Chapter L: F. A. MAURY, Les forêts de la Gaule et de l’ancienne France, (3)

There are in existence several general societies for the encouragement of silviculture. Probably the oldest, which ceased to exist in 1850, was the Imperial Russian Society for the Advancement of Forestry which was founded in 1832. It published a magazine and provided translations of foreign books, among which the Forest Mathematics of the noted German forester König, who also prepared yield tables for the Society. (See p. 135.) A society of professional foresters was founded at St. Petersburg in 1871, another exists in Moscow, and recently two associations for the development of forest planting in the steppes have been formed.

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Among the prominent writers and practitioners there should be especially mentioned _Theodor Karlowitsch Arnold_, who is recognized as the father of Russian forestry. He was the soul of the forest organization work, for which he drew up the instructions in 1845, and as professor, afterwards director, of the Institute for Agronomy and Forestry at Moscow since 1857, he became the teacher of most of the present practitioners. Finally he became the head of the forest department in the Ministry of Apanages where he remained until his death in 1902. He is the author of several classical works on silviculture, forest mensuration, forest management, etc., and, in conjunction with _Dr. W. A. Tichonoff_, published an encyclopædic work in three volumes. In the first volume, _Russland’s Wald_ (1890), which has been translated into German, the author makes an extended plea for improved forestry practice and describes and argues at length the provisions of the law of 1888. In 1895, he published a history of forestry in Germany, France and Russia. Of other prominent foresters who have advanced forestry in Russia we may cite _Count Vargaci de Bedemar_, who made the first attempt to prepare Russian growth and yield tables in 1840 to 1850.

_Professor A. F. Rudzsky_, who was active at the Forest Institute until a few years ago, developed in his volumes especially the mathematical branches and methods of forest organization. The names of _Tursky_, _Kravchinsky_ and _Kaigodorov_ are known to Russian students of dendrology and silviculture, and among the younger generation the names of _Morozov_, _Nestorov_, _Orlov_, and _Tolsky_ may be mentioned.

It is well known how prominent Russian investigators have become in the natural sciences, and to foresters the work of the soil physicists, _Otozky_ and _Dokuchaev_ would at least be familiar.

4. _Forestry Practice._

While then a very considerable activity in scientific direction exists, the practical application of forestry principles is less developed than one would expect, especially in view of the stringent laws. So far not much more than conservative lumbering is the rule.

Generally speaking, the State and crown forests are better managed than the private, many of which are being merely exploited; and in the northern departments large areas remain still inaccessible.

Some notable exceptions to the general mismanagement of private forests are furnished by some of those owned by the nobility, like those of Count Uwaroff with 150,000 acres under model management by a German forester, and of Count Strogonoff with over 1,000,000 acres under first-class organization with a staff of over 230 persons.

A regular forest organization was first attempted in the forests attached to iron furnace properties in 1840. By this time some 100 million acres have come under regulated management, half of the area being government forests. The method of regulation employed is that of area division and sometimes area allotment according to Cotta. In some regions a division by rides into compartments, ranging from 60 to 4,000 acres each, according to intensity of exploitation, has been effected. It is estimated that at the present rate of progress it would take 300 years to complete the work of organization.

The selection method is still largely employed, a felling budget by number of trees and volume being determined in the incompletely organized areas; while a clearing system with artificial reforestation is used in most cases where a complete yield calculation has been made. The rotations employed are from 60 to 100 years for timber forest, 30 to 60 years for coppice.

In the pineries, the strip system in echelons is mostly in vogue, the strips being made 108 feet wide, leaving four seed trees per acre, and on the last strip, which is left standing for five years, this number is increased to eight which are left as overholders. This method, according to some, seems to secure satisfactory reproduction. To get rid of undesirable species, especially aspen and birch, these are girdled. In spruce forest, 50 to 60 per cent. of the trees are left in the fellings, when after three to four years the natural regeneration requires often repair, which is done if at all by bunch planting; after eight to ten years the balance of the old growth is removed.

While for a long time natural regeneration was alone relied upon, now, at least, artificial assistance is more and more frequently practiced. Yet, although over 2 million acres were under clearing system, not more than 5% of the revenue, or $100,000, was in 1898 allowed for planting as against 7.5% in Prussia; the total budget of expenses then remaining below 3 million dollars.

But, ten years later, over half a million dollars was employed by the government in planting, the planting fund contributed by the lumberman (see p. 269) furnishing the means.

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The forest administration of the province of Poland, where the State owns over 1.5 million acres was for some time independent, but, about 1875, was reorganized and placed under the central bureau at St. Petersburg. Although the forests of Poland are the most lucrative to the government and, with good market and high prices for wood, which are now rapidly increasing, would allow of intensive management, the stinginess of the administration, the low moral tone of the personnel, and long established bad practice have retarded the introduction of better methods. The private forests of Poland comprise over 4.5 million acres, and are mostly not much better treated than the State forest; in the absence of any restrictive policy they have diminished by 25% in the last 20 years.

Considerable efforts have been made towards reforesting the steppes in southern Russia, first as in our own prairies and plains by private endeavor, but lately with more and more direct assistance of the State forest administration.

