timour Shah, the Company’s factory in Sinde yielded a profit of five lacs of rupees, chiefly from the sale of woollens, which were sent up the Indus, or by its banks to Cabool, for the use of that King’s army. It is very immaterial to trade, whether the armed body occupies the east or west bank of the Indus; and, though Timour Shah and his successors have ceased to rule, Runjeet Sing governs in the zenith of his power. I must observe, however, that M. Allard, the general of Runjeet Sing’s regular cavalry, informed me that he could clothe his troops in English woollens at Umritsir, in the Punjab, cheaper than at Hansee and the British provinces on the frontier, where he had tried the experiment. This is to be accounted for by the reluctance of the merchants to open the bales before reaching the commercial mart. There is a taste among the people of the Punjab for woollens; and, though less than exists in the colder countries across the Indus, it could no doubt be improved by cheapening the articles, which would follow on a water communication.

~Cottons.~

~Chintses.~

With regard to the cottons of the Punjab, I entertain doubts of any decrease in the price of British goods (which a more facile line of commerce might effect) supplanting the existing manufactures: they are generally of a coarser texture than the European article; and in a cold country this accords with the inclinations of the people, and will induce them to adhere to their own fabrics. The case was otherwise with chintses, which pleased from their variety of patterns, and were, in other respects, a close imitation of their own: their introduction involved at once a complete revolution in the manufactures of the country. The chints of Mooltan was formerly exported to Persia; but, in its competition with the British article, the manufacture has almost ceased. The European article, when first introduced, about twelve years ago, was sold for four rupees per yard, and may be now had for as many annas, or one sixteenth of its original value. The Mooltan manufacturers, being unable to reduce their prices to so low a standard, find little sale for their goods with so formidable a rival. Chintses have, however, decreased in the demand; and the reason is obvious: they have ceased to be a rarity, and the fashion has changed; for it is a mistake to believe that the customs of the Indians are unalterable, like the laws of the Medes and Persians.

~Jewellery, cutlery, and finer European articles.~

For the finer articles of European manufacture, such as watches, cutlery, jewellery, China ware, glass, &c., the natives of the Punjab have no taste beyond the precincts of the court, and there the demand is exceedingly limited. Pearls and precious stones are already imported from India by a safe route, and much prized; for the more opulent natives give no encouragement to the minor manufactures of Birmingham and Sheffield, which too often compose an investment to this country. With a settled government, Runjeet Sing has introduced among his chiefs and subjects a taste for fine clothes: but the artizans of his own country supply these in abundance. In this respect his court is, perhaps, unequalled in the East; yet this prince and his courtiers are strangers to most of the elegancies and comforts of civilised life: nor could such a taste be hoped for from an illiterate people, whose habits of life, at a late period, were those of a predatory horde. Many of the chiefs have, within these few years, built costly mansions; but they are yet unacquainted with the necessity or advantage of furniture, or with the convenience of glass windows. A few of the Seik Sirdars exhibit the penchant of an epicure for savoury and preserved food, such as hams, &c.; but, though wonderfully relieved from prejudice, no outlet can be looked for in this quarter, as in India, to the hermetically sealed dainties of Europe. Ardent spirits would be brought to a better market; but the Punjabees still prefer the pungent fiery drink of their own soil.

