Chapter L: F. A. MAURY, Les forêts de la Gaule et de l’ancienne France, (4)

The distribution of this forest area is most uneven. The bulk and the most valuable portion of it is found in the south-eastern corner around Christiania in eight counties, in which the forest per cent. exceeds 40 to 50, with conifer growth (pine and spruce) up to the 3,000 foot level. Again in the three counties around Trondhjem a large and important forest area is located at the head of the fjords. But the entire western coast and the higher elevations are devoid of valuable forest growth and the northern third of the country (north of the Arctic circle) is mostly heath and moors with only 7% wooded, mainly birch growth of little commercial value.

The commercially important forest area is, therefore, locally confined. It is estimated that one-half of the territory has to import its lumber, one-quarter has sufficient for home consumption, and the excess which permits exportation is confined to the last quarter. This export, mostly in logs and staves, which amounts to nearly 20 million dollars (40% of the total export) half of it woodpulp is estimated to represent only one-fifth or one-sixth of the total cut, which is stated as about 350 million cubic feet, or at the rate of 23 cubic feet on the productive area while the annual growth is estimated at less than this amount, namely at the rate of nearly 21 cubic feet in the southern districts, and in the northern not over 12 cubic feet.

Scotch Pine is the principal timber, and occurs beyond the Arctic Circle--the northernmost forest in the world--where its rotation becomes 150 to 200 years, with Norway Spruce more or less localized, these two species forming 75 per cent. of the forest growth; oak, ash, basswood and elm occurring sporadically, and White Birch being ubiquitous.

* * * * *

Forest property developed on the same lines as in Sweden and in other European countries, hence we find State, communal, and private property.

When in the ninth century, upon Harold’s accession, the commons were declared the property of the king, the rights of user, both to wood and grazing, were retained by the _märker_, and the so-called State commons (_stats-almenninger_) remain to date encumbered by these rights, similar to conditions in Sweden. From the end of the 17th to the middle of the 19th century it was the policy of the kings to dispose of these commons whenever their exchequer was low, and the best of these lands became, by purchase, property of the districts (_bygdealmenning_), provinces, city and village corporations, or else became private property on which the rights of user continued (_privatalmenninger_).

At present the State owns, largely in the northern districts, somewhat over 4.8 million acres (28.5%); but of this hardly 2 million acres are productive, and of these productive acres half a million consists of encumbered commons from which the State receives hardly any income. The district commons or communal, and other public institute forests comprise around 7,800,000 acres (46%); but here again only 580,000 acres are productive. The balance then, or a full one-quarter is in private hands.

* * * * *

Export trade in wood had been very early carried on, and had been considerably developed in the 13th and 14th century. By the middle of the 17th century the coast forest of oak had been cut out by Dutch and English wood merchants who had obtained logging privileges under special treaties of 1217 and 1308, and by Hanseatic cities, especially Hamburg entering this market in the middle of the 16th century.

There are records which would make it appear that at least some of the now denuded coast was forested in olden times. The development of the iron industry increased the drain on these supplies, which forest fires, insects and excessive grazing prevented from recuperating.

As early as the middle of the 16th century we find attempts to arrest the devastation by regulating the export trade and supervising the sawmills, forbidding especially the erection of sawmills intended to work for export only.

In the 17th century, various commissions were appointed by Christian IV to make forest reconnaissances and elaborate rules for proper forest use. In 1683, Christian V issued a forest ordinance increasing the number of forest inspectors instituted by his predecessor, and giving in detail the rules governing forest use, many of which proved impractical.

In 1725, a commission, the socalled forest and sawmill commission, was appointed to organize a forest service. It functioned until 1739, when the first _Generalforstamt_ was established and the first attempt at real forest management was made. This came into existence through the efforts of two famous German foresters, J. G. von Langen and von Zanthier, who with six assistants were called in from the Harz mountains (as also afterwards to Denmark and Sweden), during the years 1736 to 1740, to make a forest survey and organize a management. Descriptions and instructions were elaborated in German and the service was largely manned by German “wood foresters” (_holzforsterne_). The strictness of the department which had been organized after von Langen’s departure in 1739, made it, however, unpopular, and, in 1746, it was abolished, von Zanthier returning to his country, the sole survivor, the other assistants having succumbed to scurvy. The administration was again placed in the hands of a commission which continued till 1760.

Only the forests connected with mines remained under the administration as instituted, and those belonging to the copperworks of Roras continued under its forest inspectors until 1901.

In that year, 1760, another shortlived attempt to organize a forest administration was made, but the new organization did not fare any better and was superseded in 1771. Then followed an interim regimen, during which the general government and district officers were in charge.

The old orders under which forest use had been regulated remained mostly in force until in 1795 all the reasonable and the unreasonable obstructions to export were removed. The sawmill privileges, under which English lumbermen held large areas for long terms and devastated them without regard to the impractical regulations, were, however, not ended until 1860. The wood industries were then relieved entirely from restrictions, and forest destruction progressed even more rapidly with the increasing facilities for transportation.

This final cessation of the destructive policy was the outcome of a campaign which started once more with a forest commission instituted, in 1849, to take stock and make new propositions. This commission reported in 1850, and pointed out not only the necessity of terminating the sawmill privileges, which was done in 1854, giving time till 1860, but also very wisely accentuated the need of technically educated foresters if anything for forest recuperation was to be done.