This planting was begun by German colonists at the end of the 18th century, but without encouraging results, although over 25,000 acres had been planted by the middle of the 19th century. Since 1843, the government has had two experimental forest reserves in the steppes of the governments of Ekaterinoslav and Tauride, on which some 10,000 acres have been planted; the originator of this work being _von Graff_, a German forester, whose plantations, made with 8,000 plants to the acre, are still the best. Later, the number of plants was reduced to one-half, and the results have not been satisfactory. Altogether, planting on large areas on soils unfit for the purpose and by wrong methods has produced poor results. At present the policy is not to create large bodies of forest, but to plant small strips of 20 to 80 yards square in regular distribution, which are to serve as windbreaks, and the result has been satisfactory, especially in the government of Samara. There are now annually 2,000 acres added to these plantations.

The reclamation of shifting sands and sand dunes has also received considerable attention and, to some extent, the reboisement of mountain slopes in the Crimea and Caucasus. Of the former, some 10 million acres are in existence in European Russia, and in the province of Woronesh alone each year 100,000 acres are added. For 50 years sporadical work in their recovery was done. Not until 1891 and 1892, when two droughty famine years had led to an investigation of agricultural conditions, was a systematic attempt proposed, and this was begun in 1897. By 1902, some 80,000 acres had been fixed, and by 1904, 150,000 acres. In this work the government contributes 36% of the cost, the benefited communities the balance. In addition, 1,500 square miles of swamps in Western Russia were reclaimed by extensive canals and recovered with meadow and forest at a cost of $300,000, of which the Imperial Treasury paid one-third, the owners one-half, the local government the balance.

While rational forest management, as we have seen, is far from being generally established, the government tries at least to prevent waste and to pave the way from exploitation to regulated management.

FINLAND.

The Grand Duchy of Finland in the northeast of Russia is still in some respects independent of Russia.

Finland, the “land of a thousand lakes” and of most extensive forests, is hardly less important as a wood producer than Russia itself; its wood exports amounting at present to around 200 million cubic feet and over 25 million dollars in value, represent over 50 per cent. of its trade, and its most important resource.

Settled in the 7th century by an Aryan tribe, the Finns, congeners of the Magyars, who subdued the aboriginal Laplanders, Finland became by conquest in the 12th century, and remained for 500 years, a province of Sweden. In the wars between Sweden and Russia; parts of this province were conquered by Russia, and finally, in 1809, Sweden lost the whole; but the Finns succeeded in preserving national unity and partial independence under a constitution, adopted in 1772 and recognized by the Czar.

Finland stands very much in the same relation to Russia as does Hungary to Austria, the union being merely a personal one: the Czar is the ruler or Grand Duke, but the administration is otherwise largely separate from that of the empire, under a Governor-General, appointed by the Czar, and a Senate of 18 members at Helsingfors, with a national parliament of the four estates, nobles, clergy, burgers, peasants, which convenes every five years; the Czar having the veto power over its legislation. The War Department of Russia, however, is in charge of military affairs, and other departments seem to be under more or less supervision of the Russian administration. Lately repressive measures are threatening or have nearly accomplished the destruction of this autonomy.

Of the 145,000 square miles of territory, nearly 50% is occupied by lakes and bogs, marshes or tundra; less than 9 million acres (9.7%) is in farms, and 37.5 million acres or 42%, is forestland, actual or potential; The major part of this is located in the northern and eastern sections, where the population is scanty, agriculture little developed, and sand soils prevail. Beyond the 69th degree, forest growth ceases, and naturally near the forest limit the scrubby growth partakes of the character of all northern forests. Not more than 2.5 million acres, mostly in the southwestern sections, are actually under cultivation; the population being short of 2.5 million.

The rigorous climate makes a large consumption of fuelwood necessary, and, since houses are also mostly built of wood, the home consumption is over 32 cubic feet per capita. Over 10 million cubic feet of pine are consumed in making tar, and a like amount for paper pulp. The total cut is in the neighborhood of 370 million cubic feet, four-fifth of which comes from private forests of the middle and southern area, and over one-third of it is being exported.

The country generally is a tableland with occasional low hills. The forest consists principally of pine, the latter a variety of the Scotch Pine (or species?), called Riga Pine which excels in straightness of bole and thrifty growth, and of spruce (10 per cent. of the whole, mainly in the southeast). Aspen, alder and birch, especially the latter, are considered undesirable weeds, and fire is used to get rid of them where coniferous aftergrowth is desired, although birch is also employed for fuel, bobbins and furniture, and aspen for matches. Basswood, maple, elm, ash and some oak occur, and larch (_Larix sibirica_) was introduced some 150 years ago.

Long, severe winters and hot, dry summers produce slow growth, the pine in the north requiring 200 to 250 years, in the middle sections 140 to 160 years to grow to merchantable size.

Fires, used in clearing, have from time to time run over large areas and have nearly killed out the spruce except in the lowlands, but the pine being more resistant has increased its area and in spite of the deterioration of the soil by fire reproduces well.

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Originally the forest was communal property, but in 1524, Gustav Vasa declared all forest and water not specially occupied to belong to “God, King and the Swedish Crown,” although he allowed the usufruct to the people free of charge or nearly so. These rights of user are still the bane of the forest administration. Being left without supervision it mattered little who owned the land, the forest was ruthlessly exploited. Later, the rights of user thus originating were bought off by ceding lands to the peasants.