~Depôt for a water commerce.~

In opening a water communication to the countries at the head of the Indus, it would not appear that any advantages arose from navigating the great river higher than Dera Ghazee Khan, or the streams of the Punjab above Mooltan, and, perhaps, Lodiana. The exports for Central Asia might be landed at Bukkur, which may be considered the port of Shikarpoor; a town which has extensive connections with all parts of Asia, and is situated on the plains below the Bolan pass, the great defile through the Sooliman mountains. If we found it advisable to transport them higher up to Leia, they would meet at the Kaheree ferry, the stream of commerce as it at present flows from Pallee, Becaneer, and Mooltan, which would involve a virtual annihilation of that trade. Though the passage from Attok downwards is perfectly open, and fruit is annually sent by the Indus to Shikarpoor, the difficulties of navigation increase above Karabagh, from the rapidity of the current that flows through mountains, and there are no solid benefits to be reaped from the risk. The Punjab trader, on the other hand, would effect his objects when he had reached Mooltan; for the Chenab and Jelum, both of which are navigable rivers, and the former a very noble one, lead to no mart beyond that city. The tortuous course of the Ravee, on which Lahore stands, with its inferiority to all the other streams in depth and size, will ever prevent its becoming a line of traffic, and the more so, since the trade of the capital is limited, and the great commercial city of Umritsir can be approached within a distance of thirty miles by the course of the Sutledge. I cannot doubt that this latter river will be found navigable from Ooch to Hurreeke, where it is 275 yards wide, and joined by the Beas; after which it is said to have a medial depth of twelve feet, and is never fordable. With but little difficulty it might be ascended as high as Lodiana by the boats of the country, and thus connect our communication between the sea and the most remote position of our Indian empire. It is to be regretted that we have no proper report of the capabilities of the Sutledge from Lodiana to its confluence with the Chenab at Ooch; but the facts which I have recorded, and I cannot doubt them, excite the greatest hopes that it will be found navigable throughout, and present no physical obstacles to commerce.[39] A mercantile capital of considerable consequence, the city of Bhawulpoor, fortunately stands on the banks of this river, towards the embouchure. The Sutledge, in this part of its course, traverses a barren and ill-protected country; and, though risks would be incurred at the outset, this and other disadvantages would probably disappear in the course of time.

~Political condition of the countries.~

An extensive commerce can only exist where a liberal protection is extended to the merchant and his property. In Sinde ample securities will be required before the trader embarks his capital; but beyond its limits the Punjab offers a safer route. The lawless tribes in the Derajat, between Attok and Mittun, owe allegiance to no sovereign; but they are, comparatively speaking, beyond the channels of commerce. Though Runjeet Sing has tranquillised the countries eastward of the Indus, he has not failed to exact the most excessive duties, which injures the trade. Since the Indus and its tributary rivers lie beyond the territories of British India, it might be supposed that the want of a tribunal for the adjustment of differences and disputes would prove hurtful to an infant commerce; but, with all the rectitude that characterises the public servants of the Company, and the enlightened intentions of the Government, it is very questionable, if our system of jurisprudence has not increased dishonesty and deceit among the mercantile community; while, unaided by facilities to complain, the traders of India, particularly under native governments, preserve an honesty in their transactions, and repose a confidence in each other, which is fast disappearing from our own territories. With an extension of our trade in this quarter, we shall require no advancement of our position; and if war follows in the train of commerce, we shall then have the double satisfaction of protecting our trade and our frontier.

CHAP. II.

ON THE COMMERCE OF CABOOL.

~Commerce of Cabool.~

The commerce of Cabool has undergone a great alteration, from political causes, since the year 1809, when this country was visited by a British mission. In the time of the monarchy, the trade with India was considerable, and our commercial factory in Sinde, for a long time, was principally supported by the demand from Afghanistan. The abolition of that establishment led the merchants of Cabool to seek their supply in the bazars of India; and though the monarchy has ceased to exist, yet the body of the people has acquired a taste for European manufactures quite unprecedented. I have stated that the wealth of Cabool is now to be found eastward of the Indus; but the dismemberment of this once extensive kingdom into a variety of small chiefships has not proved prejudicial to the interests of commerce. The wealth of the state is now subdivided, and we have four or five different courts, instead of one, of overgrown magnitude, which, in so poor a country as Cabool, has a very material influence on the market. But this is no speculative view of the subject; for the collections and town duties of the city of Cabool have greatly increased since the exile of the kings, and risen one fourth within the last six years, without any additional imposts being levied. Not only has the consumption of British and Indian manufactures been augmented in the country itself, but the transit trade to Toorkistan has at the same time increased it.