To meet this latter want, young men were sent to Germany at government expense to study forestry. Some 10 or 12 men were educated in this way during the next decade and thereby the basis for a technical forest management was laid. In 1857, the first two professional foresters, Mejdell and Barth, were placed in charge of affairs under the Interior Department, and when in 1859 a new commission was charged with organizing a forest service, these two men were members. Gradually an organization took shape under the direction of these two _forestmeisters_, and, finally, in 1863, the modern forest department and forest policy was established by law, placing the State domain and other public forests under an effective management, making provision for the extinction of the ruinous rights of user and also for reducing the mismanagement of private forests.

The forest service, as now constituted after a reorganization in 1906, is in the Department of Agriculture under a director (_Skovdirector_) and 4 _Forstmeister_ or inspectors with some executive officers under various names, and 360 rangers (_skogsvogternes_), including the rangers employed in the public forests outside the State domain. The ranges are so large, sometimes several million acres, and many of them so inaccessible that only the most extensive management is possible; the officials being poorly paid and poorly educated, the management is, of course, not of a high order.

Besides a “forest engineer,” who is a public lecturer, the officers of the forest department are under the obligation of advising private forest owners in their management, under contracts somewhat similar to the present practice of the U. S. Forestry Bureau, the owners agreeing to follow the advice.

Since 1860, the State has begun to purchase forest lands for reforestation in the forestless districts and where, for protective reasons, it is desirable. In late years, regular appropriations of $15,000 to $20,000 were annually made for this purpose, besides extraordinary grants. In this way, the cut-over lands, neglected by their owners, are cheaply acquired by the State. Besides its own planting, the State assists private owners by advice and money grants and plantmaterial in reforesting their waste lands.

The communal forests are under government supervision; they are usually worked under plans and under supervision of foresters with a view to supply the needs of the community. Only when the area is more than sufficient may they obtain the right to cut for sale outside of their parish; on the other hand all fellings may be prohibited by the government, if this is found desirable. As regards private property there seems to be little or no supervision, although the law of 1863 had declared _Kulturplight_ and _Kulturtvank_, i.e., the duty of reforesting, but it had not defined that duty, and the law remained a dead letter.

In 1874, a special commission was charged to consider the forest policy which the public welfare required. The commission reported in 1879 with propositions, which were submitted to the officials of the department and the district. A new proposition was worked out and submitted in 1882, but it was pigeonholed until 1891, when the forest administration brought in not a general law but one merely forbidding the export from Nordland, Tromsoe and Finmarken, the thinly forested northern provinces.

Finally, in 1893, legislation was had enabling municipalities to protect themselves against destruction of forests needed for their protective function. This gives to them the right to formulate rules which are to prevent devastation, as for instance a diameter limit for felling, or reforestation of clearings. But the costs of such restriction must be borne by the municipalities as well as half the cost of inspection, the other half being paid by the State. The procedure to determine the protective quality of forests and the financial difficulty have left the law unused.

In 1878, however, a committee of private owners formed itself, to fix the sand dunes, which with the State subventions started work the following year.

* * * * *

Many of the State forests are so burdened with rights of user, which were granted to help in developing the country, that the financial results of the forest administration and the conditions of the State property are most unsatisfactory, and the application of silviculture greatly circumscribed.

The silvicultural system applied is most generally the rough selection forest or an approach to group system, relying upon voluntary reproduction entirely. Management is much hampered by rights of user to certain dimensions, and in the more distant districts by the difficulty of disposing of any but the best sizes. An orderly organization is still almost unknown. The stumpage is sold and removed by the buyer and the axe is still mainly used.

* * * * *

Higher forest schools there are none, but three schools for the lower grades had existed for some time, the first having been established in 1875 at Kongsberg; one of them was abandoned in 1889. Forestry is also taught at two farm schools.

Until recently the higher class foresters had to get their education in Germany, or in the Swedish Forest Institute at Stockholm; but in 1879, a chair of forestry was instituted in the Agricultural college at Kristiania.

In 1881, the first forestry association was formed, which by 1898 had over 500 members, and then was re-organized with a special view to elevate private forestry practice. It has now (1907) 1,500 members, and employs a forester paid by the State, to give professional advice, and works with State aid. It has set out over 50 million trees besides sowing 8,000 lbs. of seed. It publishes a journal _Tidskrift for Skogsbruk_, and a Yearbook. There is also another journal, _Forstligt Tidskrift_, and a professional Society of Foresters.

Altogether forestry is not yet on a high level in this country, but the subject is now being brought even into the primary schools, and the efforts to improve conditions are widespread.

DENMARK.

Forestry in Denmark is of interest especially on account of the intensive methods developed on small areas, and of the efforts at reforestation of sand dunes, moors and heaths.

Greatly curtailed in area when, as a result of the war of 1864, Prussia detached the provinces of Schleswig and Holstein, Denmark now has an area of 15,360 square miles with 2.5 million people (or 163 to the square mile). It is largely a farming country, 80 per cent. being productive, only 6.3 per cent. of it, or less than 600,000 acres being under forest, and this also mostly on soil capable of farm use; hence an import of over 7 million dollars worth of wood material is required.

In addition, there are about 75,000 acres of heaths and other wastes in process of reforestation. Especially on the island of Själland, on which the capital Copenhagen, is situated, the forest area is now increasing by planting. The balance, or nearly 20 per cent. of the land area, consists of heaths, moors, peatbogs and sands.

Half the forest area is located on the islands, and as these represent about one-third of the total area, they are twice as densely forested as the peninsula of Jütland. This latter along the north and west coast for 200 miles represents a large sandbank with extensive sand dunes, shifting sands, heaths and moors, a desolate almost uninhabited country of sterile downs, called Klitten, the recovery of which has been in progress for a hundred years. According to some, this once bore a coniferous forest, more likely it was never forested.