Not until 1851 did an improvement in these conditions occur when a provisional administration of the State forests was provided in connection with the Land Survey; but a rational organization materialized only after an eminent German forester, v. Berg, Director of the forest school of Tharandt, had been imported (1858) to effect a reconstruction. His advice was, however, only partially followed, and the organization was not perfected until 1869.

Almost immediately, a powerful opposition to the administration developed, because it could not at once show increased profits, and the personnel which had been scanty enough, was still further reduced, the large districts into which the State property had been divided were still further enlarged, and to this day, improvement in these respects has been only partial.

The State forest area, situated mainly in the north is stated as between 35 and 45 million acres (variable because of clearing for farms and new settlements), but it contains about 15 million acres of bogs and moors and much other waste land, which reduces the productive forest area to about 12 million acres (35%), leaving 65% of the productive forest area to private ownership.

This State forest was divided (1896) into 53 districts, the districts being aggregated into 8 inspections, and the whole service placed under a central office with a forest director and 5 assistants under immediate control of the Senate. The forest guards numbered 750, their ranges averaging 50,000 acres, while the districts average 600,000 acres and several contain as high as 2.5 million acres; the Forstmeister in charge may live sometimes 200 miles from the nearest town and 60 miles from the nearest road. His function is mainly to protect the property, to supervise the cutting and sales, and to teach the people the need of conservative methods. In spite of this insufficient service, considerable reduction in forest fires and theft has been attained.

Beyond restriction of waste by axe and fire, and conservative lumbering of the State forest, positive measures for reproduction have hardly yet been introduced, both personnel and wood values being insufficient for more intensive management.

At present, with a cut hardly exceeding 100 million cubic feet, the revenue is still almost nominal, say $600,000, and hardly the annual growth is cut.

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Selection forest is, of course, the rule, but since no trees are marked and cut less than 10 inch diameter at 25 feet from the ground (!), at least the possibility for improved management will not be destroyed when, through the exhaustion of the private forests and increased wood prices, more intensive management has become practicable.

When the market is good, a clearing system with 100 to 160 year rotation is practised; on the clearings about 20 seed trees are left, and after 6 years the natural regeneration is repaired by planting.

This latter method is especially prescribed on the government farms. These form an interesting part of the State property, some 900 small farms with woodlots aggregating over 500,000 acres, mostly in the southern districts. These came into existence in the 17th and 18th centuries, being granted as fiefs to officers of the army as their only compensation. They reverted to the State and are rented for terms of 50 years upon condition that the woods are to be managed according to rules laid down by the State department; and special inspectors are provided to supervise this work. This system, in vogue since 1863, at first met with opposition on the part of the renters on account of the impractical propositions of the department. At present the department manages many of these woodlots directly, as well as those which the clergy have received in lieu of emoluments.

Since 1883, a corps of forest surveyors has been occupied in making working plans based upon diameter accretion at the curiously selected height of 25 feet from the ground. A commission was also instituted some years ago to segregate forest and farm soils in the State domain with a view of disposing of the latter preparatory to improved management of the remaining forest area.

The State has also in a small way begun to purchase absolute forest soils in the southern provinces with a view to reforestation.

The private forest areas, located in the more settled southern portions are found mostly in small parcels and in peasants’ hands, although the nobility also owns some forest properties, but the size of single holdings rarely exceeds 1,000 acres. These areas are mostly exploited without regard to the future, furnishing still four-fifths of the large export, and according to competent judges will soon be exhausted.

Although attempts have been made from time to time to restrict the use of private forest, practically little has been accomplished, and such restrictions as have been enacted are hardly enforced.

A law, enacted in 1886, forbids clearing along waters adapted to fishing, and orders the leaving of seed trees or “providing otherwise for regeneration,” if more than 12 acres are cut at one time.

The method of utilizing the ground for combined forest and farm use, which is still frequently practised, was forbidden on the light sandy soils of the pineries, or was otherwise regulated. Forest fire laws are also on the statutes.

Propositions for further restrictions, made in 1891, were promptly rejected by the parliament.

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Educational opportunities are offered in the Forest Institute at Evois, first established in 1862 as a result of v. Berg’s visit, and re-organized in 1874. It accepts new students only every second year for the two years’ course. It has had a precarious existence, being left sometimes without students, and is naturally not of a high grade, practical acquaintance with woodswork being its main aim.

Since 1876, a school for forest guards and private underforesters has been in existence, where 6 students are annually accepted for a two years’ course.

In addition there are two instructors provided by the government, wandering teachers who are to advise private owners. Premiums are paid for the best managed woodlots on the government farms.

The Finnish forestry association, which is in part of propagandist nature, was organized in 1877. It supplies, besides an annual report, other forestry literature, and employs an experienced planter to direct efforts at reforestation.

A forestry journal (quarterly) is also published, and a professional literature is beginning to start into existence.

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It may be of interest in this connection to cite a rough calculation made by Dr. Mayr of the available material in European Russia and Finland combined, which he places at 4,500 million cubic feet, and of which he considers one-half available for export.

It is impossible to prognosticate what position Russia and Finland, together the largest wood producers in Europe, will take in the future world commerce, and how rapidly better practices, for which the machinery is already half started, will become generally adopted. At present, especially in Russia proper, the general corruption of the bureaucracy is an almost insurmountable obstacle to improvement.

THE SCANDINAVIAN STATES.

