Chapter II: Preface (2)

1. The boys are not in their (own) house, but they are in his. 2 Is the large beautiful house yours? 3. The woman walked through the door of their house, as far as her room. 4. The room has interesting pictures on its walls. 5. We praised their flowers yesterday, and they gave them to us. 6. Their books are in their (the books') box. 7. They are on their (the boys') table. 8. The gray cat was angry because it did not hold the bird. 9. The sparrow surprised it, and it commenced to wash its face. 10. The sparrow wished to fly as far as the tall tree, but the cat held it. 11. The sparrow said "A good cat washes its face, but you are not a good cat." 12. The sparrow was angry because the cat seized it and held it. 13. The bird did not lose its meal, but the angry cat lost its meal. 14. Do you see his cat or hers? 15. I see both his and hers, but ours is not in our garden. 16. My father is a tall strong man. 17. I like to look at him. 18. The children saw the young birds in the nest.

LESSON X.

THE ACCUSATIVE OF DIRECTION.

46. When the verb in a sentence expresses motion, the word indicating the place, person or thing toward which the motion is directed is given the accusative ending. This is also true if the word is the complement of any preposition which does not itself sufficiently indicate motion in a certain direction. (The prepositions "al", to, toward, "gxis", as far as, "tra", through, express motion in the direction of their complements, and could not well be used except in a sentence whose verb expresses motion. Consequently the accusative is not used after any of these three):

Li iris gxardenon, he went to the garden ("gardenward").
La viro iros Bostonon, the man will go to Boston ("Bostonward").

[Footnote: Cf. English "he went home," "he went homeward," etc.]

Li estis en la gxardeno, kaj kuris en la domon,
he was in the garden and ran into the house.
Gxi ne estas sur la tablo, gxi falis sur la plankon,
it is not on the table, it fell upon the floor.
Ili falis sub la tablon gxis la planko,
they fell under the table as far as the floor
(direction expressed by whole prepositional phrase).
Mi iris tra la domo en mian cxambron,
I went through the house into my room.

THE ARTICLE FOR THE POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE.

47. In many sentences where the possessor is already sufficiently indicated, English nevertheless uses a possessive adjective, as in "I wash my face," "he shakes his head," but on the other hand omits it entirely with certain words indicating relationship, as in "Brother gave it to me," etc. In both cases Esperanto uses the article instead of the possessive adjective, unless the fact of possession is to be emphasized:

Mi lavas la vizagxon, I wash my face.
Li skuas la kapon, he shakes his head.
La patro estas alta, Father is tall.
Mi donis gxin al la patro, I gave it to Father.

APPOSITION.

48. English often uses the preposition "of" between two words where no idea of possession really exists, as "the city of Boston." Since nouns used in apposition refer to the same thing, and are in the same grammatical construction, Esperanto does not use a preposition:

La urbo Bostono estas granda, the city (of) Boston is large.
Mia amiko Johano estas alta, my friend John is tall.
Cxu vi ne konas min, vian amikon? do you not know me, your friend?

VOCABULARY

arabo = arab. meti = to put, to place.
baldaux = soon. nazo = nose.
Bostono = Boston. nur = only, merely.
frato = brother. pusxi = to push.
kamelo = camel. trans = across.
kapo = head. tuta = whole, entire, all.
kolo = neck. urbo = city.
korpo = body. varma = warm.

LA ARABO KAJ LA KAMELO.

Arabo sidis en sia domo en la urbo. Apud domo trans la strato li vidis kamelon. La kamelo iris trans la straton gxis la pordo, kaj diris al la arabo, "Frato, mi ne estas varma, mi volas meti nur la nazon en vian varman domon." La arabo skuis la kapon, sed la kamelo metis la nazon tra la pordo en la cxambron. La kamelo komencis pusxi sian tutan vizagxon en la domon. Baldaux li havis la kapon gxis la kolo en la domo. Post la kapo iris la kolo en gxin, kaj baldaux la tuta korpo estis en la domo. La arabo estis kolera, cxar li ne volis havi tutan kamelon en sia domo. Li kuris al la kamelo, kaptis lin, tenis lin, kaj diris, "Frato, vi volis meti nur la nazon en mian domon. La cxambro ne estas granda sed gxi estas la mia, kaj mi preferas sidi en gxi." "Via diro estas bona," diris la kamelo, "via domo ne estas granda, sed gxi estas varma, kaj mi sxatas stari en gxi. Mi preferas stari kaj kusxi en gxi, kaj mi donos al vi mian arbon trans la strato. Cxu vi ne volas iri sub la arbon?" Kaj la kamelo pusxis la arabon de lia domo en la straton de la urbo. La kamelo nun trovis sin en varma cxambro, sed la juna arabo staris trans la strato kaj ne estis varma.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. The cat ran across the street. 2. Across the street it found a sparrow. 3. It caught the bird, but began to wash its face, and the sparrow flew to the nest. 4. I went into the garden as far as the large tree. 5. I did not hold my book, and it fell upon the floor. 6. It began to fall under the table, but I seized it. 7. My brother pushed the books into their box, and put it on the table. 8. We went to the city of Boston yesterday and into a beautiful house. 9. The arab shook his head and said, "No." 10. But the camel commenced to go through the door. 11. His remark did not seem to surprise the camel. 12. The camel pushed its head and neck, and soon its whole body into the warm house. 13. It wished to put merely its nose into it. 14. The arab was angry, because it pushed itself into his house. 15. He said, "Brother, the house is mine, and I do not wish to have you in it." 16. But soon after the remark, the whole camel was in the house. 17. He pushed the young arab into the street. 18. He went across the street and stood upon the grass under a tree.

LESSON XI.

POSSESSIVE CASE OF NOUNS.

49. The preposition "de" is used to express possession or connection:

La muroj de la domo, the walls of the house.
La koloroj de la floroj, the colors of the flowers.
La libro de la knabo, the book of the boy (the boy's book).
Brancxo de la arbo, a branch of the tree.
La gxardeno de la viroj, the garden of the men (the men's garden).

IMPERSONAL VERBS.

50. Verbs with an impersonal or indeterminate subject, as "it rains," "it is snowing," are called impersonal, because there is no actual subject, the word "it" serving merely as an introductory particle. No such particle is used with impersonal verbs in Esperanto:

Pluvas, it rains, it is raining.
Negxis hieraux, it snowed yesterday.