While originally beech was and is still the predominant timber (60%) with considerable additions of oak (7%) and other hardwoods, a conifer forest of spruce and pine, covering more than 20% of the forest area, has been established by planting. This planting has been mainly done on the dunes and sandwastes, and in the reclamation of the extensive heaths and moors or peat bogs, especially in the northern Limfjord district, which occupy one-sixth of the unproductive area.

* * * * *

As was natural, the forest stocking on good farm land had to yield early to plow and pasture. Attempts at conservative use of the forest area date back to 1557 when Christian III issued a forest ordinance directing his vassals or liege lords to permit the peasants to secure their domestic wood requirements at a cheap rate, but not to permit cutting for sale or export, and reserving to himself all returns from such sales. There were also regulations for the pasture, especially as to goats, and for the use of the mast, which then formed more than one-quarter of the income from the royal forests.

In the 18th century the need of forest management was recognized, and in 1762 the two eminent German foresters, von Langen and von Zanthier (see p. 88) were invited to visit Denmark and Norway (see above) with a view of organizing such management. In 1760, eight young Danes were sent to von Langen in Wernigerode to study his methods for three years, and these with the two German foresters returned in 1762, and under the direction of von Langen organized the Seeland forest areas and started the first plantations of conifers, which are now the pride of Danish foresters.

In 1781, the State forests were altogether placed under an organized administration.

By the beginning of the 19th century the reduction of forest areas had progressed to such an extent that, in 1805, a law was enacted providing that the then existing forest area containing beech and oak should be maintained as such forever, or at least that for any new clearing an equivalent area be planted to forest. This law was perhaps the result of a journey in 1802, to Germany made by two leading officials of the forest department, German influence through Cotta and Hartig being at this time visible everywhere.

Other restrictions in the disposal of peasants’ farms or woodlands and in the manner of farming the large estates (otherwise than by renting to farmers), were also enacted in order to secure stability of the peasant class. It was at this time that the accumulative taxing of landed estates now under heated discussion in Great Britain, was used effectively to break up the aggregation of landed property and changed the country from one of baronial estates to small farmer’s holdings. In this reform movement the name of Count _Reventlow_, Chief of the State forest department, appears as the leading spirit.

The forest area, which until 1820 was on the decrease, has since that time increased steadily, and is especially now increasing through reforestation of waste lands.

At present, most intensive forest management is practised in the State forest as well as in the communal and private forest areas, which latter as stated, are largely in farmers’ wood lots since the law forbids the union of small farms into large estates. There is little communal property, and large private estates are also rare. The State owns about 24% of the forest area or 142,000 acres, of which one third is nonproductive or otherwise occupied, and one third consists of coniferous plantations. Excepting in the beech forest, most of the timber is of the younger age classes, below 60 to 80 years, and it is anticipated that the cut will have to be reduced, and the import of wood and woodenware increased.

* * * * *

Artificial reproduction is the most general silvicultural practice except in the beech forest which is reproduced naturally after preparation of the soil and sowing acorns for admixture at the same time, spending altogether $12 to $15 per acre in this preparation. Since 1880, thinnings have been based on the idea of favoring final harvest trees somewhat after the French fashion; they are begun in the twentieth to thirtieth year and are repeated every three years, aided by pruning. Then in each subsequent decade the return occurs in as many years as the decade has tens. Especially in the direction of thinnings, the German practice and even theory is outdone, the thinnings being made severer and recurring more frequently.

More than a hundred years ago the State began the reclamation work of the dunes and heaths, but it progressed more actively only since the sixties of last century as a result of legislation had in 1857. In 1867, a special Dune Department was instituted, and through the effort of a State engineer, Capt. _Dalgas_, an association was formed for the reclamation of heaths and moors. A small subvention of $600 started the work of the association, in its useful campaign under the advice of Staats planteur (State forest planter) _Jensen Tusch_. The State subvention now amounts to about forty thousand dollars annually, and the success of the association has been such that it has become almost a fad for large land owners and others to buy up these waste lands and have them planted through the agents of the Heath Association. The planting is mainly of spruce in plow furrows at a cost of $10 to $12 per acre; 60 to 80 year old stands of earlier plantings testifying to the possible results.

In the last 40 years nearly 200,000 acres of heath have been planted, of which over one-half are to the credit of the association.

* * * * *

For the education of the higher grade foresters a department of forestry (now with two professors) was instituted in the Royal Veterinary and Agricultural High School at Copenhagen in 1869, with a course of five years including one and a half year of practical work. This education is given free of charge.

The Heath Association educates its own officers, including in their subjects the management of meadows and peatbogs.

A Forestry Association, composed one-half of forest owners, with its organ _Tidskrift for Skovvaesen_, in existence since 1888, and a valuable book literature, in which the problems of the heath are especially fully and authoritatively treated, places Denmark in the foremost rank in the forestry world in these particulars.

Among the prominent contributors are to be mentioned, besides Reventlow and Dalgas, _P. E. Müller_, well known by his discussions of the problems of moor soils. From 1876 to 1891, he issued a magazine, in which _Oppermann_ contributed a history of Danish forestry. The latter author also, in co-operation with _Hauch_, published in 1900 a Hand-book of Forestry.

THE MEDITERRANEAN PENINSULAS.

