Chapter VI: Preface (6)

Unu el la plezuroj de la kampara vivo konsistas el la multenombraj ("numerous") okazoj por veturi cxien, kien oni volas iri, per kvietaj pitoreskaj vojoj. Ni havas ankoraux unu ("still one, yet another") okazon por plezuro en nia vilagxo, cxar ni povas veturi per vaporsxipo sur la bela lago cxe kies bordo kusxas la vilagxo. Hieraux du kuzinoj venis por viziti cxe ni, kaj tuj post la tagmangxo ni decidis promeni laux tiu pitoreska vojeto al la lago. Kiam ni alvenis al la lago, ni rimarkis ke beleta vaporsxipeto estis jxus forironta. Tial mi acxetis tri biletojn, kaj kiel eble plej rapide ni suriris la sxipeton. La sonoriloj ("bells") estis jam sonorintaj, kaj tuj post kiam ni transmarsxis la ponteton, de la tero al la planko de la sxipeto, oni forprenis la ponteton. Kelkaj personoj kiuj estis ankoraux sur la tero kuris kun granda rapideco al la ponteto. Ili svingis la brakojn kaj la ombrelojn tre energie, sed la sxipeto ne atendis ecx unu minuton. La personoj sxajnis tre koleraj pro sia malfrueco, kaj ankoraux pli koleraj pro la trankvila foriro de la sxipeto. Cxiu sur la sxipeto ridetis, cxar la koleremo ("irascibility") estas cxiam amuza. Tiam cxiu komencis sin amuzi tiel, kiel li deziris. Mi estis kunportinta dikan lanan surtuton, sed pro la varmeco de la vetero mi ne bezonis gxin, kaj lasis gxin sur apuda segxo. Ni atendis kun plezuro por vidi la krutajn montetojn kiuj estos videblaj tuj kiam la sxipeto estos pasinta preter malgranda arbaro. La pitoreskeco de la belaj montetoj estas difektota, cxar grandaj fabrikejoj estas jam konstruataj cxe la montpiedoj. La sxtonoj por la muroj jam kusxas pretaj apude, kune kun grandaj stangoj kaj aliaj pecoj da ligno. Tie oni fabrikos tablojn, segxojn, kaj aliajn meblojn el zorge elektita ligno.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. It is difficult in every way to select a present for a child who already possesses enough toys. 2. In a toy-shop yesterday I examined the dolls made out of woolen cloth and other material, and also looked at the various little animals. 3. There were ponies, little dogs and little lions and camels. 4. There were also little sets of furniture (126), which consisted of tables, sofas and chairs. 5. On the tables were small plates containing vegetables, fruits and roast (189) meat, entirely made out of colored paper. 6. There were also little cups and tumblers of thin glass, into which one could pour water or milk. 7. As (cxar) one dollar was all (194) of the money which I had in my purse, I left the shop. 8. I walked along a stony picturesque path toward the lake, swinging my overcoat on my arm, while I thought over ("pripensis") the difficulty, and tried to decide what sort of present to choose. 9. The steamboat to B---- was just leaving, so I went across the footbridge ("ponteto") on to the pretty little ship, while its bells were ringing, and rode an hour in the open ("libera") air. 10. The shore which we passed is very picturesque, but its beauty is about to be spoiled, for a large furniture factory is going to be built between that steep hill and the lake. 11. Its proximity to the water is necessary, for water-power ("akvoforto") will be used.

LESSON XLIII.

THE INDEFINITE PRONOUN.

203. The indefinite pronoun (and pronominal adjective) "iu", any one, a certain one, presents the idea of some person or thing, without definitely characterizing it:

Mi parolas pri iu, kiun vi konas,
I am talking about a certain one whom you know.
Mi vizitis iujn el viaj amikoj,
I visited some of your friends.
Mi havas kelkajn pomojn, sed iuj ne estas bonaj,
I have several apples, but certain ones are not good.
Iuj pontoj estas bone faritaj,
some bridges are well made.

204. The indefinite pronoun "iu" has a possessive or genitive form "ies", somebody's, someone's, a certain one's:

Mi tusxis ies brakon, I touched someone's arm.
Cxu ies surtuto kusxas sur la tablo?
Is anybody's overcoat lying on the table?
Ies ludiloj estas rompitaj, someone's playthings are broken.