In the English language the _Report on Forestry in Sweden_, by Gen.
C. C. ANDREWS, U. S. Minister at Stockholm, 1872, revised 1900, 35
pp., gives a statement of present conditions with historical notes.

A very good idea in detail of the wood trade of Sweden may be
obtained from _The Wood Industries of Sweden_, published by TIMBER
TRADES JOURNAL of London in 1896.

_La Suède, son Peuple et son industrie_, by G. SUNDBARG, 1900, 2
vols., contains several pertinent chapters. It is an official work,
very complete, and was translated into English in 1904.

_The Economic History of the Swedish Forest_, by GUNNAR SCHOTTE,
1905. 32 pp., in Swedish, published by the forestry association,
gives a brief account of conditions and data of the forestry
movement.

_Norway._ Official publication for the Paris Exposition, 1900,
contains a chapter on Forestry by K. A. Fauchald, pp. 322-350, with
a map of forest distribution.

_Skogsvaesenets Historie_ ved Skogs direktoren, I Del, Historik,
1909, is an official publication of the Norwegian Forest
administration, giving a full account of the development during the
50 years from 1857 to 1907, with notes of the earlier history.

_Le Danemarc. Etat Actuel de sa civilization et de son organization
sociale_, by J. CARLSEN, H. OLRIC and C. N. STARCKE, 1900, 714 pp.

_Denmark, its history and topography, etc._, by H. WEITEMEYER, 1891.

_Bidrag til det Danske Skovbrugs Historie_, by O. LÜTKEN, 1900, was
not accessible to the writer.

Extensive notes are found through the German, Austrian and French
forestry journals. Especially an article in the Centralblatt für das
gesammte Forstwesen, 1905 (briefed in Forestry Quarterly, vol. III,
p. 292) and another (briefed in same Quarterly, vol. IX, p. 45)
gives extended accounts of forest conditions in Sweden.

Under the name of Scandinavian States we may comprise the countries of Sweden, Norway and Denmark, which were settled by the same group of German tribes, the so-called Norsemen; they originally spoke the same language, which only later became more or less differentiated. The settlement of the country by these tribes seems to have been accomplished in the main by the end of the 8th century; and the separation into the three several kingdoms in the ninth to twelfth centuries, during which time they were sometimes united, or at least under one ruler, sometimes at war with each other, and always torn by interior dissensions bordering on anarchy.

In 1397, by the Calmar convention, a more permanent union into one kingdom was effected between Sweden, Norway, and Denmark under Margaret, “the Semiramis of the North.” After another period of variable fortunes, Sweden, about 1523, became an independent constitutional monarchy under Gustav Vasa, and Norway remained joined to Denmark under Frederick I.

Sweden then started on a career of conquest, being almost continuously at war with all her neighbors and especially with Russia and Poland, whereby, especially under Gustavus Adolphus and the adventurous Charles XII, her territory was greatly enlarged. With the treaties of Stockholm and Nystadt (1720 and 1721) she came into more peaceful waters, but permanent peace and a settled policy was not attained until the election of Bernadotte, one of Napoleon’s administrators, to the kingship, and by the peace of Kiel, in 1814, Sweden became a constitutional hereditary monarchy in the modern sense. At the same time, Norway was taken away from Denmark and forced to a union with Sweden, which persisted until 1907, when a peaceful separation took place by the action of the Norwegian people. The union has always been hateful to the Norwegians, although only the king and the department of foreign affairs (in which Norway was represented by a delegation from its Council) were in common, all other matters of administration being separate as well as the parliaments (Storthing in Norway, and Riksdag in Sweden).

Denmark, powerful in the 11th century under Canute, who subjugated not only Norway but England, losing both these countries shortly after his death, was shorn by Sweden of much of its territory in the 17th century, and, in 1814, was separated from Norway. Originally an elective monarchy, largely dominated by the nobility, the crown in 1661 became hereditary and absolute, and Sweden did not become a constitutional monarchy until 1849.

SWEDEN.

This country is of greatest interest to the world at large in forestry matters, because it has been until lately the largest exporter of wood and has only just fully waked up to its need for a conservative forest management: the law of 1903 promises to bring about very decided changes, and to curtail the exports upon which other European nations so much rely.

Sweden, with 172,876 square miles, occupies the eastern two-thirds of the Scandinavian peninsula. It is not like Norway, a mountain country, but the greater part consists of low granitic hills. The mountain range (Koelen) which forms the boundary towards Norway falls off in a long slope towards the gulf of Bothnia and the Baltic sea, the coast being a broad level plain, with a series of islands, larger or smaller, girdling the outer coast line and forming an archipelago.

The country is cut into numerous water sheds, the many rivers (called elfs), furnishing means of transportation, expanding frequently into lakes (sjö) in the upper reaches, and falling with cataracts into the lower plain, giving rise to fine water powers. Eight per cent. of the total area is in lakes. Only 12 per cent. of the land area is in farms. The forest area, with nearly 50 million acres, occupies nearly 48 per cent., leaving 40 per cent. waste land or otherwise occupied.

Half of the population of over 5 million pursues agriculture, while iron manufacture and the lumber industry occupy one-quarter.

Of the three main divisions of the country, the southern, Götaland, is richest in lowlands and agricultural soils, and, as it has also a favorable maritime climate, farming is the main industry. Here, a population of 50 to 60, and in parts up to 190 per square mile is found. Beech and oak are here the principal trees, with spruce occasionally intermixed.