VERBS PRECEDING THEIR SUBJECTS.

51. When the verb in a sentence precedes its subject, English often uses an introductory particle, such as "there," "it." In Esperanto no such particles are needed:

Estas floroj sur la tablo, there are flowers on the table.
Estis Johano, ne Alfredo, en la gxardeno,
it was John, not Alfred, in the garden.
Estas domo en la kampo, there is a house in the field.
Estis mi, it was I.

COORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS.

52. Words like "aux", "kaj", "nek", "sed", which join words, word-groups, or sentences together are conjunctions. All the conjunctions given so far connect words, phrases, or sentences of similar rank or kind. These are called coordinating conjunctions, and the words, phrases, or sentences connected by them are said to be coordinate:

Cxu vi marsxas aux kuras?
("Aux" connects the verbs.)

Sxi iris, kaj ni estis felicxaj.
("Kaj" connects the sentences.)

Nek vi nek mi vidis gxin.
(The second "nek" connects the pronouns,
the first being introductory and adverbial.)

Aux li aux sxi perdis la libron.
(The second "aux" connects the pronouns,
the first being introductory and adverbial.)

Gxi falis sur la segxon, sed ne sur la plankon.
("Sed" connects the phrases.)

Li ne sxatis gxin. Tamen li tenis gxin.
("Tamen" connects the sentences.)

[Footnote: A phrase is a word-group forming an expression, but not containing a verb, as "through the house," "of the man," "before me," etc.]

[Footnote: Coordinating conjunctions may be further classified according to their meaning: "Aux" is disjunctive, connecting alternates, and expressing separation. "Kaj" is copulative, expressing union. "Nek" is disjunctive, expressing separation and also negation. "Sed" is adversative, expressing opposition, contrast, or modification of a previous statement. "Tamen" is adversative, affirming something in spite of a previous objection or concession. "Do," "so, then, consequently," is argumentative, expressing a logical inference or result in a somewhat conversational manner.]

VOCABULARY

akvo = water. porti = to carry.
amiko = friend. ricxa = rich, wealthy.
ankaux = also. sablo = sand.
bezoni = to need. sako = sack, bag.
dezerto = desert. seka = dry.
fidela = faithful. tamen = nevertheless.
mono = money. trinki = to drink.
negxi = to snow. veni = to come.
pluvi = to rain. vojo = road, way.

LA ARABO EN LA DEZERTO.

Arabo iris trans grandan sekan dezerton. Kamelo, lia fidela amiko, portis lin. La kamelo ankaux portis belajn tapisxojn, cxar la arabo estis ricxa viro. La arabo havis ne nur tapisxojn, sed ankaux sakojn. En la sakoj estis akvo, cxar en la dezerto nek pluvas nek negxas. La viro trinkis akvon, kaj ankaux donis akvon al sia kamelo. La kamelo marsxis kaj marsxis, sed ne venis al la domo de la arabo, cxar ili perdis la vojon. La suno brilis, kaj la sablo de la dezerto sxajnis varma. La arabo ne trovis la vojon, kaj baldaux li ne havis akvon. Tamen la kamelo marsxis kaj marsxis, kaj baldaux la arabo vidis sakon antaux si, sur la seka sablo. Li estis felicxa kaj diris al si "Cxu estas akvo en gxi? Mi volas trinki, kaj volas doni akvon al mia fidela kamelo." Li ankaux volis lavi la tutan vizagxon en la akvo, cxar li estis varma. Post sia diro li kaptis la sakon, kaj komencis rigardi en gxin. Li metis la nazon en gxin, sed ne trovis akvon en la sako. Nek li nek lia fidela kamelo havis akvon, cxar estis nur mono en la sako. La arabo estis kolera, cxar li ne volis monon, li bezonis akvon. Li havis monon en sia domo en la urbo, kaj volis trovi akvon. Cxu li tamen metis la sakon trans la kolon de sia kamelo? Ne, li ne volis meti gxin sur sian kamelon, cxar li estis kolera. Li ne tenis la sakon, sed gxi falis sur la sablon, kaj kusxis apud li. La sako nun kusxas sur la sablo de la granda dezerto, kaj la mono estas en gxi.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Today it is raining, but yesterday it was snowing. 2. Did your friend John carry his chair into the house? 3. I saw your good friends on the way to the city. 4. Is the large sack behind the door theirs? 5. Neither she nor her brother saw the whole city. 6. They went to the city of Boston and lost their way. 7. There are interesting houses across the street. 8. The body of a camel is large, and its neck is long. 9. The camel pushed its head into the house of the arab, and he was angry. 10. On the sand in the desert there lies a sack. 11. In the sack there is money. 12. The arab was warm, and wished to drink water. 13. He also wished to give water to the faithful camel. 14. Nevertheless, he found only money in the sack. 15. He was angry, and did not keep the sack. 16. Yesterday he wished to find money, but today he prefers water. 17. Nevertheless there is only sand in the desert. 18. He wished to come from the dry desert to the house of a faithful friend. 19. Both he and his friends are rich. 20. They went to his house yesterday, and came to theirs today. 21. They do not need money.

LESSON XII.

INDIRECT STATEMENTS.

53. A statement made indirectly by means of a clause dependent upon a verb meaning "say," "think," "know," "believe," or a similar expression, as in "I know that he came," "I hear that he is good," is called an "indirect statement." (The "direct" statement is "he came," "he is good.") An indirect statement is joined to the main verb or sentence by the subordinating conjunction "ke," that.

Johano diras ke vi venis hieraux,
John says that you came yesterday.
Sxi opinias ke estas mono en la sako,
she thinks that there is money in the bag.

[Footnote: A clause is a group of words including a verb, which is dependent upon or subordinate to a main verb or sentence, as "--that he came," "--when he went," "--that he is good," etc.]

[Footnote: In English the subordinating conjunction may sometimes be omitted, either "I think that he is good," or "I think he is good," being usually permissible. But in Esperanto there is no variation, and the conjunction "ke" is never omitted.]

THE INDEFINITE PERSONAL PRONOUN "ONI".