Geographically, and to some extent climatically, the three peninsulas of the Mediterranean Sea, the Iberian, Italian, and the Balkan, are situated alike. Their people, if not in race, are in temper and characteristics, and in their political economy more or less alike. They represent the oldest civilization in Europe, and in their long history have been frequently in collision with each other. Their forests, through centuries of abuse, are wherever accessible, in poorest condition. Long-continued political disturbances, which have prevented peaceful development, and poverty, have been the greatest hindrances to economic reforms like the recuperation of forests, which require sacrifices. Ancient rights of user, and the necessity of politicians to respect them are also responsible for the fact that, while praiseworthy attempts in legislation have been made, execution has been usually lagging behind.

The accessibility to sea, permitting readily importation, the temperate climate, the simple life and abstemiousness of the people, and the lack of industrial development have made the deficiency of wood material less felt than it would otherwise be, but the detrimental influence of forest destruction is being repeatedly experienced in floods and drouths.

There is probably no more potent cause of forest devastation in all this section of the world than the pasturing of the woods, especially with sheep and goats.

While Italy is now a united country, and only two peoples, Spain and Portugal, occupy the Iberian peninsula, the Balkan peninsula is occupied by eight separate peoples, if we include all the country south of the Danube River and East of the Carpathian Mountains.

TURKISH AND SLAVISH TERRITORIES.

The Turks for centuries warred with, had under vassalage or otherwise controlled, and misruled all the Slavish States, as well as Macedonia and Greece--a territory of around 170,000 square miles and 16,000,000 people--until, by the Congress of Berlin (1878), ending the Russo-Turkish war, these States were recognized as independent kingdoms, namely Bulgaria, Servia, Montenegro, Roumelia, and Roumania, while Bosnia-Hercegovina was placed under Austrian administration (see page 155 and 166).

With the exception of Roumania, these people are still in the lower stages of civilization, the countries undeveloped, the forest still serves largely for the mast and pasturage, probably less than 24 per cent. of the country being forest covered, mostly with deciduous trees, oak, beech and walnut, etc.

Roumania alone has systematically taken advantage of her freedom from Turkish rule in developing a modern civilization, and can also boast the beginning of a forestry system.

_Roumelia_, comprising _Macedonia_, _Albania_ and _Thrace_, the Turkish possessions in Europe, with 67,000 square miles and 5,000,000 people, contain large areas of untouched forest (not less than 5,000,000 acres in Macedonia alone[10]) with valuable oak and walnut, which have remained unused owing to their inaccessibility and the undesirability of developing them under Turkish rule. Where accessible, the forest is maltreated or destroyed.

[10] Lacretelle, Rapport sur les forêts de la Macédoine, 1893.

_Bulgaria_, to which, in 1885, East Roumelia was attached, represents now 38,000 square miles and over 4,000,000 people, independent under a German prince as king since 1879. The forest area[11] of 7.5 million acres (30 per cent. of the land area), mostly deciduous (oak, beech, walnut, etc.), and largely confined to the mountains, is one-half in communal ownership, one-sixth in private hands, mostly small woodlots, and one-third State property; but ownership rights are still much in doubt, and until 1869 the State forests were freely open to the use of all, when some sort or regulation of the cut according to the needs of different communities was attempted. Since within 10 years such rights of user establish ownership, endless litigation has resulted, until in 1883 a law was enacted ordering the stoppage of rights of user, substituting money payment (10 per cent. of value), and another restricting the diameter to which the most valuable export timber, walnut, may be cut. Changes in detail were made in 1897, but political exigencies, absence of an adequate organization, and other undeveloped conditions have largely prevented enforcement of these laws, and rough exploitation continues in spite of the nominal State control.

[11] _Forstliche Rundschau_, 1903.

Owing to inaccessibility of many of the agricultural districts to the wooded mountains, a large import was necessary, but lately export almost equals the import, and indeed the export of walnut has increased fourteenfold in a few years. The forest administration is vested in a bureau under the Minister of Commerce and Agriculture, with a chief, an inspector general, and two assistant chiefs. When it is stated that in 1905 the entire budget for forestry was $150,000, the inefficiency of the service is apparent.

_Servia_, a kingdom with 19,000 square miles and 2,000,000 people, has over 42 per cent. (five million acres--according to others only 32%) still in untouched forest, with valuable oak and walnut, the forest being mainly used for hograising. Over 36% is State forest, over 43% communal and institutional forest, leaving about 20% in private hands; but, just as in Bulgaria, property conditions are still somewhat unsettled. Like Bulgaria also on account of the uneven distribution of forest area, lack of transportation and systematic development--a large part of the population are more cheaply supplied by importation, which amounts to near one million dollars. Curiously enough, by the law of 1891 only the wood cut from State and church forests could be exported free of duty. This export duty was abolished in 1904, and the first attempt was made by the Minister of Agriculture to bring order into the forest administration by importing German foresters.

The law of 1891, with various subsequent additions and changes, placed private forest property located on exposed mountain slopes or on shifting sands, or on bogsoils under government surveillance, and relieved plantations made under direction of the government of taxes for 10 years.

