Chapter III: Development in the Nineteenth Century (4)

The Cantons have their own administrations, mostly under one forester of higher grade (called variously Oberförster, Forstinspektor, Forstmeister, Oberforstmeister). Bern has three co-ordinate Forstinspektor. The Cantons are or are to be districted into forest circles (Forstkreise), the subdivision to be approved by the Bundesrath, and some are further subdivided into ranges (Unterförsterei). These forest districts, from 7,500 to 45,000 acres each, are to be managed by properly educated and paid foresters elected by the people. The eligibility depends upon an examination, the theoretical part of which is conducted by the forest school, the practical part, after a year’s practical work, is conducted by a commission of foresters, after completion of which the candidate becomes eligible; the election being for three years, and re-election being usual, unless there are good reasons against it.

In 1903, there were employed as administrators or managers 119 State (Cantonal) foresters and 33 Communal foresters, besides 11 Federal forest officials. In 1909, the total number had grown to 193, besides 1091 under-foresters, to whose salaries the Bund contributed. The State foresters are allowed to manage neighbouring communal properties.

3. _Forestry Practice._

The timber forest is the most general form of silvicultural management. Selection forest with 150 to 200 year rotations is practised in the Alps and in the smaller private forest areas. Shelterwood system in compartments is in use in other parts (with a rotation of 60 to 80 years in the deciduous, and 80 to 120 years in conifer forest), supplanting largely the clearing and planting system which had found favor during the middle of last century.

In corporation forests, large areas are still under coppice with standards, but will probably soon be converted into timber forest, a policy favored by cantonal instructions. Pure coppice is only rarely met, usually confined to the overflow lands and small private holdings. In some of the public forests in the French territory it is practised with a “double rotation” (_furetage_) according to French pattern.

Artificial means to secure complete stands in natural regenerations is favored by the cantonal regulations, but thinning operations are still mostly neglected, except where local market for inferior material makes them advisable, which is mostly in the plains country, where the annual yield from thinnings may represent 30% of the total harvest yield.

Conversion from coppice and coppice with standards into timber forest, and change from clearing systems to natural regeneration (proper for mountain forest), and from pure to mixed forest have become general provisions of the working plans.

The average cut in the State forests during four years prior to 1893 was over 64 cub. ft. p. acre, and 42 cub. ft. for the corporation forests; an average for all the public forests of round 45 cub. ft.,--not a very good showing as yet. So far, the collection of material for yield tables and for a statement of increment and stock on hand in the country at large are still insufficient, although, in 1882, Prof. Landolt estimated the annual product at little less than 500 million cubic feet, or 50 cubic feet per acre.

Only for the intensively managed city forests of Zürich and the cantonal forests of Bern are more accurate data available. In the latter, the State forests yield 50 cubic feet in the plateau country, 73 cubic feet, in the middle country, and 76 cubic feet in the Jura, while the communal forests of that canton yield 15, 66 and 56 cubic feet respectively. Prices for wood are higher in the low country than the average in Germany and have been steadily rising for the last 40 years, especially for coniferous saw material which at present brings stumpage prices of 12 to 15 cents.

Owing to these high prices the gross yield of some Swiss forests is the largest known in Europe; the city forest of Zürich, exhibiting yields of $12, and the city forest of Aarau as much as $14 per acre on the average, although in the Alps forests the gross yield sinks to $3 and $4. The more intensively managed city forests mentioned spend on their management $6 and even $7 per acre, while most of the State forests keep their expenditures within $2.50 to $3.50, and in some places down to $1.50 per acre. The net yields vary therefore for the State and communal forests of the plateau country between $3 and $6.50 for some of the city forests from $6.50 to $8 and $9.

Switzerland has long ago ceased to produce its wood requirements, and imports from 8 to 9 million dollars annually of wood and wood manufactures.

4. _Education and Literature._

For the education of the higher forest officials the Federal government instituted a two year course at the Polytechnicum at Zürich which was founded in 1885, the course being, in 1884, increased to three years. Three professors of forestry besides the faculty of the institution in fundamental and accessory branches are active here, the number of students averaging in the neighborhood of thirty-five.

Two examinations, a scientific and a practical one, the latter taken before a special commission, tests the eligibility of candidates, foreigners not excluded, for positions. For the education of the lower grade foresters, the Cantons themselves are responsible, the Bund only contributing by paying for teachers and demonstration material (about $1,250) to carry on cantonal or intercantonal forestry courses. The courses usually last from two weeks to two months, in succession or divided into spring and fall courses; they are mainly practical, and require candidates to be not less than 18 years of age and to possess a primary school education. Their number must be at least 15, and not more than 25. There have also been instituted specially conducted excursions and progressive underforesters’ courses, as well as additional scientific courses which the Bund subsidizes.

In connection with the Zürich school, forestry science and art are furthermore advanced by a well-endowed central Forest Experiment Station, with several substations and an annual budget of $10,000.

The greatest credit for the advancement of forestry and forest legislation is due to the Swiss Forestry Association (365 members in 1911), which was founded in 1843, meeting annually in various places, managed by a Committee of five elected for 3 years. This Association is subsidized by the Bund for its educational work. _Schweizerische Zeitschrift für das Forstwesen_ (begun 1850) is its organ, with _Dr. Fankhauser_ as editor.

In 1898, an association of underforesters with a special organ, _Der Forstwirth_, came into existence (526 members in 1902), and several cantonal foresters’ associations are also active.

* * * * *

In the literature, which is largely in German, with some French and Italian volumes, notable works have appeared and real advances in forestry science especially with reference to management of mountain forests are due to Swiss writers.

In 1767, the _Société d’Economie de Zurich_ published a foresters’ manual, and during the first quarter of the nineteenth century, _Zschokke_ and _Kasthofer_ developed silviculture in the Alps. _Landolt_, in 1860, published the results of his investigations (under the order of the Bund of 1857) into the forest conditions of the Alps, and contributed other volumes along similar lines.

He was succeeded by the now venerable _Dr. J. Coaz_ as Inspector-General of the Bund (still active at 90 years of age), who also contributed to the science of mountain reboisement and in other directions. The work on the management of the City forest of Zürich by its long-time manager _Meister_ is classic. Under the active direction of _Anton Bühler_ for many years, the publication of (now under _Dr. Engler_) _Mittheilungen der eidgenössischen Centralanstalt für das forstliche Versuchswesen_, since 1891, have become important contributions to forestry science. In the direction of wood technology the name of _L. Tetmajer_, who is conducting timber tests, should be mentioned.

FRANCE.

No complete monographic history of forestry in France is in
existence, and mainly incomplete notes scattered through various
volumes were at the disposal of the writer.

The work which contains the largest amount of historic information
is G. HUFFEL, _Economie Forestière_, 3 volumes, 1904-1907, pp. 422,
484, 510, perhaps the most ambitious work in the French language,
which has been largely followed in the account here given. It is a
collection of ten studies, historical data being interspersed
throughout the three volumes, the third volume containing one study
entirely historical.