In the central part, Svealand or Sweden proper, the forest region begins, with pine and spruce, pure or in mixture, covering the granite hills and plateau; birch and other hardwoods, oak, beech, elm, basswood and aspen being found in the river valleys; but the third division, Norrland, is the forest region of commercial importance, the seat of the extensive export trade. It is a vast, almost unbroken forest country, with hardly more than 3 people to the square mile, in the northernmost part, called Lapland, Laps and Finns forming a not inconsiderable part of the population. Pine and spruce are the timber trees, with White Birch intermixed. Towards the northern boundary the pine increases, in more and more open stands as one goes northward into the drier climate. An open stunted growth of birch and aspen forms the transition to the treeless tundra.

A treeless alpine region occupies the northwestern frontier, fringed at lower elevations by a belt of birch in natural coppice, a result of repeated fires. The northeastern part is a level coast plain, but the climate is too severe for agriculture and the forest growth also is short and of inferior quality.

Large areas of swampland are found in nearly all parts, recoverable for farm or forest use, and mismanaged and devastated forest areas are found all over the country.

The forest, nearly 10 acres per capita, on account of its accessibility to the sea by means of the many rivers, plays an important rôle in the economy of Sweden, not only because it covers such a large area and favorable composition (80% coniferous), but because it has long been a prominent source of income. Especially after the abolition of the English import duties, in 1866, and of the Swedish export duties which had restricted trade, in 1863, did a rapid increase in wood exports take place, until in 1900, it amounted to over 54 million dollars (of which 12 million for woodenware), being the leading export article and representing over one-half of all exports.

In addition to this export which may represent at least a round 300 million cubic feet of wood, there are about 250 million cubic feet of pulpwood and 150 million feet used for charcoal, besides the domestic fuel consumption. The total draft on the forest may be estimated to come near to 1,200 million cubic feet which is believed far in excess of the annual growth, much of the nearly 50 million acres of forest area having been devastated or deteriorated by axe and fire and being located in a northern zone where the growth is slow (1 inch in 12 to 15 years). According to others, the cut remains below the increment by about 25 per cent., the latter being figured at 25 cubic feet per acre. In the State forests, to be sure, mostly located in the more northern tiers, the cut is kept between 6 and 7 cubic feet effective, but here a waste of sometimes 40% is incurred in the exploitation due to the difficulties in transport.

1. _Property Conditions._

It was Gustav Vasa who, in 1542, declared all uncultivated lands the property of the Crown. Parts of them, however, were given to colonists, and these as well as the resident population had the right to use the neighboring forest to supply their needs for wood and pasture. By the continued exercise of this right, the forest came to be considered commons, proprietary rights remaining long in doubt. Finally, a division came about, some of the lands becoming the property of the parishes, others of smaller districts (the hundreds), others again encumbered or unencumbered property of the State, and some remained in joint ownership of State and private individuals under various complicated conditions.

The State now owns somewhat over 16 million acres, of which, however, only 70% are really forest, and controls more or less 4 million more, of which about 900,000 acres are ecclesiastical benefices and forests belonging to public institutions, and 2.7 million acres in State farms, which are rented.

Since 1875, the State has pursued a policy of purchase, which has added over 500,000 acres (at $7 per acre) to the domain. Lately, this policy has found considerable opposition. In this way, by reforesting, and by settlement of disputed titles the State property in absolute possession of the government has grown by nearly 5 per cent., to 10 million acres.

In Lapland the entire forest area used to belong to the State, but in order to attract settlers these were given forest property for their own use, from 10 to 100 times the area which they had cleared. This forest area the settlers disposed of to wood merchants (lumbermen), until the law of 1873 intervened, restricting the settlers to the usufruct alone, the government taking charge of the cutting of wood for sale and limiting the cut to a diameter of 8 inch at 16 feet from the base.

This interference with what was supposed to be private rights seems to have been resented, and has led to wasteful practices, in the absence of a sufficient force of forest guards. Nevertheless the law was extended to Westerbotten in 1882.

In other provinces, Wermland, Gestrikland, etc., the government vested in the owners or ironworks the right to supply themselves with charcoal from State forests. But about the middle of the 19th century, when, owing to railroad development in other parts, some of the ironworks became unremunerative and were abandoned, their owners continued to hold on to the forest privileges, and by and by exercised them by cutting and sawing lumber for sale, or even by selling the forest areas as if they were their properties; and in this way these properties changed hands until suddenly the government began to challenge titles, and commenced litigation, about 1896.

Grants of certain log cutting privileges on government lands were also made to sawmills in past times, usually by allowing sawmillers to cut a certain number of logs annually at a very low price. In 1870 these grants, which were very lucrative, were modified by substituting the right of an increased cut for a stated number of years at a modified price, after which the grant was to cease. In 1900, there were still some 300,000 acres under such grants.

No wonder that under these circumstances the value of the State forest property was, in 1898, assessed at only $1.60 per acre; the net income being $1,680,753, or about 12 cents per acre; the expenditures for administration, supervision, and forest school amounting to $423,659, to which should be added an undetermined amount for the participation of the domain bureau, the agricultural department and provincial governments, all taking part in the forest administration.