PARTICIPIAL NOUNS.

205. Nouns may be formed from participles, by substituting the noun ending "-o" for the adjectival ending "-a". Such participial nouns indicate persons temporarily or non-professionally performing or undergoing that which is expressed by the root:

helpanto, one who is helping, an assistant.
elpensinto, one who has thought out something, an inventor.
legonto, one who is about to read.
vidato, one (being) seen.
sendito, one (having been) sent, an envoy.
la jugxoto, the one about to be judged, the accused.

[Footnote: Participial nouns must not be confused with nouns formed by the suffix "-ist-" (172) expressing professional or permanent occupation: "rajdanto", a rider, "rajdisto", jockey, horseman, "jugxanto", a judge (of something), "jugxisto", judge (professional), "laboranto", a person working, "laboristo", laborer.]

THE PREFIX "EK-".

206. Sudden or momentary action, or the beginning of an action or state, is indicated by the prefix "ek-":

ekdormi, to fall asleep.
ekkanti, to burst into song.
ekiri, to set out, to start.
ekridi, to burst into a laugh
ekrigardi, to glance at.

THE SUFFIX "-ID-".

207. Words indicating the "young of, the child of, the descendant of," are formed by use of the suffix "-id-":

cxevalido, colt (from "cxevalo", horse).
hundido, puppy (from "hundo", dog).
katido, kitten (from "kato", cat).
leonido, a lion's whelp (from "leono", lion).
regxidino, a king's daughter, a princess (from "regxo", king).

VOCABULARY

amas-o = heap, throng. kugl-o = bullet.
dauxr-i = to continue. milit-i = to fight, to make war.
hirund-o = swallow. (bird). ost-o = bone.
hom-o = human being. renvers-i = to upset, to overturn.
humor-o = temper, humor. sign-o = sign, mark.
ies = some one's (204). tend-o = tent.
iu = some one (203). tru-o = hole.

[Footnote: Cf. the difference between "viro", man (in contrast to "virino", woman), and "homo", man in the generic sense, including both men and women.]

LA NESTO SUR LA TENDO.

Unufoje iu regxo estis farinta militon kontraux la homoj de lando cxe la bordo de pitoreska rivero. La soldatoj ne venis tien per vaporsxipoj, sed estis konstruintaj ponton trans la rivero, por la veturiloj ("vehicles"). Estis necese resti kelkan tempon apud urbo kiun la regxo volis ekataki, kaj li havis grandan tendaron ("encampment") antaux tiu urbo. Unu tagon en la dauxro ("course") de la milito, iuj el la soldatoj pasis preter la tendo de la regxo, laux la sxtona vojeto laux kiu ili cxiutage marsxis por gardi la tendaron. Unu el cxi tiuj ekrimarkis ke hirundo estas konstruinta sian neston sur la regxa tendo. Sur la nesto, kiu estis bone konstruita el koto, sidis trankvile la hirundo. Dum la soldatoj svingis la brakojn kaj ekridis unu post la alia, pri la kuragxa birdo, la regxo auxdis ies vocxon. Li elvenis el sia tendo por eltrovi kial la parolantoj faras tiom da bruo, kaj kial ili tiel ekkriis kaj ekridis. Kiam la viroj montris al li la birdon, li diris kun bonhumora rideto, "Tiu hirundo estos mia gasto. Cxiuj el la militistoj certe zorgos de nun pri la hirundo kaj la hirundidoj." Tial la nesto restis netusxata en la dauxro de cxiu batalo. Kelkaj kugloj pasis preter gxi, sed la trankvileco de la birdo dauxris same kiel antauxe. Fine la regxo venkis, per kruelega batalo. Tuj la venkintoj forportis la tendojn, kune kun multaj militkaptitoj ("prisoners of war"). Nur la tendon de la regxo oni lasis tie, cxar la regxo diris ke gxi nun apartenas al la hirundo. Gxi jam estis malnova kaj eluzita, tra kiu la pluvo eniris per multe da truoj. Sed gxi ankoraux staris, gxis iu tago somera kiam la hirundidoj povis jam bone flugi. Tiam la vento subite renversis gxin, kaj gxi ekfalis, kaj kusxis, amaso da cxifonoj, inter multe da kugloj, homaj ostoj, kaj la ceteraj malgajaj postsignoj ("traces") de ies venko sur la batalejo.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. There is a pretty story about a swallow which built its nest for its young ("idoj") on the king's tent. 2. The soldiers who were walking along the steep path past the tent glanced at it, and caught sight of (206) the bird. 3. Some of them burst into a laugh, and gestured ("svingis la brakon") toward the bird, to point it out to their comrades. 4. The good-humored king put on a thick woolen overcoat, and came out of his tent, to inquire why his soldiers were conversing so noisily there. 5. The tent was an expensive one, and contained handsome furniture, as well as ("kaj ankau") a bell which always rang as soon as ("tuj kiam") one touched it. 6. The king immediately noticed the swallow's nest, and said with an amiable smile "Surely such a courageous bird is a worthy (154) guest for a king." 7. The warriors (172) cared for the swallow as much as possible during the course of the war. 8. When the victors departed, they left that tent there. 9. Finally the wind upset it, and it fell to the ground. 10. The young swallows already could fly, by ("je") that time. 11. The battleground is covered with bullets, piles of human bones, and similar melancholy signs of war. 12. War (201) is wicked and shameful (154). 13. Why do kings and princes wish to make war upon each other (180)? 14. When their sons have gone away to (make) war, the mothers of the soldiers are very uneasy. 15. Perhaps those sons will be prisoners of war.