54. When an indefinite personal pronoun is desired, as in the expressions "one knows," "they say," "people say," "you can see," etc., the indefinite personal pronoun "oni" is used. This pronoun may also be used in translating such expressions as "it is said," "I am told," etc.:

Oni diras ke li estas ricxa, they say (one says) that he is rich.
Oni vidas ke ili estas amikoj, one sees that they are friends.
Mi opinias ke oni sxatas lin,
I think that people like him (that he is liked).
Oni diris al mi ke estas sablo en la dezerto,
I was told (people said to me) that there is sand in the desert.
Oni opinias ke sxi estas felicxa,
it is thought (one thinks) that she is happy.
Cxu oni vidis nin en la gxardeno?
Were we seen (did people see us) in the garden?
Oni sxatas agrablajn infanojn,
people like agreeable children (agreeable children are liked).

THE FUTURE TENSE.

55. The future tense of the verb expresses an act or state as about to take place, or as one that will take place in future time. The ending of this tense is "-os," as "kuros," will run, "flugos," will fly, "brilos," will shine. The conjugation of "esti" and also of "vidi" in the future tense is as follows:

mi estos = I shall be. mi vidos = I shall see.
vi estos = you will be. vi vidos = you will see.
li (sxi, gxi) estos = li (sxi, gxi) vidos :
he (she, it) will be. he (she, it) will see.
ni estos = we shall be. ni vidos = we shall see.
vi estos = you (plural) will be. vi vidos = you (plural) will see.
ili estos = they will be. ili vidos = they will see.

VOCABULARY

auxdi = to hear. oni = (see 54).
blovi = to blow. opinii = to think, to opine.
greno = grain (wheat, corn, etc.). orienta = east, eastern.
ke = that (conjunction). pluvo = rain.
kontraux = against. suda = south, southern.
montri = to show, to point out. velki = to wilt, to wither.
norda = north, northern. vento = wind.
nova = new. ventoflago = weathercock.
okcidenta = west, western. vetero = weather.

LA VENTOFLAGO.

Estis varma vetero, la suno brilis, kaj suda vento blovis. Tamen la nova ventoflago sur la domo diris al si, "La sudan venton mi ne sxatas. Mi preferas orientan venton." La vento orienta auxdis la diron kaj gxi venis kontraux la ventoflagon. Pluvis kaj pluvis, kaj oni estis kolera kontraux la ventoflago, cxar gxi montras orientan venton. Gxi diris, "Pluvas nun, sed la greno en la kampoj bezonos sekan veteron. Oni estos kolera kontraux mi, cxar mi montras orientan venton." La okcidenta vento auxdis la ventoflagon, kaj baldaux venis. Gxi ne estis forta, sed gxi estis seka kaj agrabla vento, kaj ne portis pluvon. La viroj, virinoj, kaj junaj infanoj volis trinki, sed ili ne havis akvon. La greno kaj la floroj velkis, kaj la frukto ankaux falis. La nova ventoflago diris, "Oni estos kolera kontraux mi, cxar ne pluvas. Oni opinios ke, cxar mi montras okcidentan venton, la frukto falas, kaj la greno kaj floroj velkas. Mi sxatas montri nek okcidentan nek orientan venton!" Norda vento auxdis kaj venis al la ventoflago. La vetero ne estis agrabla, kaj la virinoj kaj la junaj infanoj ne estis varmaj. Negxis, kaj oni estis kolera. Oni diris "La greno kaj la frukto bezonas varman veteron, sed hodiaux negxas. Ni preferas la sudan venton. Ni havis gxin, antaux la orienta, la okcidenta, kaj la norda ventoj. La ventoflago ne estas fidela amiko al ni. Gxi ne montras bonajn ventojn, kaj ni volas rompi gxin!" Oni kuris al la domo, kaptis la novan ventoflagon, kaj ankaux rompis gxin. Gxi falis, kaj kusxis sur la vojo antaux la domo.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. One can see that the weathercock points-out the winds. 2. They say that the west wind will be a dry wind. 3. The weathercock now shows that an agreeable south wind blows. 4. People will be angry with (against) the weathercock, because it points-out a north wind. 5. A north wind is not warm, and the grain and fruit will need a warm wind. 6. It snowed, and the young children were not warm, because the north wind blew. 7. People will like a south wind, but an east wind will carry rain. 8. Can one find money in the desert? 9. Do you think (that) he is in the house? 10. He is said to be (they say that he is) on the street. 11. It is thought (people think) that the camel is a faithful friend. 12. I am told (people tell me) that the camel has a large body, and a long neck. 13. One can see that it is not beautiful. 14. People do not like to drink warm water. 15. Nevertheless we shall drink warm water in the city. 16. It was beautiful weather yesterday, but today we shall have good weather also. 17. I think that a warm wind will blow soon. 18. My friend has a beautiful new house.

LESSON XIII.

THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN "TIU".

56. The demonstrative pronoun "tiu", that, is used to indicate a person or a definitely specified thing. The plural is "tiuj", those:

Tiu estas la via, kaj mi volas tiun,
that is yours, and I wish that one.
Tiuj estos koleraj kontraux vi, those will be angry with you.
Li auxdis tiujn, he heard those (persons, or things).

57. The demonstrative pronoun "tiu" is also used as a "pronominal adjective", in agreement with a noun:

Tiu vento estos varma, that wind will be warm.
Mi vidas tiun ventoflagon, I see that weathercock.
Tiuj infanoj estas junaj, those children are young.
Mi trovos tiujn librojn, I shall find those books.

TENSES IN INDIRECT QUOTATIONS.

58. The verb in an indirect statement (53) or an indirect question remains in the same tense in which it would be if the statement or question were direct. (In English this is true only if the introductory verb is present or future, since after an introductory past tense the tense of the indirect quotation is changed, and "am, is, are, have, will" become "was, were, had, would," etc.)

Mi diras ke li estas bona, I say that he is good.
" diris " " " " , I said that he was good.
" diros " " " " , I shall say that he is good.
Li miras cxu mi auxdas, he wonders whether I hear.
" miris " " " , he wondered whether I heard.
" miros " " " , he will wonder whether I hear.
Mi opiniis ke gxi estas bona, I thought that it was good
(I thought "it is good").
Oni miris cxu li venos, they wondered whether he would come
(they wondered "will he come?").

[Footnote: An indirect question is introduced by "cxu", whether, after verbs meaning "ask," "wonder," "know," etc.: "Mi miras cxu li venis", I wonder whether he came. "Oni demandas cxu li estas ricxa", people ask whether he is rich.]

FORMATION OF FEMININE NOUNS.