Many of the towns and country districts (_haerad_) have received donations of forest areas from the Crown, which have been a considerable source of revenue to them. The parish of Orsa, e.g., realized from its forest property some 2.5 million dollars, and other similar results are recorded.

These communal and institute forests of various description comprise somewhat over 2.6 million acres, or 5.5%, and are placed under management of local committees, with the governor of the province as chairman. The management consists in selling stumpage of all trees over 13 inches in diameter 5 feet above ground, to be cut by the purchaser under regulations.

In the years from 1840 to 1850, the government sold to English wood merchants considerable tracts of timberland, and in the latter part of the 19th century, as the sawmill industry expanded, many mill firms acquired wood-cutting leases for 50 year terms for prices which were often realized from the forest in the first winter. At present longer leases than for 20 years are prohibited by law. The diameter limit of 12 inches, 18 or 20 feet above ground, was usually the basis of the leases; and as the owners could then lease away other sizes, it might happen that 2 or 3 persons besides the original owner would have property rights in the same forest. Of late years many of the mill owners have endeavored to get rid of the resulting inconvenience by buying the fee-simple of the land. This movement has resulted in the aggregation of large areas in single hands or more often in the hands of large mill companies.

By the acquisition of these properties a certain amount of cultivated land is usually included, which is then left to the former owner at a nominal rent, provided that he pays the taxes on the whole; thereby creating a class of renters in lieu of owners of farms. The area thus privately owned, mostly by sawmill companies, must be over 25 million acres; the total private forest area, which includes the bulk of the commercial forest, is about 30 million acres (61.3%), unreclaimable waste lands swelling the figure to over 50 million.

2. _Development of Forest Policy._

From the times of Olaf Tratâlja, the first Christian king of Sweden (about 1000 A.D.), who gained fame by the part he took in exploiting the forests of Wermland, down to the 14th century Sweden suffered from a superabundance of forest. Nevertheless, by the end of that century restriction of the wilful destruction by fire was felt necessary, and an ordinance with that object in view was promulgated.

It is questionable whether this order had any effect in a country, where the homestead law provided, that a settler might take up “as much pasture and arable land as he could make use of, twice as much forest, and in addition on each side of this homestead as much as a lame man could go over on crutches without resting.”

Not till 1638, do we again find an attempt at forest conservancy, this time in the interest of supply of charcoal for the iron industry, by the appointment of overseers of the public forests.

The first general forest code, however, dates from 1647, which among other useless prescriptions made the existing usage of planting two trees for every one cut obligatory, and this provision remained on the statutes until 1789. In spite of this and other, restrictive, laws, exploitation by the liege lords and the communities continued until, in 1720, a director of forests for the two southern districts, Halland and Bohus, was appointed, and, at least in this part of the country, the execution of the laws was placed under a special officer.

This appointment may be considered the first germ of the later forest department.

A policy of restriction seems to have prevailed during the entire 18th century, although it is questionable whether the restrictions were enforced since there was no personnel to watch over their enforcement, and the governors, in whose hands the jurisdiction lay, had other interests, more engrossing. A law, enacted in 1734, restricted the peasant forest owners in the sale of wood from their own properties, and, in 1789, this restriction and other supervision was extended to those of the nobility.

It appears that soon after this a considerable sentimental solicitude inside and outside the Riksdag was aroused regarding an apprehended deterioration of climate as well as scarcity of wood as a result of further forest destruction--in the light of present experience a rather amusing anticipation. These jeremiads, however, after an unsatisfactory attempt at legislation in 1793, led, in 1798, to the appointment of a commission which reported after 5 years of investigation. A new set of forest regulations was enacted as a result in 1805.

In further prosecution of these attempts at regulating forest use a commissioner, Prof. F. W. Radloff, was sent to Germany, in 1809, to study methods employed in that country. Long before that time, about 1762, some of the iron masters, owning large forest areas had imported a commission of German forest experts (among them von Langen and Zanthier, the same who had done similar work in Norway and Denmark) with a view of systematizing the forest use; but apparently without result.

After much discussion of Radloff’s report, and consultation with the provincial governors, who suggested the propriety of different plans for different localities, new legislation was had in 1810, 1818, 1823, and new regulations for the crown forests were issued in 1824.

Yet at this very time not only the partition of the communal forests but also the sale of town forests was ordered; and this policy of dismemberment lasted till 1866, over 1 million acres having been sold by that time. Nor was any diminution in wasteful practices to be noted as a result of legislation, and it seems that, while on the one hand restrictive policies were discussed and enacted, on the other hand unconservative methods were encouraged. Indeed, in 1846, the then existing restrictions of the export trade were removed; apparently a reversion of restrictive policy had set in, and exploitation increased, in the belief of inexhaustible supplies. On the other hand, encouragement of reforestation was sought by giving bounties for planting waste land and for leaving a certain number of seed trees in the felling areas, also by paying rewards for the best plantations; all without result.

Meanwhile a check to the wood trade had occurred through the imposition of exorbitant customs duties by Great Britain, and at the same time the government imposed an export duty to discourage export from Norrland, and this was not abated until 1857.