~Routes of commerce to Afghanistan.~

The merchandise of Britain, which is sent into these countries, is landed in India, either at Calcutta or Bombay. I am given to understand that the greater supply is derived from Bombay. The caravans from both these places concentrate in Cabool, which they reach by three principal routes. 1. The merchants from Bengal take the route of the Ganges, Delhi, Hansee, Bhawulpoor, Mooltan, and cross the Indus at the ferry of Kaheree, above the latitude of 31° north. From this they proceed to the Golairee pass and Goomul River to Ghuzni and Cabool. 2. Those from Bombay proceed by Guzerat to Pallee, in Marwar; from whence they cross the desert to Beecaneer, and join the above route at Bhawulpoor. 3. A portion of the merchandise from Bombay is shipped for Sonmeeanee or Curachee, in Sinde; from which they reach Candahar in eighteen marches, and proceed thence to Ghuzni and Cabool. Such part of these goods as is not sold in the country, or intended for the Bokhara market, is sent to Herat. The route through Sinde to Shikarpoor is little frequented, from fear of the Kakers. It will be observed in this enumeration, that the great road between India and Persia, from Delhi, by Lahore, Attok, and Peshawur, to Cabool, is deserted: this arises from heavier duties being levied by the ruler of the Punjab than by his neighbours. Such goods as are exported from Umritsir, which is the mart of the Punjab trade, cross the Hydaspes (Jelum) at Jung, and join the other routes at Kaheree. It is, therefore, a singular fact, that the city of Peshawur, which lies on the very eastern frontier of Afghanistan, is supplied with European and Indian articles, from Cabool, to the westward. The merchants can bring them cheaper to market by this circuitous route, and therefore prefer it; which, in part, accounts for the increased amount of the receipts in Cabool.

~Carriers of the trade.~

The principal carriers of this trade between India and Cabool, are the Lohanees, a pastoral tribe of Afghans, who occupy the country eastward from Ghuzni to the Indus. Many of these are men of great opulence, and proceed in person to make their purchases in the Indian markets. Their families and flocks repair, in due season, to meet them on the banks of the river, and their merchandise is conveyed on their own camels, by easy marches, to Ghuzni. The intervening country is mountainous, and the roads are stony and difficult; but the territory is their native soil, and they are free from the imposts and duties that obstruct commerce. The caravan reaches Cabool about the beginning of June; here the Lohanees dispose of their goods, and prosecute their journey to Bokhara. In return for the merchandise which is sold in Cabool, these traders export horses, the madder of Ghuzni and Candahar, as well as a great quantity of fruit, both fresh and dried. With these they repair to the banks of the Indus, where their camels are retained till the arrival of the caravan of the ensuing season.

~Imports to Cabool.~

It is a trite remark of the natives in these countries, that the exports of India are but grass, and her returns are gold. These are indigo, cotton, and sugar, the chief imports of Cabool. The goods consist of white cloths of all kinds, calicoes, and muslins; also chintses of European manufacture; shawls, brocades, Dacca muslins, Punjab turbans, spices, &c.: about a thousand camel-loads of these are now consumed yearly in Cabool. Previous to the year 1816, this country was supplied with many articles from Russia; but the chints trade, which is to be dated from that time, has effected a material change. The manufactures of Europe have since flowed from India with increased volume on this part of Asia. It has been believed, and not erroneously, that the cloths of Russia not only found their way to Bokhara, but to the countries southward of Hindoo Koosh, and were distributed through the provinces of Cabool; but a commercial revolution, almost unobserved, has gradually changed the channels of commerce. It would be difficult, in the most civilised kingdom of Asia, to furnish the authentic data, which are so necessary to our European notions for the establishment of such an important point; but the inward Custom-house receipts prove it. To the justice and equity of Dost Mahommed Khan, the chief of Cabool, we must mainly attribute a change so beneficial to Britain. Once effected, the fabrics of Russia have failed to vie with our own, and an outlet for our exports, which we owe to the wisdom of a chief, has been improved by the superiority of the exports themselves. The only cloths now received from Russia are nankeen and broad chints, of a description which are not manufactured in Britain.

~Dispositions of the Cabool chiefs in regard to commerce.~

The chiefs of Peshawur and Candahar do not extend to commerce that encouragement which so distinguishes their brother at Cabool; but their conduct in this respect is of less consequence, as they have less power and influence: and the great road to Toorkistan passes through the country under Cabool. The shawl trade from Cashmere to Persia has been driven into other routes by the exactions of the Candahar chief. These goods are now either sent by way of Bombay and Bushire, or the circuitous route of Cabool, Bokhara, and the Caspian. I am persuaded that these exactions at Candahar arise from ignorance, for the chief is well disposed to the British Government; and he must be aware of the fact, that all the Bokhara merchants choose the route of Cabool, to his detriment. It is otherwise with the Peshawur chief, who is overawed by the Seiks, and can only secure his existence by oppression. His capital, which stands on the high road from India to Tartary, has ceased to be an entrepôt of trade, owing to his own exactions, as well as his disturbances with the Seiks. The only merchandise imported into Peshawur is consumed in the city; and, as I have before said, much of it is brought by way of Cabool. No merchant can afford to transport his goods through the territories of the Punjab to Peshawur; and the Khyber pass between that city and Cabool is unsafe. A tax of sixty rupees is levied on each horse between Peshawur and Lahore, which has almost suppressed that trade. Peshawur has no manufactures peculiar to itself, but a course kind of cotton loongee, which is exported through Tartary and the whole of Afghanistan. European goods are sold in its bazars, but the demand is limited. The better orders of people wear them; and chints dresses and muslin turbans are common. They also wear Russian nankeens and velvets, and Indian silks. The lower classes dress in the cloths of the country. The whole revenues of the city of Peshawur do not amount to 30,000 rupees a year.