59. Feminine nouns corresponding to distinctly masculine nouns such as "frato", "knabo", "viro", may be formed from these by inserting the suffix "-in-" just before the noun-ending "-o":

fratino = sister patrino = mother
(from frato, brother). (from patro, father).
knabino = girl virino = woman
(from knabo, boy). (from viro, man).

[Footnote: Cf. English names similarly formed from masculine names, as "Pauline, Josephine, Ernestine, Geraldine," etc., also German "Koenigin", queen, from "Koenig", king; "Loewin", lioness, from "Loewe", lion, etc.]

VOCABULARY

almenaux = at least. paroli = to talk, to speak.
cxapelo = hat. parko = park.
cxielo = sky, heaven. preskaux = almost.
filo = son. pri = concerning, about.
konstrui = to build. promeni = to take a walk.
miri = to wonder. super = above.
morgaux = tomorrow. timi = to fear, to be afraid (of).
nubo = cloud. tiu = that (56).
ombrelo = umbrella. zorga = careful.

EN LA PARKO.

Miaj junaj amiko kaj amikino, kaj ankaux ilia patrino, iris hieraux al la parko. La infanoj diris al la patrino ke la parko estas agrabla, kaj ke ili volas promeni en gxi. La knabino parolis al sia frato pri la belaj floroj. Sxi diris al li ke la floroj velkas, kaj ke la herbo en preskaux la tuta parko bezonas pluvon. La knabo diris hodiaux al mi ke hieraux li kaj lia fratino auxdis la birdojn en la arboj super siaj kapoj. Li diris ke li miris pri tiuj birdoj, tamen li opinias ke la birdoj baldaux konstruos siajn nestojn en tiuj arboj. La infanoj promenis, kaj baldaux ili vidis ke grizaj nuboj venas sur la cxielon, kaj mia juna amikino timis ke pluvos. Sxi parolis al la patrino pri la nuboj kaj la pluvo, montris al sxi la grizajn nubojn, kaj diris ke si volas iri al la domo. Ili komencis marsxi al la strato, kaj preskaux kuris, cxar ili ne havis ombrelon. Tra la fenestroj de la domoj oni rigardis ilin, kaj la knabo miris cxu li kaj liaj patrino kaj fratino amuzas tiujn virojn kaj virinojn. Tamen la patrino diris ke sxi ne timas ke sxi amuzos tiujn, sed ke sxi timas la pluvon. Sxi kaj la filino volas esti zorgaj pri almenaux la novaj cxapeloj. La filo diris al sxi ke li ankaux estas zorga, sed ke li opinias ke ne pluvos. Baldaux la patro venis al ili, kaj portis ombrelojn, cxar li ankaux timis la pluvon. Li miris cxu la infanoj kaj ilia patrino havas ombrelojn. Baldaux pluvis, sed ili estis sekaj, cxar ili havis la ombrelojn. Morgaux ili ne promenos en la parko, sed iros al la urbo.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. The east wind is dry and the south wind will be too warm. 2. A west wind blew against the weathercock, but the grain needed a south wind. 3 A north wind is blowing and I think that it will soon snow. 4. It (51) will be beautiful weather tomorrow, because a pleasant wind is now blowing. 5. The flowers will wither because those children gathered them. 6. They are talking about that park, but I do not wish to take-a-walk, because there are clouds in (on) the sky. 7. At least we shall take an umbrella, and my brother will hold it over our heads. 8. My sister said "Mother and I are-afraid that it will rain." 9. My young sister will be careful about that new umbrella. 10. I wonder whether she will take-a-walk tomorrow. 11. That park is pleasant and the grass is soft and green. 12. The birds are building their nests now, in those branches above our heads. 13. The sky above us is blue, and a west wind is beginning to blow. 14. I can see that weathercock, on that large house near the park. 15. Mother says that my sister will have a new hat tomorrow. 16. She will be careful of (about) that hat. 17. My father's friend is very careful of his son. 18. One sees that he is not a strong boy.

LESSON XIV.

THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN "CXI TIU".

60. The demonstrative pronoun (and pronominal adjective) meaning "this" is formed by using with "tiu" (56) the word "cxi", which expresses the general idea of nearness or proximity. (Consequently the literal meaning of "cxi tiu" is "that one nearby", "that one here".) The word "cxi" may either precede or follow the pronoun:

Cxi tiu estas la mia, this is mine.
Mi vidis cxi tiun, I saw this one.
Cxu vi volas tiujn cxi? Do you wish these?
Cxi tiu knabino estas mia fratino, this girl is my sister.
Mi vidis cxi tiujn cxapelojn, I saw these hats.
Cxi tiuj amikoj promenos, these friends will take a walk.

61. The words "tiu" and "cxi tiu" may be used to distinguish between persons or things "previously" mentioned and "just" mentioned:

Gertrude kaj Mario estas en la parko.
Tiu rigardas la florojn, cxi tiu kolektas ilin.

Gertrude and Mary are in the park.
The former (that one) looks at the flowers,
the latter (this one) gathers them.

POSSESSIVE FORM OF THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN.

62. To express possession, the demonstrative pronouns "tiu" and "cxi tiu" have the special possessive or genitive forms "ties", that one's, and "cxi ties", this one's. The use of "ties" and "cxi ties" to mean "the former" and "the latter" is similar to the use of "tiu" and "cxi tiu" shown in 61:

Mi iris al ties domo, I went to that one's house.
Cxi ties filoj estas junaj,
this person's (this one's) sons are young.
Mi sxatas ties koloron, sed preferas cxi tiun floron,
I like that one's color, but prefer this flower.
La patro kaj lia amiko parolas pri siaj domoj.
Ties estas nova, sed cxi ties sxajnas bela.
Father and his friend are talking about their houses.
The former's is new, but the latter's seems beautiful.

THE SUFFIX "-IL-".

63. Names of instruments, tools or utensils may be formed by adding the suffix "-il-" (followed by the ending "-o") to roots whose meaning permits:

flugilo, wing (from flugi, to fly).
kaptilo, snare, trap (from kapti, to catch).
kudrilo, needle (from kudri, to sew).
montrilo, indicator, (clock) hand (from montri, to point out, show).
tenilo, handle (from teni, to hold).