A further project of forest supervision was attempted through a report by a new commission appointed in 1828, which formulated rules for the control of public and private forests, and recommended the establishment of a Central bureau for the management of forest affairs, as well as the organization of a Forest Institute, for the teaching of forestry. This Institute was established at Stockholm in 1828, but, instead of organizing the bureau, the director of that institute was charged with the duties of such bureau. Again for years, committee reports followed each other, but led to no satisfactory solution of the problems.

In 1836, however, a forestry corps (_skogstaten_) was organized for the management of the State forests under the direction of the Forest Institute, and, as a result of persistent propaganda, the central bureau of forest administration (_skogsstyrelsen_) was created in 1859 with _Björkman_ at the head, charged with the supervision of all the State, royal, communal and other public forests, and the control of private forest use.

The law of 1859, however, did not settle upon any new policy of control over private forest properties. Again and again, forest committees were appointed to propose proper methods of such control, but not until 1903 was a general law enacted, which was to go into effect on January 1, 1905.

Previous to this, locally applicable laws were enacted. In 1866, a law was passed which referred only to a particular class of private lands, namely those forests of Norrland which the State was to dispose of for ground rent, or which had been disposed of and on which the conditions of settlement had not been fulfilled. In 1869, a law applicable only on the island of Gotland provided a dimension limit, and that in case of neglect of regeneration on private fellings the owner may not cut any more wood for sale, until the neglect had been remedied.

Exactly in the same manner as the homestead and other colonization laws in the United States have been abused to get hold of public timber lands, so in Sweden large areas of government land had been taken up for settlement, but actually were exploited. It was to remedy this evil that in 1860 an examination of the public lands was ordered with a view of withdrawing portions from settlement and of making forest reservations. The royal ordinance of 1866 resulted, which was to regulate the cutting on settled lands and in such new settlements as were thereafter allowed.

Here, private owners at first were allowed to cut only for their own use, and the new law prescribed the amount of yearly cut and required the marking of timber designed for sale by the government officers.

This “compulsory marking” or “Lapland” law with a dimension limit, was, in 1873, extended to all private forests in Norbotten, and in 1888, to Vesterbotten. This law limits the diameter to which fellings are to be made (8 inches at 15 feet from base), and if the cutting of smaller trees is deemed desirable for the benefit of the forest these are to be designated by forest officials.

The law for Gotland was renewed in 1894, adding a reforestation clause, the governor being authorized to prohibit shipping of timber under 8 inch diameter, and that not until new growth was established; or at least no new fellings may be made until this condition is fulfilled. The same law applies to sand dune plantations in other, southern districts. Altogether one-quarter of the private forest property was in this manner subjected to restrictions, until the present conservation law came into existence.

This law, of 1903, which became operative in 1905, was the result of a most painstaking, extended canvass by the legislative committee, appointed in 1896, which reported in 1899, and of a further canvass by the Director of Domains, who reported in 1901. A large amount of testimony from private forest owners, sawmill men, provincial and local government officials, etc., was accumulated, and it may be reasonably expected that this new legislation will be more effective than most of the preceding seems to have been.

The law requires in general terms the application of forestry principles in the management of private woodlands. For this purpose, a Forest Protection Committee, one for each province, is constituted which has surveillance over all private forests, an institution similar to that existing in Russia.

The Committee, or Forest Conservation Board, consists of three persons who are appointed for three years, one by the government, one by the County Council, one by the managing committee of the County Agricultural Society. In addition, where the communities desire, elected Forest Conservation Commissioners may be instituted to make sure of the enforcement of the law. The Board secures the services of an expert adviser from the State forest service paid by the government but leaves to the Board discretion as to the interpretation of the law which is for the most part expressed in general terms, to secure conservative management. Hence different Boards have worked in different ways, but gradually all are coming to similar methods, and all apply persuasive means rather than force.

The law requires regeneration, but does not prescribe detail methods as to how re-growth is to be obtained, leaving these to be determined by the Board in consultation with the owners. If no agreement can be arrived at, or if the measures stipulated are not taken by the owner, the Board may enforce its rulings by Court proceedings, in which injunctions to prevent further lumbering, confiscation of logs, or of lumber, or money fines may be adjudged.

The time of contracts for logging rights is reduced from 20 to 5 years. Short courses of instruction to forest owners, and the issuing of popularly written technical publications (_Folkskrifter_) is one of the efficient methods of securing the result, which seems to have been attained in the few years since the law is in operation, namely in arousing such interest that opposition has become very small.

An export duty (4 to 8 cents per 100 cubic feet of timber, 8 to 14 cents per ton of dry wood pulp) is levied for the purpose of carrying out the law the export duty amounting to over $160,000, and a more general export duty is under contemplation.

The management of communal forest is to be placed under the State forest administration, the corporations paying 1.6c. per acre; but this feature does not seem entirely settled.

Protective forests under special regulations are established at the alpine frontier and on the drift-sand plains, which are planted up.

3. _Forest Administration and Forestry Practice._

The central forestry bureau as it exists now was organized in 1883 as the Domain Bureau in the Department of Agriculture with, at present, a forester as General Director, and under it a forestry corps (_skogstaten_) (reorganized in 1890) which has charge of the public forests, and also of the forest control in the private forests where such control exists outside of the Conservation Boards. For the purpose of this administration the country is divided into 10 districts, each under an inspector (or _öfverjägmästare_); the districts are divided into ranges (_revir_), now 90, each under a chief of range (or _jägmästare_) with assistants and guards (_kronojägare_); the nomenclature of the officers suggesting the hunt rather than the forest management. In addition, 6 forest engineers are employed on working plans, engineering works, and in giving advice and assistance to private owners who pay for such service.