LESSON XLIV.

THE INDEFINITE ADJECTIVE.

208. The indefinite adjective, related to the indefinite pronoun "iu", is "ia", of any kind, some kind of, a certain kind of, expressing indefinitely the quality of a person or thing:

Estas ia birdo sur tiu arbo,
there is a bird of some sort on that tree.
Mi vidis iajn ostojn sur la tero,
I saw some kind of bones on the ground.
Estas ia homo en tiu tendo,
there is some sort of human being in that tent.

THE INDEFINITE ADVERB OF PLACE.

209. The indefinite adverb of place, related to the indefinite pronoun "iu", is "ie", anywhere, somewhere, in (at) a certain place. If the verb in the sentence expresses motion toward the place indicated by "ie", the ending "-n" is added (121):

Ie en tiu arbaro estas leono,
somewhere in that forest is a lion.
Ie malantaux la soldatoj vi trovos amason da kugloj,
somewhere behind the soldiers you will find a heap of bullets.
La hirundo flugis ien,
the swallow flew somewhere (in some direction).
Mi iros ien, sed mi ankoraux ne scias kien,
I am going somewhere, but I do not yet know where.

PREDICATE NOMINATIVES.

210. An adjective may stand in predicate relation to the direct object of a transitive verb, as well as to the subject of an intransitive verb (19). Such a predicate adjective, agreeing in number (21) with the object of the verb, but remaining in the nominative case, indicates the result produced by the verb upon the object, or the condition, quality or temporary state in which this object is found:

Li faris la mondon felicxa,
he made the world happy (made-happy the world).
Mi lasis la knabon trankvila, I left the boy calm (undisturbed).
Mi trovis la truon jam farita, I found the hole already made.
Mi lasis ilin bone punitaj, I left them well punished.

[Footnote: Cf. the difference between the examples given and sentences with the same words in an attributive (13) use: Dio faris la mondon felicxan, God made the happy world. Mi lasis la knabon trankvilan, I left the calm boy. Mi trovis la jam faritan truon, I found the already made hole. Mi lasis ilin bone punitajn, I left those who had been well punished.]

211. A noun may be used similarly in predicate relation after a transitive verb, as well as after an intransitive verb (20):

Sxi nomis sian filinon Mario, she named her daughter Mary.
Oni elektis tiun reprezentanto,
they elected that one representative.
Mi vidos lin venkinto, I shall see him a conqueror.
Mi trovis lin sxtelisto, I found him a thief.

[Footnote: Cf. the examples given and the following sentences using the same words in apposition (48) or attributive relation (13): Sxi nomis sian filinon Marion, she named (mentioned) her daughter Mary. Oni elektis tiun reprezentanton, they elected that representative.]