~Remarks on improving the trade of Cabool.~

The trade to Bokhara or Toorkistan is so intimately connected with that of Cabool, that it is necessary to state the information which I have gathered on that subject before I offer any conclusion on this commerce. That it can be improved and extended, I feel most fully satisfied, since those who shared it with us have been driven from the field within these few years, and the import of Indian chints has nearly ceased. The duties of Cabool are also moderate, not exceeding 2-1/2 per cent. It occurs to me that the establishment of fairs or bazars, in imitation of the Russians, is the best means which we can follow towards the accomplishment of so desirable an end as the extension of British commerce westward of the Indus. The Cabool merchants began to frequent these annual assemblages in Russia within the last fifteen years; and at present make extensive sales and purchases. They have been so much encouraged by the emperor, that the greater part of the Russian trade to Bokhara has fallen into their hands; of which the Uzbeks complain bitterly. I mention the fact, to show that these institutions might be introduced with the greatest advantage on the frontier of our Indian empire, which immediately adjoins that of Cabool. It may be seen that they have attracted merchants to a distant country, who would more readily embark their capital in speculations nearer home, if they had an opportunity. This would diminish their risks, and, in all probability, increase the demand, and, consequently, the exports of British manufactures to Afghanistan. It would at the same time counteract the intrigues and designs of the great power I have named. No men are more deserving of encouragement than the Lohanee merchants of Cabool: they are an enterprising race, who may be often met in the upper parts of India. In returning to their own country, they speak of little civilities, which are sometimes shown them, with a gratitude that proves how sensibly they would appreciate the more substantial favours of a liberal government. An introduction to the authorities in India, and a few presents of the most trifling description, would be to them a strong manifestation of the good feelings of our government. It would also show them that it took an interest in their welfare, and that it was not our desire to transfer the trade of British goods into the hands of British merchants, which is universally believed by these people. In my interviews with them, I have often had to combat such an opinion, which I did, by assuring them that it was an increase of the national exports which we desired, and not an enrichment of any individual set of men. Perhaps the most material service which can be rendered to these people is, the removal of grievances in the Custom-house (to which I shall hereafter allude), that have been generally felt in these countries. That they only require to be known to be redressed, is, I am sure, most certain.

CHAP. III.

ON THE COMMERCE AND FOREIGN COMMUNICATIONS OF BOKHARA AND CENTRAL ASIA.

~Progress of the commerce between Asia and Europe.~

The commercial intercourse which has subsisted between Europe and the nations of Central Asia and India is of high antiquity: it flourished under the Greek monarchs of Bactria, the successors of Alexander, and is mentioned by Pliny, and earlier writers. The inroads of the Caliphs appear to have obliterated for a time the traces of this extensive commerce; but the inhabitants of modern Russia imported, during the tenth century, the riches and aromatics of the East into the “great Novogorod.” The opening of a passage to India by the Cape of Good Hope, in the fifteenth century, effected an eventful change in the channels of ancient commerce; but the fruits of that discovery continued for a long time in the hands of the Portuguese. In the middle of the following century, while that nation were reaping the advantages of this new line of trade, the English sent merchants and ambassadors to seek for other outlets of commerce, among the nations on the Caspian and eastward of that sea. These expeditions were productive of no salutary consequences, as we learn from the quaint and amusing accounts of Anthony Jenkinson, and those who followed him. “Cloth they will buy none,” says that traveller, in his Journey to Bokhara; “and there is little utterance, and little profit.”