_Roumania_,[12] with 50,000 square miles and nearly 6,000,000 people, under the capable administration of a Hohenzollern prince, King Charles, was in Roman times as _Dacia felix_ one of the most prosperous provinces, half of it hilly and mountainous, the other half in the rich alluvial valley of the Danube, now largely deforested. The hill and mountain country was until the end of the eighteenth century still well wooded. A rapid depletion then took place by the demands of the Turkish markets, until now not quite 17 per cent. (according to others 18 or 20 per cent.) of the area is forested, and multifarious rights of user, which made commons of the woods, have naturally led to widespread devastation in the accessible parts. In 1847, the National Assembly attempted regulation of the cut and of the rights of user, but with little effect. In 1894, the total area had decreased to less than 5 million acres (according to others 6.7 million acres), of which two-fifths is in private hands, two-fifths State property and Royal forest (formerly, until 1863, in the hands of the monks), the small balance belonging to communities and institutes. In the higher mountains, fir and spruce with some pine and larch form the forest; but broadleaf forest, especially oak and beech is the prevailing type occupying the middle altitudes and the hill country. The private forest of small owners is being rapidly depleted, only the State forest and that of large proprietors being in good condition.

[12] _Die forstwirtschaftlichen Verhältnisse Rumaniens_, Von Mihail
Vasilescu, 1891. _Notice sur les forêts de Roumanie, in Statistica
pâdurilor Statulin._ 1903.

In 1863, when the cloister property was secularized and taken over by the state, the rights of user in this property were suspended, and sales at auction to contractors were inaugurated, under condition that a certain number of seed trees per acre be left. There was little enforcement of this rule.

The first comprehensive law organizing the State property and inaugurating a protective policy was enacted in 1881. This law recognized State, Royal and Communal property as of public concern, and also placed such private property under supervision as was situated on steep slopes, near watercourses, and near the boundaries (of strategic importance). These areas, coming under the protective policy, comprise 84 per cent. of the whole forest area. They were not to be cleared except by special permit, and not to be exploited except under specially approved working plans.

In 1885, three French foresters were called in to organize a State forest department and to inaugurate the making of working plans. The personnel (25 inspectors and 89 district officers) being insufficient, and wood prices low (the income from state property being not over $400,000), the progress of the work was slow. Although, in 1894, the income had doubled, the administrative forces had not been enlarged to any great extent (137 foresters of various grades), and by that time only 150,000 acres had been brought under working plans. By 1900, about 200,000 acres of State property, or 14 per cent., and 500,000 acres of private forest, or 22 per cent., were organized in some fashion. Lack of means of transportation, however, prevents a really well regulated management. Altogether only 65 per cent. of the State property is accessible so that it can be worked, and the working plans consist mainly in leaving a number of seed trees.

In 1889, a Forestry Association (_Progressul Silvic_) was formed, which with its organ, _Revista pâdurilor_, pushes the propaganda. In 1890, an energetic Minister of Domains, Carp, sought strenuously to bring improvement into the situation. A budget of $500,000 for foresters’ dwellings was secured to bring the forest managers into closer contact with their charges, a planting fund of $100,000, later increased to $140,000 per annum, was voted, and reforestation and reclamation of sand dunes was begun. A forest improvement fund was inaugurated in 1892 by setting aside 2 per cent. of the gross forest yield. But, in the political struggles, Carp’s party was displaced, and, depression in agricultural prosperity causing financial distress, an era of increased exploitation followed, so that the export of forest products, largely cooperage, (mainly to Greece, Italy and France) which had been declining to less than half, rose again to about four million dollars annually. The financial embarrassment of the State led even to a proposition to sell State forests, but, before contracts for this purpose were consummated, relief came and the danger was averted.

The State cuts about 22,000 acres annually, yielding about $1,000,000, the administration costing (in 1903) $240,000, leaving a net yield of 30 cents per acre. In 1898, the Forest Department, in the Direction of Domains under the Ministry of Agriculture consisted of a Forest Director with 156 foresters academically educated (mostly in France, and since 1892 in the Agricultural Institute at Bucharest), and over 2,500 underforesters and guards. Of some 30,000 acres of sand dunes, one-half belonging to the State, about 18,000 acres have been recovered by planting Black Locust, and some 9,000 acres of plains country have been reforested, for which 330 acres of nurseries furnish the material. In spite of all these efforts, excessive pasturing, although forbidden in the State forest, and fires continue to devastate the property.

Private forestry is, of course, much less developed; yet some large properties (Princess Schoenburg, with 20,000 acres) are under efficient German forest management. Here, money is spent on developing means of transportation, and a better revenue is secured than in State forests.

GREECE.

DR. CHLOROS, Waldverhältnisse Griechenlands. Thesis for the
Doctorate at Munich. 1884. 45 pp.

ANDERLIND, Mittheilungen über die Waldverhältnisse Griechenlands.
Allgemeine Forst- und Jagdzeitung. 1884.

The history of the country has been so unfortunate, and political conditions so unsettled that only lately efforts at improvement in economic conditions could hope to receive attention. For centuries after Greece had become a Roman province (146 B.C.), it changed rulers, Romans, Byzantines, Franks, Venetians following each other, until, between 1460 and 1473, it came under the Turkish yoke. As a result of an insurrection started in 1821, freedom, but no settled order as yet, was attained in 1829 through the assistance of Great Britain, France and Russia, and the elected kings, Otho (of Bavaria), Alfred (of England) and George (of Denmark) successively tried to secure social order and efficient constitutional government.

By the time this new era had arrived there was probably little valuable forest worthy of the name left, except in the inaccessible mountain districts.