VOCABULARY

anonc-i = to announce. pasxt-i = to feed (flocks, etc.).
ia = some kind of (208). plend-i = to complain.
ie = somewhere (209). proces-o = legal process.
just-a = upright, just. rajt-o = right, privilege.
klar-a = distinct, clear. ripar-i = to mend, to repair.
kresk-i = to grow. sufer-i = to suffer.
oportun-a = convenient. sxnur-o = string.

LA CXEVALO KAJ LA SONORILO.

Unufoje en malgranda urbeto ("town") en Italujo, la regxo, kiun oni estis nominta Johano, metis grandan sonorilon en la vendejon. Li anoncis ke cxiu plendanto pri maljusteco havos la rajton alvoki ("to summon") jugxiston per tiu sonorilo. Tiam la jugxisto faros proceson en la jugxejo pro tiaj plendantoj. Oni multe uzis la sonorilon, laux la anonco de la regxo, kaj multe da plendantoj ricevis justecon. Sammaniere, granda nombro da maljustuloj estis punata per gxia helpo. Kiam okazis ke iu homo montris sin maljusta al alia, cxi tiu anoncis la aferon per la oportuna sonorilo. Kiam iu faris la edzinon malfelicxa, la sonorilo tuj sonoris por anonci sxiajn suferojn, kaj por alvoki la jugxiston. Fine, oni tiom uzis la sonorilon justecan, ke la sxnurego ("rope") estis tute eluzita, kaj gxia lasta uzinto okaze forrompis gxin. Sed iu preterpasinto vidis la duonon de la sxnurego kusxanta sur la tero, kaj riparis gxin per kelkaj brancxetoj de apuda arbo. Li pensis en si "Iu plendonto nun trovos gxin preta por esti uzata." Rimarkinde, la brancxetoj ne velkis, sed restis verdaj, kaj kreskis kiel antauxe.

En la sama urbo logxis ricxulo kiu estis forvendinta preskaux cxiom de siaj domoj, cxevaloj, cxevaletoj, cxevalidoj, hundoj kaj multekostaj vestoj, cxar en sia maljuneco li amis nur la monon, kaj tiun li amegis. Li ankoraux posedis nur unu maljunan cxevalon, kaj fine li forsendis ecx tiun, por sin pasxti laux la vojo. En la dauxro de la tago, la cxevalo ekrimarkis la brancxetojn kreskantajn sur la sxnurego de la sonorilo. Tuj gxi kaptis la brancxetojn, por mangxi ilin, kaj tuj la jugxisto auxdis la sonorilon klare sonoranta. Li rapidis al la vendejo, kaj lauxte ekridis kiam li vidis ies cxevalon tie. Li decidis puni la ricxulon cxar tiu cxi ne donis suficxe por mangxi al la maljuna militcxevalo.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. The horse caught sight of the twigs with which a passer-by had mended the bellrope. 2. Because it wished to eat the green leaves, it seized the rope, and the bell immediately rang loudly and clearly. 3. The horse almost upset the poles which supported (160) the roof over the bell of-justice. 4. Any one (173) had the right to use this bell, to announce any kind of injustice. 5. The judge burst into a laugh as soon as he saw that sort of plaintiff standing there. 6. More often he saw human beings as plaintiffs, instead of animals. 7. When a laborer showed himself unkind to his wife and children, they could announce their sufferings by means of the convenient bell. 8. People called it the bell of justice. 9. According to everyone's opinion, it is the duty of a just judge to punish evildoers and unjust persons. 10. He decided that he would institute proceedings ("faros proceson") against the owner (205) of the horse. 11. The man had driven away the horse, and it was grazing ("sin pasxtanta") along the road. 12. It was some one's duty to give some sort of home to his horse. 13. The judge said, "I will find out whose horse that poor beast is, and will put a mark opposite the name of that man. I will not leave him alone ("trankvila"), but will show myself very severe."

LESSON XLV.

THE INDEFINITE TEMPORAL ADVERB.

212. The indefinite temporal adverb, related to the indefinite pronoun "iu", is "iam", sometime, any time, ever, once upon a time:

Iam mi rakontos la aferon al vi,
sometime I will tell you the affair.
Regxo iam logxis tie,
a king once (upon a time) dwelt there.
Cxu vi iam faris proceson kontraux li?
Did you ever go to law against him?