~Particular revival of commerce by the Russians.~

The attempt to establish a commerce between Europe and these countries, in particular with Bokhara, at this time abortive, was not such as to discourage all future endeavours. The kingdom of Bokhara, though of secondary importance, politically considered, holds a far higher position in the commercial world. Fruitful in the productions of the earth, where all around is desolation, it lies between Europe and Asia, and is a central mart, where the merchant may exchange with advantage the productions of China, Persia, India, and Cabool. The proximity of the eastern parts of Europe pointed to it as an outlet for its commodities, since it appeared to lie beyond the influence of the line of maritime trade with India. But these advantages were only to be enjoyed by the nation that adjoined its territories; and, if the expeditions of the English were unsuccessful, the Russians, who enjoyed more favourable opportunities, succeeded, though at a much later period--about the middle of the eighteenth century. It was the design of Peter the Great of Russia to form a commercial communication between the Caspian Sea and the banks of the Oxus; but he was frustrated by the foulest perfidy. He succeeded, nevertheless, in opening the roads from the southern frontier of Asiatic Russia, eastward of the Caspian and Aral; and, for a period of about eighty years, they have been annually travelled by the caravans of Bokhara. I will not assert that, in this line of commerce, we have a revival of the exact channels of ancient trade; but a comparatively safe and easy communication has assuredly been opened between Asia and Europe.

~British Indian trade established.~

While the bazars of Bokhara have been supplied by the over-land route from Russia, the merchant of India, who formerly resorted to them with the productions of his native soil, has likewise introduced the fabrics of Britain. The commerce of the English has been thus widely extended, and the Russian merchant discovers a formidable rival in the diminution of his trade. It is a curious reflection, that the manufactures of Europe should reach the central parts of Asia by a retrograde route, after they have half circumnavigated the globe, and that the opening of commerce between Britain and these countries, which had failed by the direct road of Europe, should be now firmly established from an opposite direction. The subject is curious and important; and it is the design of this paper to follow up that trade through its course, and to give such particulars concerning the general commerce of these countries as appear interesting, as well as to delineate the lines of communication by which it is conveyed. The flourishing condition of this trade will then enable me to speak of the means of improving our exports, and to state my hopes and reasons for believing that these may be further increased, to the great benefit of our commercial country.

~Modern alterations, and routes of commerce.~

Till within these twelve or fourteen years, the trade in European fabrics to Toorkistan, which includes Bokhara and the regions north of the Oxus, was principally confined to the Russians, who exported their goods into these countries from Orenburg and Troitskai; but it is now carried on more extensively through India and Cabool. There are four great lines of route between Russia and Bokhara, by which the commercial intercourse is carried on: the first of these leads from Astracan, across the Caspian, to Mungusluck, and thence to Orgunje and Bokhara, and may be voyaged and travelled in thirty days. The next begins at Orenburg, and passes between the Aral and Caspian Seas, to Orgunje and Bokhara, and is a journey of sixty days. The third commences at Troitskai, in Asiatic Russia, and, crossing the “Dusht-i-Kipchak,” or desert of Kipchak, passes eastward of the Aral, and across the Sirr or Jaxartes, near its mouth, to Bokhara. A caravan may march it in forty-eight days. The fourth and last commences at Kuzzul-jur, or, as it is also called, Petropolosk, on the Issim, considerably to the eastward of Troitskai, and leads down upon Bokhara by a south-west direction, passing through Tashkend. This is a journey of ninety days. A commercial intercourse is carried on between Toorkistan and the empire of Russia by all these routes; but that by Orenburg and Orgunje (Khiva) is the safest and most frequented. The great yearly caravan, which sets out from Bokhara in June, takes that route; and the portion of it intended for Astracan diverges to Mungusluck, on the Caspian. The stragglers of the year, and about two hundred camels of the less valuable merchandise, proceed to Troitskai, and march in August. The “Dusht-i-Kipchak,” which the whole of these routes traverse, is a flat and dreary country, without fixed inhabitants; and the traveller provides himself with the necessaries of subsistence, before he sets out on his journey. But this tract is not destitute of forage, fuel, or water; and its inhabitants, the Kirgizzes and Kuzzaks, wander over it with their flocks and herds in search of pasture. They are possessed of numerous herds of camels, of the strongest and most robust breed: these are the two-humped, or Bactrian camel. One of them will carry 640 lbs. English, which surpasses by 150 lbs. the burdens of those of India and Cabool. The caravan is entrusted to these shepherds; the merchandise is committed to their charge, and they are followed by their families in the journey. There is no road, and no guide but the stars of heaven; and the camels, in a line of fifteen and twenty abreast, in a slow but steady pace, only advance during night.