1. _Forest Conditions._

Although certain districts, like Attica, were already practically denuded in Plato’s time, there is little doubt that originally the whole of Greece with small exceptions was a continuous forest. The destruction of the forest, protected by thousands of gods and nymphs in holy groves, proceeded slowly under the regime of the ancient Greeks, until the fanaticism of the Christian religion led to a war against these pagan strongholds, and the holy groves were reduced by axe and fire. Turkish misrule for centuries, over-taxation, reckless cutting, extensive herding of goats and sheep, and fires have reduced the forest area until now it occupies only 12 or 14 per cent. of the land area (25,000 square miles). In 1854, a survey developed about 2 million acres of woodlands (probably an excessive figure) for the now 2.5 million people, while 67 per cent. of the surface is a useless waste, and only 20 per cent. under cultivation, so that the general aspect of the country is desolate. The many islands are entirely deforested, and so are the seashores. “Where in olden times dense shady poplars stood, now only infertile sand and dreary rock waste remain.”

The forest in northern and middle Greece is confined to the two rugged mountain ranges with numerous spurs which run parallel, north and south, with Mt. Olympus (nearly 9,000 feet) and Mt. Pindus (6,000 feet) the highest elevations. The large fertile plains of Thessaly and Boeotia are forestless. So is the large Arcadian plateau of the Peloponnesus, and the other smaller, hot but fertile plains and plateaus. The most valuable conifer forest is found on the higher ranges between the 2,500 and 5,000 foot level, below the snow-clad mountain tops, where especially two species of fir, _Abies Apollinis_ and _Abies reginæ Amaliae_ (a species remarkable for its sprouting habit), with other firs and several species of _Juniperus_ and _Cupressus_, form sometimes extensive forests. Other common trees are chestnut, sycamore, several species of oak and poplar, and, on the coast, _Pinus halepensis_.

The firs occupy about 35 per cent. of the forest area, oaks and deciduous forest 45 per cent. Among the forest products which are exported, we find galls, vermillion and sumach prominent.

It is believed that Greece in ancient times was more fertile than it is now, and that the deterioration is due to deforestation. Undoubtedly soil conditions favored such deterioration, for, with the exception of the Pindus range, which is composed of metamorphic rock, a poor, dry limestone is characteristic of the country except where fertile, alluvial and diluvial deposits cover it in valleys along the coast. The climate is, however, so favorable that even the poor soil would readily reclothe itself if left alone. The winters are short, hardly three months, and with hardly any snow or ice except on the high mountains, making the vegetative period nine months; and, with temperature ranges from 20 to 106 degrees F.; rainfall average 400 mm.; the summers, to be sure, rainless and dry, but the other seasons humid, somewhat less than in middle Europe, rapid growth is the result of these conditions. But the continued pasturing of goats and sheep--some six million--prevents any natural reforestation. Increased taxation on this industry has had no effect, and the practice of permitting the people to gather dry wood for fuel is an incentive for making dry wood by setting fires, which also serve to improve the pasture; perhaps nowhere are forest fires more frequent, in spite of heavy penalties. That a baneful influence on the water condition and river flow has been the result is historically demonstrated by Chloros.[13]

[13] See _Allgemeine Forst- und Jagdzeitung 1884_, p. 183 ff., and
1887, p. 327 ff. for interesting details.

In the mountains some fine and quite extensive bodies of fir still exist, lack of transportation having preserved them. Elsewhere the rights of user, and the herding of goats are so well established that reforms appear, indeed, difficult.

Firewood, 3 loads for each person, supposed to be taken from the dead or otherwise useless trees, and small dimension material is free to all. For the right to cut workwood, the government charges a tax of 25 to 30 per cent. of the value of the material, the price for this being annually determined. On the material cut in private forests, the government also levies a tax of from 12 to 18 per cent. of its value. This pernicious system of promiscuous cutting leads to the most wasteful use imaginable, not only high stumps, but large amounts of good material are left in the woods so that it is estimated that hardly 50 per cent. of what is cut is really utilized. The cut, as far as the tax gives a clue to it, amounts to around 2.7 million cubic feet workwood, but with the firewood included it was estimated that near 90 million cubic feet are cut annually. Importation to the amount of 1.5 million dollars, mostly from Austria and Roumania, makes up the deficit in work material, especially for the box factories which manufacture the packages for the large export of currants, some 2 million boxes. The tax during the decade from 1862 to 1871 produced an annual income of $600,000, a little less in 1895.

The forest has been from olden times, and is now almost entirely, State property (some 80 or 90 per cent.) and in nearly all the remaining, private, communal and cloister property the State has a partial ownership or supervision. The waste land of probably 3 million acres extent also belongs to the State, the whole State property covering over 30 per cent. of the land area.

2. _Development of Forest Policies._

A first definite attempt to regulate matters was made by Otho, who being a German, took a personal interest in this forest property, and instituted for each province forest inspectors (dasarchys) under one chief inspector, with forest guards, to prevent devastation by fire and theft. The mistake was made of employing in these positions superannuated Bavarian army officers, who were merely a burden on the treasury. No management or even regular fellings were attempted. The population could, as before, supply its needs upon permits, always granted, from the governor of the province, one of the forest guards being supposed to vise these, and to see that the wood was properly employed, not, however, to supervise the cutting.

In 1877, further legislation was had, instituting in the Ministry of Finance, a forest inspector, technically trained, with two assistant inspectors, also technically trained, to superintend the outside work. A forest survey was begun in 1879, but interrupted in 1880 for lack of funds and personnel. The same law placed the duty of guarding the State property in the hands of the general police or gendarmerie, 50 officers and some 340 guards, and during the fire danger (June to October) 110 more, being detailed for this service under direction of the Minister of War. The pernicious permit system, however, was continued.

