Chapter V: The Rationalism of the Natural Science Period

OF THE RENAISSANCE 62
THE NATURE OF RATIONALISM 62
THE MENTAL CONFLICT IN DESCARTES 65
THE LIFE AND PHILOSOPHICAL WRITINGS OF DESCARTES
(1596–1650) 66
1. As Child and Student (1596–1613) 66
2. As Traveler (1613–1628) 66
3. As Writer (1629–1650) 67
4. In Stockholm (1649–1650) 67
THE TWO CONFLICTING INFLUENCES UPON THE THOUGHT OF
DESCARTES 67
THE METHOD OF DESCARTES 69
INDUCTION――PROVISIONAL DOUBT――THE ULTIMATE CERTAINTY OF
CONSCIOUSNESS 70
DEDUCTION――THE IMPLICATIONS OF CONSCIOUSNESS 72
THE EXISTENCE OF GOD 73
THE REALITY OF MATTER 75
GOD AND THE WORLD 77
THE RELATION OF GOD TO MATTER 77
THE RELATION OF GOD TO MINDS 78
THE RELATION OF MIND AND BODY 78
THE INFLUENCE OF DESCARTES 80
THE RELATION OF THE OCCASIONALISTS AND SPINOZA TO
DESCARTES 81
PORTRAIT OF SPINOZA 84
THE HISTORICAL PLACE OF SPINOZA 84
THE INFLUENCES UPON SPINOZA 86
1. His Jewish Training 86
2. His Impulse from the New Science――Descartes’
Influence 86
3. His Acquaintance with the Collegiants 87
THE LIFE AND PHILOSOPHICAL WRITINGS OF SPINOZA
(1632–1677) 88
1. In Israel (1632–1656) 89
2. In Retirement (1656–1663) 89
3. In the Public Eye (1663–1677) 90
THE METHOD OF SPINOZA 90
THE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE OF SPINOZA’S PHILOSOPHY 91
THREE CENTRAL PROBLEMS IN SPINOZA’S TEACHING 93
THE PANTHEISM OF SPINOZA――THE ALL-INCLUSIVENESS OF GOD 94
THE MYSTICISM OF SPINOZA 98
SPINOZA’S DOCTRINE OF SALVATION 102
SUMMARY OF SPINOZA’S TEACHING 106
LEIBNITZ AS THE FINISHER OF THE RENAISSANCE AND THE
FORERUNNER OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT 107
THE LIFE AND WRITINGS OF LEIBNITZ (1646–1716) 108
1. Leipsic and University Life (1646–1666) 111
2. Mainz and Diplomacy (1666–1672) 111
3. Paris and Science (1672–1676) 111
4. Hanover and Philosophy (1676–1716) 112
THE THREE INFLUENCES UPON THE THOUGHT OF LEIBNITZ 112
(1) His Early Classical Studies 112
(2) The New Science and his own Discoveries 113
(3) Political Pressure for Religious Reconciliation 114
THE METHOD OF LEIBNITZ 115
THE IMMEDIATE PROBLEM FOR LEIBNITZ 118
THE RESULT OF LEIBNITZ’S EXAMINATION OF THE PRINCIPLES
OF SCIENCE――A PLURALITY OF METAPHYSICAL SUBSTANCES 119
1. Leibnitz first scrutinized the Scientific
Conception of Motion 119
2. Leibnitz next examined the Scientific Conception of
the Atom 120
3. Leibnitz then identified Force with the Metaphysical
Atom 121
THE DOUBLE NATURE OF THE MONADS 122
THE TWO FORMS OF LEIBNITZ’S CONCEPTION OF THE UNITY OF
SUBSTANCES 125
THE INTRINSIC UNITY OF THE MONADS――THE PHILOSOPHICAL
UNITY 125
THE SUPERIMPOSED UNITY OF THE MONADS――THE THEOLOGICAL
UNITY 129

CHAPTER VI. THE ENLIGHTENMENT (1690–1781) 132
THE EMERGENCE OF THE “NEW MAN”――INDIVIDUALISM 132
THE PRACTICAL PRESUPPOSITION OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT――THE
INDEPENDENCE OF THE INDIVIDUAL 134
THE METAPHYSICAL PRESUPPOSITION OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT 135
THE PROBLEMS OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT 135
(a) _Utilitarian Problems_ 136
(b) _Questions of Criticism_ 138
A COMPARISON OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT IN ENGLAND, FRANCE,
AND GERMANY 140
THE MANY GROUPS OF PHILOSOPHERS OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT 140
MAP SHOWING THE BIRTHPLACES OF SOME OF THE INFLUENTIAL
THINKERS OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT 144