THE INDEFINITE ADVERB "IAL".

213. The indefinite adverb of motive or reason, related to the indefinite pronoun "iu", is "ial", for any reason, for some reason, for certain reasons:

Ial li ne riparis la tendon,
for some reason he did not repair the tent.
Cxu vi opinias ke ial li maljuste suferas?
Do you think that for any reason he is suffering unjustly?

CAUSATIVE VERBS.

214. The suffix "-ig-" is used to form verbs indicating the "causing, rendering or bringing about" of that which is expressed in the root or formation to which it is attached. Verbs containing the suffix "-ig-" are called "causative verbs" and are always transitive (22).

a. Causative verbs from adjectival roots indicate that the quality or condition expressed in the root is produced in the object of the verb:

dolcxigi, to sweeten, to assuage (from "dolcxa", sweet).
moligi, to soften (from "mola", soft).
plilongigi, to lengthen, to make longer (from "pli longa", longer).
faciligi, to facilitate (from "facila", easy).
beligi, to beautify (from "bela", beautiful).

[Footnote: The meaning often resembles that of the predicate nominative (210), as: Li faris la mondon gxoja, he made the world glad. Li gxojigis la mondon, he gladdened the world.]

b. Causative verbs from verbal roots indicate that the action expressed in the root is made to take place:

dormigi, to put to sleep (from dormi, to sleep).
konigi, to make acquainted with (from koni, to know).
mirigi, to astonish (from miri, to wonder).
mortigi, to kill (from morti, to die).

c. Causative verbs may be formed from noun-roots, prepositions, adverbs, prefixes and suffixes whose meaning permits:

amasigi, to amass, to heap up (from amaso, pile).
kunigi, to unite, to bring together (from kun, with).
forigi, to do away with (from for, away).
ebligi, to render possible (-ebl-, 161).

EMPHASIS BY MEANS OF "JA".

215. The emphatic form of the verb, expressed in English by "do", "did", as in "I do study", "I did find it", "Do tell me", and by adverbs such as "certainly", "indeed", etc., is expressed in Esperanto by placing the adverb "ja", indeed, before the verb:

Vi ja mirigas min! You do astonish me!
Li ja estas justa jugxisto, he is indeed an upright judge.
Li ja havis tiun rajton, he did have that right.

VOCABULARY

akompan-i = to accompany. indiferent-a = indifferent.
dangxer-o = danger. ja = indeed (215).
gvid-i = to guide. kred-i = to believe.
ial = for some reason (213). salt-i = to leap, to jump.
iam = sometimes (212). tir-i = to draw, to pull.

[Cf. the difference in meaning and use between "esti indiferenta", to be indifferent, and "ne esti zorga", not to be careful, both of which may be translated "not to care for": Li estas indiferenta al la libro, he does not care about (is indifferent to) the book. Li ne zorgas pri la libro, he does not care for (take care of) the book. Estas indiferente al mi cxu li venos, aux ne, I do not care whether he is coming or not.]

CXE LA MALNOVA PONTO.