~Negotiations of Russia regarding its commerce.~

In the year 1819, the government of Russia despatched M. Mouravief on a mission to Orgunje, with the view of effecting a change in the established line of commerce: they desired to bring it at once to the Bay of Krasnovodsk, on the Caspian, which is a much nearer route, and where the merchandise could be shipped for Astracan with the same facilities as at Mungusluck. The Khan of Orgunje objected to the arrangement, and the negotiation failed. In the following year another mission was despatched to Bokhara, by the way of Troitskai and the east bank of the Aral, under M. Negri, which had also in view an improvement of the commercial communications between the two countries. The road was found practicable; and, on the return of the mission, a caravan of merchants, protected by a party of five hundred soldiers and two field-pieces, was despatched in due course to Bokhara. This attempt on the part of Russia also failed, for the chief of Orgunje took umbrage at a measure which turned the traffic from his own territories. He sent his army to the embouchure of the Sirr to obstruct the advance of the caravan, and, if possible, to plunder it. The detachment, taking up a position on a hillock, defended itself with great bravery, and succeeded in scaring off some thousand horse; but they only extricated themselves from the dilemma by burning the merchandise, and precipitately returning to Russia; for their provisions were exhausted. No attempt has been since made to avoid the territories of Orgunje; nor are the duties levied by the Khan of that state immoderate or unreasonable. It may be supposed that the government of Russia has taken offence at the conduct of this chief, and is not wanting in a desire to chastise his obstinacy. There is now no intercourse of a friendly nature between the countries, though the pertinacious chief of Orgunje is dead, and has been succeeded by his son. Russia has not entirely trusted to negotiations for the further extension of her commercial influence. Numerous fairs are annually held on the southern frontiers of the empire: that called by the Asiatics Mucrea (St. Macaire), on the banks of the Volga, is the most considerable: it commences in August, and lasts forty days. The merchants who carry on the trade of Central Asia make the most part of their sales and purchases at this market; and even Hindoos are found at St. Macaire.

~Exports from India and Russia to Bokhara.~

The imports of Bokhara from India are the same as those of Cabool. About two thousand camel-loads of these goods reach Cabool yearly, and one half of the quantity is passed on to Toorkistan. The exports of Russia are sent from Orenburg and Troitskai, across the desert, to Bokhara. They consist of white cloths, muslins, chintses, and broad cloth, _both_ of English and Russian manufacture; of imitation brocade (kimcob) velvet, with nankeen and gold thread; all of home manufacture; also furs, cochineal (kirmiz), locks, iron pots, iron, brass, and copper; wires, leather, paper, needles, inferior cutlery and jewellery, hardware, refined white sugar, honey, and a variety of other small articles. Much of the returns from Russia are made in specie, such as ducats and venetians. The annual caravan, which arrives at Bokhara, consists of about thirteen hundred camels, and leaves Russia in January. It will be seen that there is a large portion of the Russian exports that encounter no opposition at Bokhara from the Indian trade; and I am credibly informed, by respectable merchants, that three fourths of those articles, which are alike imported from both countries, are of British manufacture. Where two streams of commerce meet from opposite quarters, the prices of the one must be lowered, and approximate to the standard of the other, whatever may have been their original cost, or the expense of transport. The sale of British goods is discouraged in Russia, and their transit is impeded by heavy duties; still they find their way to Bokhara, and are there sold with profit. There are some articles, such as broad cloth and velvets, which only reach that country from Russia, though of British fabric.

~Prices of merchandise.~

The prices of merchandise, both British and Russian, when exposed in the bazars of Bokhara, will illustrate the relative value of the commodities, and exhibit, at the same time, the profit which is to be derived by their export. I give the prices in gold tillas of Bokhara, each of which is equal to six and a half Sicca rupees, or about thirteen shillings.