Dr. Chloros, who obtained his education in Germany, became finally Forest Director and was responsible for securing further legislation in 1888, the object of which was, as a first step towards improvement, to survey and delimit and round off the State property. It provided that enclaves, and all absolute forest soil was to be expropriated. If no amicable agreement with the owner could be reached, the price was to be determined by the net yield which had been obtained from the property during the last five years, capitalized at 5 per cent. No attempts, however, at an efficient organization or change of the destructive permit system were made.

By general law, the State has the right to surveillance of private property, although the extent of this right is not fully defined. The government may take for its own use, by paying for it, upwards of one-sixth of the annual cut; it collects a tax of 12 to 18 per cent. for all woodwork cut; it forbids the pasturing of woods that have been burned within 10 years, and obliges all owners of over 1200 acres to employ forest guards. This and other interference with property rights naturally acts as deterrent to private forest management. A notable exception is the small private royal forest property near Athens, which, since 1872 under a Danish forester, appears to have been managed under forestry principles.

A thorough re-organization of the forest service was effected in 1893, when 20 district foresters were employed, the number of forest inspectors was increased to four, and a regular Division of Forestry was instituted in the Finance Department. The general police or gendarmerie was continued as forest guards. Until a native personnel could be educated by sending young men to Germany, foreigners were to be employed for the making of working plans.

Yet in 1896, the then Director of the Forest Department, a lawyer, still complains of the absence of a proper organization and of any personnel with forestry knowledge. Apparently no progress had been made. In that year, however, the gendarmerie was to be replaced by forest guards (52 superior and 298 subaltern) who were to be appointed from graduates of a special secondary school, which had been instituted at Vytina some two years before. This replacement could, of course, not be effected at once, since hardly more than 25 men could be graduated annually; hence even this improvement in the lower class police would not be completed for six or eight years. No steps had been taken to educate officers for the higher grades, and in this direction, propositions merely were discussed.

In 1899, a change in the permit system was made, but hardly for the better, justices of the peace being empowered, under certain conditions, to issue such permits. Nor do we find in 1901 anything more than expressions of good wishes, and desire for further legislation, besides some attempts at popular education through the formation of tree-planting associations under the patronage of the Crown Princess. In 1905 no change in conditions are reported. Forest fires still continue as a common occurrence.

While the government makes efforts to improve conditions, the indifference, stupidity, cupidity, and malevolence of the people, and the long established abuses prevent rapid progress at reform.

ITALY.

_Bolletino ufficiale per l’amminstrazione forestale Italiana._

_Direzione generale dell’ Agricoltora: Relazione interno all’
amministrazione dei boschi domaniali inalienabili._

Various essays by Prof. VITTORIO PERONA of Vallambrosa in German
magazines; notably in _Allgemeine Forst- und Jagdzeitung_, 1882,
1888.

_Archeologia forestale. Dell’ antica storia e giurisprudenza
forestale in Italia._ A. DI BERENGER. 1859.

MAFFEI, _Revista forestale_.

_Italy._ By Prof. W. DEEKE. 1904.

_Il rimboschimento dello Appennino meridionale_, by LUIGI SAVASTANO,
1893. An exceedingly well written popular treatise on silviculture,
which gives also briefly insight into forest conditions and forest
practices.

_I boschia e la nostra politica Italiana_, by BERTAGNOLLI, 1889.

_Italia moderna._ 1904, article by LUNADONI.

The efforts to secure improvement in the treatment of forest resources have been more active and strenuous in Italy than in Greece. They were induced especially by the urgent need of protecting watersheds, the rivers throughout Italy having been turned into torrents by deforestation. But, owing to the weakness of the government and to poverty, the actual execution of the very good laws has lagged behind. Indeed, while ample legislation has been enacted, the people, overburdened with debt, and needing the small income that can be derived from pasturing or renting the pasture in the woods, make it difficult to carry on any reform, and the enforcement of the laws has again and again led to serious trouble. “Forestry is a sore point in the national economy of Italy, as it involves sacrifice of money and time.” Italy, therefore, is still in the transition period from forestal rapine to forest culture.

Densely populated (33 million on 110,600 square miles), with fully one-fifth of its area unproductive, or at least unused, and one-quarter of this almost or quite beyond redemption, no country offers better opportunities for studying the evil effects of deforestation on soil and waterflow. As a result of the combination of geology (slates and limestones), topography (steep slopes), climate, and forest devastation or destruction, mainly by pasturage of goats (two million), the Italian rivers are invariably flooded in March and mostly dry in summer; the melting of the snow coinciding with the heavy spring rains turns them into raging torrents (_fiumare_), silting over the fertile lands in the valleys and occasional landslides in the mountain country, where extensive tracts are nearly bare of vegetation. Especially the rivers around Bologna, which in 1897 again caused damage in excess of one million dollars, are dreaded.

1. _Forest Conditions._

Situated similarly to Greece as regards accessibility and climate, and similarly torn by wars and political strife, and in unstable conditions for centuries, Italy has in proportion to population, if not to area, reduced her forest resources even more than Greece; less than one-third of an acre per capita remains, with a total of somewhat over twelve million acres, or about 17 per cent. of the land area, and this includes much useless brushland, over 2 million acres. Apparently, if the uncertain statistics may be relied upon, a reduction of several million acres has taken place even since 1870. Some 15 million acres of waste land and swamps offer ample opportunity for increasing this forest area without infringing on the 42 million acres of usefully employed agricultural soil.

Of the forest area, 25 per cent. is to be found in the Alps, about 50 per cent. on the Apennines, the one mountain range which forms the backbone of Italy; less than one-quarter is distributed over the plains, and the small balance is found on the islands, especially Sicily, which is a hill and mountain country, once magnificently wooded, now largely denuded (4 per cent. wooded), and on Sardinia, which, with nearly 45 per cent. under forest, is the best wooded part of Italy, although the condition of the forest is here no better than elsewhere.