[Footnote: The root of a word is that part of it which contains the essential meaning, and to which the verb endings "-i", "-as", "-is", "-os", the noun ending "-o", the adjective ending "-a", etc., are attached, when no suffix intervenes. Thus, "vir-" is the root of "viro" and of "virino"; "kur-" is the root of "kuri", etc.]

THE EXPRESSION OF MEANS OR INSTRUMENTALITY.

64. The means or instrumentality through which an act is accomplished is expressed by use of the preposition "per":

Oni kudras per kudrilo, one sews by means of (with) a needle.
La birdoj flugas per flugiloj, the birds fly by (with) wings.
Li amuzas sin per tiuj bildoj,
he amuses himself with (by) those pictures.
Mi trovis gxin per via helpo, I found it by (through) your help.

VOCABULARY

akra = sharp najbaro = neighbor.
busxo = mouth. per = by means of (64).
dekstra = right (not left). supo = soup.
cxi (see 60). telero = plate.
forko = fork. terpomo = potato.
helpo = help. ties = that one's (62).
kafo = coffee. trancxi = to cut.
kulero = spoon. tre = very, exceedingly.
mano = hand. viando = meat.

LA MANGXO.

Hieraux mi miris cxu mi havos bonan mangxon en la domo de mia amiko. Sed mi opiniis ke mi havos tre bonan mangxon, cxar mia amiko sxatas doni bonajn mangxojn al siaj amikoj. Oni metis tre bonan supon antaux mi, kaj mi mangxis tiun per granda kulero. Post la supo mi havis viandon. Cxi tiun mi tenis per forko, kaj trancxis per akra trancxilo. La forko, trancxilo kaj kulero estas mangxiloj. Mi havis ne nur viandon, sed ankaux novajn terpomojn. Mi trancxis tiujn cxi per la trancxilo, sed mi metis ilin en la busxon per forko. Mi tenis la forkon en la dekstra mano, kaj metis la trancxilon trans mian teleron. Oni bezonas akran trancxilon, sed oni ne bezonas tre akran forkon. Post la viando kaj la terpomoj, oni donis al mi fresxajn maturajn cxerizojn. Ili kusxis sur granda telero, kaj havis belan koloron. Ilia gusto estis ankaux bona. Mi preskaux ne diris ke mi ankaux havis kafon. Mi parolos morgaux al mia amiko pri lia kafo, kaj lauxdos gxin. Post la mangxo, najbaro de mia amiko venis en cxi ties domon, kaj ili parolis al mi pri siaj novaj domoj. Per la helpo de sia patro, mia amiko konstruos grandan domon. Lia najbaro volas konstrui belan sed ne tre grandan domon. Ties nova domo estos bela, sed mi opinias ke mi preferos cxi ties domon. Mia amiko volis doni almenaux kafon al sia najbaro, sed li diris ke li ne volas trinki kafon. Tamen li volis persikon. Li tenis tiun en la mano, kaj mangxis tiun.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. The birds have very strong wings on their bodies, but they do not have hands. 2. They will build their nests, and sing about the young birds. 3. Those children were talking to me yesterday about their cat. 4. They said that it likes to catch and eat sparrows. 5. Tomorrow it will hide (itself) behind a tree, and will catch a young sparrow. 6. The children will gather peaches in that-person's garden, and will put them upon a plate. 7. They will shake the whole tree by means of a branch. 8. The sweet fruit above them will fall upon the soft green grass. 9. The children wondered whether the cherries were ripe. 10. They seem almost ripe, and tomorrow the children will pick (gather) them, with the help of their father. 11. It is said (54) that the grain in that-man's field very [much] needs rain. 12. People also think that the flowers will wither, for (because) it did not rain yesterday or today. 13. My careful young friend will carry an umbrella in his hand tomorrow, because he fears the rain. 14. He sees those gray clouds in (on) the sky. 15. He holds the umbrella by its handle. 16. The weathercock is an indicator concerning the weather. 17. One eats meat with a fork, and soup with a spoon. 18. One holds the spoon in the right hand. 19. A knife is sharp, but one does not need a sharp fork. 20. We shall have a very good meal, and also very good coffee.

LESSON XV.

THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE.

65. The demonstrative adjective related to the demonstrative pronoun "tiu" (56) is "tia", that kind of, that sort of, such:

Tia floro estas bela, that kind of a flower is beautiful.
Mi sxatas tian viandon, I like that sort of meat.
Tiaj najbaroj estas agrablaj,
such (that kind of) neighbors are pleasant.
Mi volas auxdi tiajn birdojn, I wish to hear such birds.

ADVERBS DEFINED AND CLASSIFIED.

66. An adverb is a word which modifies the meaning of a verb, adjective, another adverb, or phrase. It may express manner, time, degree, negation, etc. Adverbs are either primary, as "now," "almost," or derived, as "glad-ly," "sweet-ly," The Esperanto primary adverbs given in this and in preceding lessons may be classified as follows:

(a) Temporal Adverbs (expressing time).

baldaux = soon. morgaux = tomorrow.
hieraux = yesterday. nun = now.
hodiaux = today. tuj = immediately.

(b) Adverbs of Degree.

almenaux = at least. preskaux = almost.
nur = merely. tre = very, much.

(c) Adverbs Expressing Other Ideas.

addition: ankaux = also. emphasis: ecx = even.
interrogation: cxu, (30). affirmation: jes = yes.
proximity: cxi, (60). negation: ne = not, no, (27).

a. An adverb usually precedes, but may also follow, the word or words which it modifies. It must be so placed as to leave no doubt about which of two words or word-groups it is intended to modify. Thus, "mi preskaux volis havi tiun" clearly means "I almost wished to have that"; but "mi volis preskaux havi tiun" might mean either "I almost wished to have that," or more probably "I wished almost to have that." An example of permissible variation in the position of adverbs is shown in questions to which an affirmative answer is expected. Such questions may be put in the form of a statement, followed by "cxu ne" (instead of having "cxu" introduce the sentence, with "ne" in its normal position):

Li venos, cxu ne? He will come, will he not?
La vetero estas bela, cxu ne? The weather is beautiful, is it not?
Vi auxdis tiun diron, cxu ne? You heard that remark, did you not?

FORMATION OF OPPOSITES.

67. If the meaning of a word is such that it can have a direct opposite, such opposite may be formed from it by use of the prefix "mal-":

malalta = low, short (from "alta", high, tall).
malamiko = enemy (from "amiko", friend).
maldekstra = left (from "dekstra", right).
malhelpi = to hinder (from "helpi", to help).
maljuna = aged, old (from "juna", young).
malnova = old, not new (from "nova", new).