When it is stated that the ranges in the northern provinces average over 300,000 acres of public and 400,000 acres of private forest; in central Sweden 150,000 acres of public and 145,000 acres of private forest, and in the southern provinces nearly 55,000 acres of State and communal forest, it will be understood that the control cannot be very strict.

The net revenue from the State forest during the last 30 years has increased from $300,000 to $1,750,000.

The management of even the State forests can only be very extensive. The State still sells mostly stumpage, rarely cutting on its own account. The lumbering is carried on very much as in the United States by logging contractors, and the river driving is done systematically by booming companies. Selection forest is still the general practice, now often improved into group system, although a clear cutting system with planting has been practised, but is supposed to be less desirable, probably because it entails a direct money outlay or else because it was not properly done. A seed tree management preferred by private owners for pine seems frequently not successful. Of the State forests 90% are under selection system, and of the private forest 60%.

In the southern provinces where planting is more frequently resorted to, 2-3 year old pines and 2-5 year old spruces, nursery-grown, 2,000 to the acre, are generally used or else sowing in seedspots is resorted to, which is more frequently practised in the middle country.

Some 10,000 acres were, for instance, planted by the forest administration in 1898, at a cost of $2 per acre, and the budget contains annually about $20,000 for such planting.

That private endeavor in the direction of planting, has also been active, is testified by a plantation of over 26,000 acres, now 35 years old, reported from Finspong Estate.

Complete working plans are rare even for the State forests, a mere summary felling budget being determined for most areas, the trees to be cut being marked.

Under instructions issued in 1896, working plans for the small proportion of State forest management by clearing system are to be made. In these an area allotment method is employed with rotations of 100 to 150 years.

Forest fires are still very destructive, especially in northern Sweden, although an effective patrol system, greatly assisted in some provinces by watch towers, has reduced the size of the areas burnt over. The coniferous composition and the dry summers in the northern part together with the methods of lumbering are responsible for the conflagrations. In this direction too, the activities of the Conservation Boards have been highly useful.

4. _Education and Literature._

Among the propagandist literature, which had advanced the introduction of forestry ideas in Sweden it is proper to mention the writings of _Israel Adolf of Ström_, who after extensive travels in Germany established the first private forest school in 1823, and was instrumental in securing the establishment of the State Forest Institute in Stockholm (1828).

In regard to education a most liberal policy prevails.

At the Institute the tuition is free and in addition 4 students receive scholarships of 250 dollars per year; appointment to assistantships follows immediately after promotion, and in 10 years the position of jägmästare may be attained. The number of students is limited to 30. The director of this school is also general adviser in forestry matters. Besides the director, six professors are employed. The course at this school is two years of 11 full months.

There are now a higher and a lower course, the former requiring previous graduation from another preparatory forest school, either the one at Omberg (founded 1886), or that at Kloten (1900), where a one-year course, mainly in practical work, is given.

For the lower service there are not less than 6 schools in various parts of the country, each with one teacher and assistants, managed under a chief of range. In these, not only is tuition free but 10 pupils receive also board and lodging; the course lasting 8 months. These schools prepare for State service, as well as for managers of private forests.

* * * * *

A forest experiment station was organized in 1903, an independent institution in the Domain Bureau, under the direct charge of a practitioner. Every third year, a commission is to determine what work is to be undertaken. The appropriation, which so far is hardly $5,000 per annum, will not permit much expansion. The first number of its publication, _Meddelanden fran Statens Skogsförsöksanstalt_, was issued in 1904, and work of a superior character has been accomplished since then.

* * * * *

That a forestry public exists in Sweden is attested by a forest association with an organ _Skogsvards Föreningens Tidskrift_, which was founded in 1902. This journal is really the continuation of an earlier magazine, _Tidskrift for Skogshushallning_, a quarterly, begun in 1869 and running until 1903. A forestry association for Norrland alone which also issues a yearbook, was organized a few years ago. A periodical for rangers, etc., is also in existence under the name of _Skogsvännen_.

In 1902 also, there was formed a lumberman’s trust to regulate the output, which the forest owners proposed to meet by an associated effort to raise stumpage charges. The attempt of the lumbermen to restrict the cut in 1902 was, however, a failure, for the export of that year was 10% larger than the previous year.

It is expected that the new law will have the tendency of decreasing the cut and of inaugurating a new era in forestry matters generally.

NORWAY.

Originally divided up among a number of petty kings, Norway was brought under one rule by Harold in 863; and united to Denmark in the 11th century, becoming gradually a mere dependency. Its later political fortunes and changing relations with Denmark and Sweden have been referred to on p. 286. The history of the forestry development, however, has proceeded more or less independently of the other two countries.

Norway, occupying with 124,445 square miles over one-third of the Scandinavian peninsula, is for the most part a mountainous plateau with deep valleys and lakes. Its numerous fjords and water ways make accessible much of the interior mountain forest, yet a large part of the inland area still remains inaccessible and trackless.

More than 75% of the country is waste land and water; only 3% in farms, leaving for the forest area 21%, or little over 17 million acres. According to latest data (1907) from this productive area a further 2 million acres must be deducted as non-producing.