With the exception of the slopes of the Alps (2.5 million acres of spruce, fir, beech, larch), and the tops of the Apennines and remote plateaus (4.5 million acres), and of a few special places on which now and then even magnificent remnants of virgin forest may be found--lack of transportation having preserved them--most of the area is occupied by miserable brush forest, coppice or else open forest with scattered trees among a shrub undergrowth of thorns, hazel and chestnut (called macchia, i.e., chaparral), so that most Italians have never seen a real forest. Nevertheless, Italy is by no means as treeless as this condition of forest would imply, for trees (poplar, ash, elm) are dotting the plains and slopes, planted for vine supports and boundaries, unshapely through pollarding and lopping the branches for firewood. Olive and chestnut groves on the hills (of the former 2 million acres, of the latter over 400,000 acres planted for the fruit), and 8.5 million acres in vineyards add to the wooded appearance of the country and to the wood supply. The annual product of firewood from these planted trees is estimated at 6 million cords.

On the sand dunes and near the seashore, especially in the marshes, the Maritime, the Aleppo Pine, and the umbrella-shaped _Pinus pinea_, and picturesque Cypresses are sometimes found in small groves, while the calcareous hills in this region up to 1200 feet are studded with olives, cork and evergreen oak. Osier growing is here also quite extensively practiced. In the mountains, above the 2700 foot level, conifer forest, composed of _Pinus silvestris_ and _laricio_, and _Abies pectinata_, has been reduced to less than 7 per cent. of the whole, mixed conifer and deciduous forest represents 4 per cent., the bulk being deciduous forest of oak (several species) and beech, with chestnut. Forty-eight per cent. of the forest area is in coppice (_ceduo_), and of the 52 per cent. of high forest, the bulk is managed under selection system (_a scelta_), a small part under clearing system (_ad alto fusto_), although management can hardly be said to exist except in small groves.

That supply of workwood is insufficient for the needs of the population, and is decreasing, is attested by the fact that the importations more than doubled in the decade from 1892 to 1903 to near 14 million dollars, 80 per cent. of which was saw material, in addition to 2 million dollars of wood manufactures, while nearly 5 million dollars’ worth was exported in the last named year, mostly cork, casks, thin box-boards, olive wood manufactures, and charcoal. No better picture of the forest conditions can be had than by a statement of the home production, which, in 1886, (last official data) was placed at 48 million cubic feet of workwood, valued at 3.4 million dollars, 223 million cubic feet firewood, valued at 4.1 million, 106 million cubic feet charcoal, worth 3.6 million, and by-products to the large amount of 6.4 million dollars, altogether a little less than 17.6 million dollars. Firewood and charcoal, which represent over 80 per cent. of the product, are, of course, furnished by coppice, and in addition by the pollarded material, almost the only fuel to be had.

The ownership of the forest area is for the greater part private (53 per cent.) and communal (over 43 per cent.), the State owning a little over 400,000 acres, less than 4 per cent. The State property being so small, supervision of communal and private forest has become the policy.

The State forest is of two classes, the alienable, under the Department of Finance, the larger part, about 375,000 acres, and the inalienable, so declared by law of 1871, which was then about 115,000 acres, and was placed under a forest administration in the Department of Agriculture; but of this about 20 per cent. is not forest, and even in 1896, some of this small area was sold so that now only 40,000 acres remain. This area is to serve for demonstration of model management, and to supply government needs. Beech and oak with fir, pine and larch, mostly in timber forest, characterize this property, which is managed mostly in selection system. Curiously enough, in 1888, the difficulty of disposing advantageously of the old timber is complained of, due to lack of means of transportation. The personnel of the administration consists of a central bureau with one Inspector General, three Inspectors, and a Council. For each province, and in some cases for two or more provinces together, an Inspector with several Sub-inspectors and a number of guards or _brigadieri_ are charged with the management of the State property and the enforcement of the forest laws.

2. _Development of Forest Policy._

For centuries, since the fall of the Roman Empire (476 A.D.) until the end of the eighteenth century, Italy has been the victim of war and strife with neighbors or within its borders, being divided into numberless commonwealths, almost each city being independent. Hence, no economic improvements could take place until, under the influences of the French Revolution, the regeneration period began. Not, however, until the seven or eight states, which the Congress of Vienna (1815) had established, were moulded into one united Italy under Victor Emmanuel, during the years 1859 to 1870, could an effective reconstruction be inaugurated.

It is true that some of the republics in earlier times paid attention to their forest property. Notably in Venice, old forest ordinances[14] date back to 697, and, in 1453, a regular forest administration was instituted, especially to take care of the large forest area in Istria and Dalmatia, which fell into the hands of the Venetians about 1420. A tolerably conservative management continued here until the beginning of the eighteenth century when, in consequence of political complications, supervision became lax, and devastation began which continued through the century, leaving to the new century, and finally to the Austrians, the legacy of the Karst (see p. 173).

[14] BERENGER, Saggio storico della legislacione Veneta forestale,
1863. An excellent source.

Florence too, managed to prevent the deforestation of the summit of her mountains until the beginning of the eighteenth century, and in other republics, kingdoms and duchies, similar efforts at forest administration existed. Yet Genoa, which in Strabo’s time was the principal timber market of Italy, had by 1860 nearly all its mountain slopes denuded.