[Footnote: Cf. English "malcontent", "discontented," "maladroit", "clumsy."]

VOCABULARY

dum = during. povi = to be able.
ecx = even. preni = to take.
gardi = to guard. propono = proposal.
helpi = to help, to aid. respondi = to answer.
honti = to be ashamed. ruza = sly, cunning.
kara = dear. sxteli = to steal.
kontenta = satisfied. tia = that kind of (65).
kuragxa = courageous. tuj = immediately.
nokto = night. vocxo = voice.

LA RUZA JUNA VIRO.

Ruza juna viro kaj bona maljuna viro iris trans dezerton. Tiu havis nigran cxevalon, cxi tiu havis blankan cxevalon. "Vi gardos niajn cxevalojn dum la nokto, cxu ne?" diris la juna viro per dolcxa vocxo al sia amiko, "Cxar dum la nokto oni ne povos vidi mian nigran cxevalon, sed malamikoj povos tuj vidi vian blankan cxevalon. Oni povos sxteli tian cxevalon, cxar vi estas maljuna kaj malforta, kaj ne povos malhelpi malamikojn." Tia propono ne sxajnis agrabla al la maljuna viro. Li ne estis kontenta, tamen li ne volis perdi sian cxevalon, cxar li estis malricxa. Li diris al si ke li donos sian blankan cxevalon al la juna viro, kaj prenos ties nigran cxevalon. Tuj li diris al cxi tiu "Sed per via helpo mi ne perdos mian cxevalon: mi donos la mian al vi, kaj prenos vian cxevalon. La via estas malbela, sed gxi estas almenaux nigra; vi donos gxin al mi, cxu ne?" "Jes," respondis la ruza juna viro, kaj li donis sian nigran cxevalon al tiu, kaj prenis la blankan cxevalon. "Nun," diris la maljuna viro, "Vi estas kuragxa kaj forta, kaj vi gardos la cxevalojn, cxu ne? Vi povos malhelpi malamikojn per tiu granda akra trancxilo, kaj oni ne povos sxteli vian blankan cxevalon." La ruza juna viro ne hontis. Li respondis "Mia kara amiko, mi nun dormos, cxar oni ne sxtelos blankan cxevalon. Mi povos vidi tian cxevalon dum la nokto, kaj malhelpi malamikojn. Sed tiu cxevalo via ("that horse of yours") havas la koloron de la nokto, kaj ecx nun oni povas sxteli gxin." La malkontenta maljuna viro diris per kolera vocxo "Cxu vi ne hontas pri tia propono?" Tamen la ruza juna viro tuj komencis dormi, kaj la maljuna viro gardis la cxevalojn dum la tuta nokto.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.
(Words to be formed with the prefix "mal-" are quoted.)

1. Does one eat potatoes and meat with a fork or a spoon? 2. One puts soup into the mouth by means of a spoon. 3. One cuts fruit with a knife, and puts the fruit upon a plate. 4. The coffee was "cold", and I was much "dissatisfied". 5. My knife was "dull", nevertheless I almost immediately cut my (the) "left" hand. 6. I was ashamed, but I think that the handle of that knife was very "short". 7. The grass is "wet" today, and I fear that we shall not be able to take a walk, even in that "small" park. 8. I "dislike" to go-walking upon the "hard" streets. 9. The courageous young man and his "aged" friend talked about their "enemies". 10. They wished to be careful about their horses. 11. The young man was very sly, and wished to sleep during the night. 12. He said that one can steal a black horse during the "dark" night. 13. He said that either (aux) he or the "old" man would guard the horses. 14. The "old" man answered that he would give to him his [own] white horse. 15. He took that one's black horse. 16. He was ashamed, and was very angry at his "faithless" friend. 17. But he "stayed-awake", and guarded the horses.

LESSON XVI.

THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF PLACE.

68. The demonstrative adverbs of place related to the pronouns "tiu" and "cxi tiu" are "tie", there, in (at) that place, and "cxi tie", here, in (at) this place:

La telero estas tie, the plate is there (in that place).
La libroj kusxas cxi tie, the books lie here (in this place).
Mi trovis vin tie kaj lin tie cxi, I found you there and him here.
Tie la vetero sxajnas tre agrabla,
there the weather seems very pleasant.

69. If the verb in the sentence expresses motion toward the place indicated by "tie" or "cxi tie", the ending "-n" is added to the adverb (46), forming "tien", thither, there, and "cxi tien", hither, here:

Li iros tien, he will go there (thither).
Mi venis cxi tien, I came here (hither).
Ni estis tie, kaj venis cxi tien,
we were there and came here (hither).

ACCOMPANIMENT.

70. Accompaniment or association is expressed by the preposition "kun", with, along with:

La viro venis kun sia amiko, the man came with his friend.
Mi promenos kun vi, I shall go walking with you.
La knabo kun tiu viro estas lia frato,
the boy with that man is his brother.

[Footnote: "Kun" must not be confused with "per" (64), which expresses instrumentality, although per may often be translated by English "with." The English preposition "with" may be said to have three rather clearly defined different meanings. In the linguistic history of this word, the original meaning was "against," still shown in "fight with, strive with, contend with, withstand", etc. (Cf. German "widerstreiten", to strive with, "widerhalten", to resist, etc.) Gradually this word "with" usurped the meaning of the original preposition "mid," expressing association or accompaniment (cf. German "mit", with, which it crowded out of the language except in one unimportant compound). The word "by" was also encroaching upon "mid" from another direction, and so "mid's" successor "with" came to be interchangeable with "by" in expressing instrumentality. Thus, English "with" indicates opposition, accompaniment, or instrumentality, for which three senses Esperanto has the three prepositions "kontraux", "kun", and "per", respectively.]

THE ADVERB "FOR".

71. The adverb "for", away, may be used independently, as "Li iris for de mi", he went away from me, but it is more frequently used as a prefix to give a sense of departure, loss or somewhat forcible removal:

foriri = to go away, to depart.
forkuri = to run away, to escape.
forlasi = to leave alone, to abandon, to desert.
formangxi = to eat away, to eat up.
forpreni = to take away, to remove.
fortrinki = to drink away, to drink up.