---------------------------+--------+-----------------------+-------- | | English Goods from | Goods from Russia. | Tillas.| Cabool. | Tillas. ---------------------------+--------+-----------------------+-------- Broad piece of Russian } | | | chints, 23 yards } | 8 | None such imported. | Second best ditto, ditto | 5 | None such imported. | A piece of Russian chints | 3-1/4 | Ditto, ditto, English | 3-1/2 Second sort, less flowered | 2-1/2 | Ditto, ditto | 2-3/4 Coarsest chints | 1-3/4 | Ditto, ditto | 1-3/4 | | { Flowered English } | Flowered muslins, 20 } | 18 | { muslin jamdanes, } | 22 pieces for } | | {20 pieces } | Finest Russian muslin, } | | | gold border, per piece } | 3 to 4 | English muslin | 2-1/2 Long cloth, piece of 10 } | | { Ditto, ditto, } | yards, 20 pieces } | 15 | { English, per } | | | { 20 pieces } | 18 | | { Long cloth, piece } | None such imported | | { of 40 yards, per } | 3 to | | { piece } | 3-1/2 Finest English broad } | | | cloth, 2-1/4 yards } | 5 | None such imported. | ---------------------------+--------+-----------------------+--------

A profit of fifty per cent. is not unfrequently derived by the merchants on English chints: one merchant realised it while I was in Bokhara.

~European goods. Chintses.~

It will be seen that the British chintses sell more profitably than those of Russia; but that there are goods of a description from that country which do not appear to be manufactured in Britain. These chintses are of Polish or German manufacture: they are broader, and more highly coloured; they look like flowered velvet, and are much prized, both in Bokhara and Cabool. A knowledge of the pattern would also throw this into the hands of our merchants. It is broader than common chints, striped and exquisitely coloured: very coarse chintses should not be exported to Bokhara, as there is a native manufacture of that kind. It is about a foot broad, and striped: five pieces of sixteen yards each may be purchased for a tilla. About two hundred camel-loads of this commodity are annually exported to Russia, where the nobles employ it in clothing their slaves. Though the sale price of chintses be much diminished in Bokhara, a profit of thirty and forty per cent. is yet realised.

~White goods.~

Of the white goods which are imported into Bokhara, the Russian muslins are better, and bear a higher price than those of Britain; but they are in less demand. All other Russian goods are inferior in texture, and none of them now find their way south of the Oxus. There are about one thousand pieces of long cloth, three fourths of which are short webs, expended yearly in Bokhara, and as many pieces of flowered muslin (jamdanes.)

~Broad cloth.~

~Velvets.~

~Nankeens.~

~Kirmiz die.~

~Cochineal.~

The broad cloths of England are never brought from India to Bokhara: they are imported from Russia; and such is the present state of this trade, that a most intelligent merchant of Cabool, whom I met at Bokhara, was thinking of taking an investment of it to Lodiana in India, where he could afford to sell it cheaper than it is to be had there, notwithstanding the length of the journey! The finest English broad cloth, which sells in India for twenty-two rupees a yard, may be purchased for fifteen in Bokhara; but the merchants who bring it from Russia say they are losers by it. It is much more prized than the broad cloth manufactured in Russia, from its retaining its colour, and lasting better; and, if the price could be reduced so as to meet the means of the natives, it would soon supplant the other article. Velvet is brought into Bokhara from Russia: it is flowered cotton velvet, and about two feet broad. There is a demand for it, and it is not imported from India. The Russians have imitated, with much success, the brocades of India, and export great quantities of what is called “false brocade” to Bokhara: it looks nearly as well as that of Benares, and sells for half the price: it is wove in narrow webs. There is nothing to prevent the successful fabric of this article in Britain. The staple commodity of Russian manufacture exported to this country is nankeen: it is seldom of a white colour, for they have imitated the patterns of this country, which are striped and dark. The article sells for 1-1/2 tillas per piece of forty yards: it is in general use among the people for their pelisses, or “chupkuns.” I had at first imagined that it was a Chinese import; but it is brought by the Russian caravans, and sent as far as Cabool, and even India. I have seen it at Lahore. One of the most important articles of import from Russia is kirmiz die, or cochineal: it is used to die raw silk. Till lately, it was sent in great quantities from Bokhara to India and Cabool: but the article has been brought from the seaports of India to the Punjab; and the trade in kirmiz, like that in cloths, declines yearly, and will shortly be confined to Bokhara. It now sells there for eight or nine tillas a maund of Tabreez, which is equal to seven lbs. English, and it may be had cheaper than this at Cabool. It is an article which may be exported from India to Cabool with advantage. I bear an impression that the kirmiz, or cochineal, may be procured in Bokhara; but no one knows how to prepare it.

~Indian goods.~

~Muslins.~

~Shawls.~

~Indigo.~

~Sugar.~