[Footnote: Cf. the prefix "for-" in English "forfend," to keep away, to avert, "forbid," to exclude from, to command against, "forbear," to refrain from, etc.]

THE MEANING OF "POVI".

72. The verb "povi", to be able, is used to translate English "can", which is defective, that is, does not occur in all of the forms a verb may have:

Mi povas paroli, I am able to talk, I can talk.
Mi povis paroli, I was able to talk, I could talk.
Mi povos paroli, I shall be able to talk, ------.
Mi volas povi paroli, I wish to be able to talk, ------.

VOCABULARY

el = out of, out. peli = to drive, to chase.
cxirkaux = around, roundabout. posxo = pocket.
for = away (71). rajdi = to ride.
frua = early. rapidi = to hasten.
glavo = sword. resti = to remain, to stay.
horo = hour. sagxa = wise.
kun = with (70). tie = there (68).
lasi = to leave. voki = to call.

MALAMIKOJ EN LA DEZERTO.

Juna viro kaj lia sagxa patro volis iri trans la dezerton, kun siaj amikoj. La amikoj estis fortaj, kaj la juna viro estis tre kuragxa. Ili restis en malgranda urbo dum la nokto, kaj forrajdis kun tiuj amikoj. La patro kaj la filo opiniis ke la amikoj kun ili povos helpi per siaj akraj glavoj. Ili opiniis ke ili povos forpeli la malamikojn. Ecx en la dezerto oni trovas malamikojn. Tiaj malamikoj forprenas la monon de bonaj viroj. La juna viro estis kontenta, cxar li estis kun la amikoj. La maljuna viro estis kontenta cxar li estis kun sia filo. Baldaux la nokto venis. Estis tre malluma tie en la dezerto, kaj ili preskaux ne povis vidi. Dum la fruaj horoj de la nokto la patro auxdis vocxojn, kaj preskaux tuj li vidis la malamikojn. La ruzaj malbonaj viroj rapidis tien, kaj vokis la maljunan viron. La malkuragxaj amikoj de la patro kaj filo nek restis tie, nek helpis forpeli la malamikojn. Ili tuj forkuris. La malamikoj staris cxirkaux la patro, kaj forpusxis lin de lia cxevalo. La filo volis malhelpi ilin, sed li ne povis. Li povis nur resti kun la patro, kaj gardi lin tie kontraux la glavoj de la malamikoj. Baldaux la malamikoj komencis forpreni la monon el la posxoj de la sagxa maljuna viro. La kolera filo diris per maldolcxa ("bitter") vocxo "Cxu vi ne hontas? Cxu vi lasos al ni nek la cxevalojn nek nian monon?" Sed la malamikoj respondis "Ne, ni lasos al vi nek la cxevalojn nek la monon. Ni ne estas malsagxaj." Post tiu diro ili tuj forrapidis, kaj prenis kun si la cxevalojn.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. The foolish friends of the young man and his aged father did not stay with them. 2. They did not help them with their swords, but ran away at once ("tuj"), and were not ashamed. 3. The old man heard disagreeable voices behind him, and soon he saw the enemy. 4. The enemy called them, and hastened there (69). 5. Those sly bad men took the money out of the pockets of the courageous young man. 6. They stood around him, and also around his father. 7. The father and son could not even guard their horses. 8. The enemy did not leave (to) these their horses, but took both the horses and the money. 9. Soon the enemy rode away, during the late hours of the night. 10. The father and son were angry and dissatisfied. 11. They said "We fear and dislike such men." 12. The father said "By the help of our neighbors we can ("povos") find those bad men, and drive them away, out of the desert." 13. The son replied, "Dear Father, such a proposal seems good, and I will help with my long sharp sword. 14. But we are now in the desert, and the road to the city is long. 15. We cannot ride thither, but we can walk thither. 16. Can you not hasten, with ("per") my help?" 17. The wise old man answered, "Yes, my son, with such help I can walk thither."

LESSON XVII.

THE DEMONSTRATIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB.

73. The demonstrative temporal adverb related to the demonstrative pronoun "tiu" is "tiam", then, at that time:

Tiam li rajdos al la urbo, then he will ride to the city.
Nun ili estas sagxaj, sed tiam ili estis malsagxaj,
now they are wise, but at that time they were foolish.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.

74. An adjective may have three degrees, "positive", "comparative" and "superlative." English has various ways of forming the comparative and superlative degrees (as by the suffixes "-er, -est," the adverbs "more, most," and irregular methods as in "good, better, best," etc.). Esperanto has only one method, using the adverbs "pli", more, and "plej", most:

POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE.
--------------- ------------------------ --------------------------
bela, beautiful pli bela, more beautiful plej bela, most beautiful
bona, good pli bona, better plej bona, best
malbona, bad pli malbona, worse plej malbona, worst
sagxa, wise pli sagxa, wiser plej sagxa, wisest

75. The preposition "el" is used with words expressing the group or class out of which a superlative is selected and mentioned:

Li estas la plej juna el tiuj, he is the youngest of (out of) those.
Vi estas la plej felicxa el ni, you are the happiest of us.
Tiu estis la plej ruza el la viroj,
that one was the craftiest of the men.

MANNER AND CHARACTERISTIC.

76. The actions or feelings which accompany an act or state, or the characteristic which permanently accompanies a person or thing, may be expressed by a substantive with the preposition "kun":

Li prenis gxin kun la plej granda zorgo,
he took it with the greatest care.
Mi auxdis lin kun intereso kaj plezuro,
I heard him with interest and pleasure.
Sxi estas virino kun bona gusto,
she is a woman with (of) good taste.
Mi havas cxevalon kun forta korpo,
I have a horse with a strong body.

[Footnote: Sometimes the manner of an action may be expressed by the instrument of it, expressed by the preposition "per" with a substantive modified by an adjective: "Li kantis per dolcxa vocxo", he sang with (by means of) a sweet voice. "Vi pusxis min per forta mano", you pushed me with a strong hand.]

"DIRI", "PAROLI" AND "RAKONTI".

77. The verbs "diri", to say, "paroli", to talk, to speak, and "rakonti", to relate, having in common the general idea of speech or expression, must not be confused in use:

Mi diris al vi ke pluvas, I said to (told) you that it was raining.
Mi diris gxin al vi, I said it to you (I told you).
Mi parolis al vi pri gxi, I talked (spoke) to you about it.
Mi rakontis gxin al vi, I related (told) it to you.

VOCABULARY

ami = to love. pli = more (74).
ekster = outside (of). plumo = pen.
Frederiko = Frederick. rakonti = to relate (77).
gratuli = to congratulate. regxo = king.
intereso = interest. servisto = servant.
letero = letter. skribi = to write.
plej = most (74). tiam = then (73).
plezuro = pleasure. zorgo = care.

FREDERIKO GRANDA KAJ LA JUNA SERVISTO.

Hieraux mi legis interesan libron pri Frederiko Granda ("the Great"). En gxi oni rakontas ke la regxo kun plezuro legis aux skribis per sia plumo, dum malfruaj horoj de la nokto. Agrabla juna knabo, la plej juna el la servistoj, tiam restis ekster la pordo. Cxar la regxo legis plej interesan novan libron, li ne opiniis ke la horo estas malfrua. Li vokis sian malgrandan serviston, sed la knabo, nek venis nek respondis. La regxo iris tien, kaj trovis la knabon ekster la pordo. Li vidis ke la knabo dormas sur malalta segxo. Tiam Frederiko Granda ne estis kolera, sed hontis cxar li vokis la infanon. La regxo Frederiko vidis leteron en la posxo de la knabo. Tuj li prenis la leteron el lia posxo, kaj rigardis gxin. Gxi estis letero al la servisto, de lia patrino. Sxi ne estis ricxa virino, sxi sxajnis esti tre malricxa. En cxi tiu letero la patrino diris per la plumo ke sxi amas la filon. Sxi dankis lin cxar li skribis al sxi longan leteron. Sxi ankaux dankis lin cxar li donis al sxi monon. La regxo volis esti tre bona al tia filo. Kun la plej granda zorgo li metis monon el sia posxo kun la letero kaj tiam lasis la leteron en ties posxo. Tiam li formarsxis al sia cxambro, kaj vokis la malgrandan serviston. La knabo tuj auxdis, kaj rapidis tra la pordo. Li kuris trans la cxambron, kaj staris antaux la regxo. "Cxu vi dormis?" diris Frederiko Granda. "Jes, mi timas ke mi preskaux dormis," respondis la knabo, "kaj mi tre hontas." Tiam li metis la manon en la posxon, kaj trovis la monon. Li sxajnis pli malfelicxa kaj diris kun granda timo "Malamiko metis cxi tiun monon en mian posxon! Oni opinios ke mi sxtelis gxin! Oni malamos min, kaj forpelos min!" Frederiko respondis, "Ne, mi donis gxin al vi, cxar mi amas bonajn knabojn. Mi gratulas vian patrinon, cxar sxi havas tian filon."

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. An interesting story is related (54) about Frederick the Great. 2. His youngest servant stayed outside of the door. 3. The king called him, and he hastened thither and stood before him. 4. Yesterday he did not hear the king. 5. The king called him, but he did not answer. 6. The king thought that the boy had gone away with the older servants, and he was angry. 7. He left his book on the table, and went to the door. 8. Then he saw that the little boy was sleeping there. 9. He looked at him with greater interest, and saw a letter in his pocket. 10. The letter was from the boy's mother. 11. He had written a letter to her, with his pen, and had given (to) her money, because she was poor. 12. He wrote longer letters with pleasure, because he was a most faithful son. 13. The king congratulated the mother of the boy, concerning such a son. 14. (The) king Frederick wished to be kinder ("pli bona") to the boy. 15. He placed his book upon the table, near his sword, and talked to the little servant. 16. Then the older servants came, and stood around the king. 17. They walked with great care, and the younger servant did not hear them. 18. They loved the little boy, and wished to help him.

LESSON XVIII.

THE DEMONSTRATIVE ADVERB OF MOTIVE OR REASON.

78. The demonstrative adverb of motive or reason, related to the demonstrative pronoun "tiu", is "tial", therefore, for that reason, so:

Tial la servisto foriris, therefore the servant went away.
Tial mi gratulis lin, for that reason I congratulated him.
Tial oni forpelis lin, so they drove him away.

DERIVATION OF ADVERBS.

79. Adverbs may be derived from roots whose meaning permits, by addition of the adverb-ending "-e", as "felicxe", happily, "kolere", angrily. The comparison of adverbs is similar to that of adjectives:

POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE.
------------- ---------------------- -----------------------
sagxe, wisely pli sagxe, more wisely plej sagxe, most wisely
bone, well pli bone, better plej bone, best
malbone, badly pli malbone, worse plej malbone, worst
ruze, slyly pli ruze, more slyly plej ruze, most slyly

"MALPLI" AND "MALPLEJ".

80. The opposites (67) of "pli" and "plej" are "malpli", less, and "malplej", least. Their use is similar to that of "pli" and "plej". (These adverbs may also modify verbs):

Li estas malpli kuragxa, he is less courageous.
Tiuj estis malplej akraj, those were least sharp.
La vento blovis malpli forte, the wind blew less strongly.
Li skribis malplej zorge, he wrote least carefully.
Mi malpli timas ilin, I fear them less.
Vi malplej bezonos helpon, you will need help least.

COMPARISON OF WORDS EXPRESSING QUANTITY.

81. Since in their precise sense the words "pli", "malpli", "plej", "malplej", express degree, a quantitative meaning is given by "multe", "much", in the desired degree of comparison:

multe, much pli multe, more (in amount) plej multe, most

malpli multe, less " malplej multe, least

malmulte, little pli malmulte, less " plej malmulte, least

COMPARISONS CONTAINING "OL".

82. In a comparison made by the use of "pli" or "malpli", the case used after "ol", than, must indicate clearly the sense intended:

Mi amas ilin pli multe ol sxin, I love them more than (I love) her.
Mi amas ilin pli multe ol sxi,
I love them more than she (loves them).
Vi helpis la viron malpli multe ol la knabo,
you helped the man less than the boy (helped him).
Vi helpis la viron malpli multe ol la knabon,
you helped the man less than (you helped) the boy.

CAUSAL CLAUSES.

83. A clause giving a cause or reason is introduced by "cxar", because, for, or by the combination "tial ke", for this reason that, because, for:

Mi venis frue, cxar mi volis vidi vin,
I came early, for I wished to see you.
La floroj velkis tial, ke ne pluvis,
the flowers wilted for this reason, that it did not rain.

VOCABULARY