Iam logxis en nia urbeto junulo kiu havis afablan pli junan fratinon. Unu tagon en la dauxro de la bela printempa vetero la junulo invitis la fratinon veturi ien en veturilo tirata de du cxevaloj. La invito gxojigis la knabinon, kaj sxi respondis ke sxi kun plezuro akompanos la fraton. Tuj sxi pretigis sin por iri, kaj ili ekveturis. Ili pasis preter pitoreskaj kampoj kaj arbaretoj, kaj fine alvenis al ponto trans la rivero. Ili kredis gxin malnova kaj ne tre forta, kaj ial la junulino estis treege timigita ("frightened"). "Ho, kara frato," sxi ekkriis, kun eksalteto pro timo, "tiu ponto ja estas dangxera! Mi deziras marsxi trans gxin, cxar iam la pezeco de unu persono estos tiom tro multe por veturilo sur malforta ponto!" Sed la timemaj petoj de lia fratino sxajne kolerigis la junulon, kaj li respondis malafable, "Nu, vi ja mirigas min! Vi montras vin tre malsagxa, cxar la konstruintoj de tiu ponto certe faris gxin suficxe forta por tia veturilo kia la nia. Ne estos necese eksalti de gxi, kaj piede transiri la ponton." Tiamaniere li penis trankviligi la kompatindan knabinon, sed tiaj vortoj nur silentigis sxin, kaj sxi komencis mallauxte ploreti. Tamen la frato montris sin indiferenta al sxiaj timemaj sentoj, kaj tute malatentis sxiajn larmojn. Li gvidis la cxevalojn rekte trans la ponton, dum la fratino atendis la bruegon de rompigita ligno, kaj imagis ke sxi estas tuj mortigota. Tamen, la ponto estis tiel forta kiel la junulo estis klariginta, kaj tute ne estis dangxera. Sed pro la malafableco de la frato al la fratino, ili tute ne agrable pasigis la ceterajn horojn de la posttagmezo, malgraux la beleco de la vetero kaj de la kamparo.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Somewhere in that same town, there lived another youth, who also had an amiable sister. 2. One convenient day, she accompanied him for a ride in a vehicle drawn by a fast horse. 3. When they reached ("alvenis al") the bridge, this girl also was frightened for some reason, the same as the girl in the other story. 4. She said "I do not intend to complain, but the carriage will certainly be too heavy while we are in it. I am afraid that that bridge is dangerous, so I will jump out and walk. I will also pick ("kolektos") some sort of flowers, among the flowers growing there, near where someone's horses are grazing. I will not delay ("atendigi") you long." He replied, "That bridge is entirely safe ("nedangxera") but instead of explaining ("making-clear") to you about it, I will lead the horse across the bridge, while you walk across, for I am not indifferent to your fear." Then he helped his sister get out ("eliri") of the carriage, and guided the horse across. Then he said with a pleasant smile, "It was not necessary to cross on foot." She replied, "No, but you showed yourself a courteous brother, and were very patient." Then they rode on ("antauxen"), and talked to each other very amiably.

LESSON XLVI.

THE INDEFINITE ADVERB "IEL".

216. The indefinite adverb of manner, related to the indefinite pronoun "iu", is "iel", somehow, in any way, in some (any) manner:

Mi penis vin iel gvidi tien,
I tried somehow to guide you thither.
Iel ni anoncos la decidon,
we shall announce the decision in some way.

THE INDEFINITE ADVERB "IOM".

217. The indefinite adverb of quantity, related to the indefinite pronoun "iu", is "iom", some, any quantity, a certain amount:

Cxu vi havas iom da tempo? Have you some time?
Sxi varmigos iom da akvo, she will heat some water.
Tiu metodo estas iomete dangxera,
that way is a little dangerous (198).
La sxnuro estas iom tro longa, the string is somewhat too long.

THE SUFFIX "-AD-".

218. The suffix "-ad-" is used to form words indicating that the action expressed in the root is continuous, habitual or repeated.

a. Verbs formed with the suffix "-ad-" are called "frequentative verbs", and may often be translated by the root meaning, preceded by "keep (on)", "used to", etc.:

frapadi, to keep knocking, to knock repeatedly.
rigardadi, to keep on looking, to gaze.
vizitadi, to keep visiting, visit repeatedly, frequent, haunt.
Antaux du jaroj sxi tre dolcxe kantadis,
two years ago she used to sing very sweetly.

b. Nouns formed with the suffix "-ad-" are often equivalent to English verbal nouns ending in "-ing", and (with the generic article, 201) may replace the infinitive as subject (130) and sometimes as object (29):

kriado, crying, shouting (from krio, cry, shout).
movado, motion, movement in general (from movo, a movement).
pafado, shooting, fusillade (from pafo, a shot).
parolado, a speech, address (from parolo, a word spoken).
pensado, thought, contemplation (from penso, a thought).
La promenado donas plezuron, the taking of walks gives pleasure.
Mi preferas la legadon de tiaj libroj,
I prefer the reading of (to read) such books.

THE USE OF "MEM".

219. The invariable pronoun "mem", self, selves, is intensive, and lays stress upon the substantive which immediately precedes it, or which it obviously modifies. (The combination of "mem" with personal pronouns must not be confused with reflexive pronouns, 39, 40):

Mi mem akompanos vin, I myself shall accompany you.
La gvidisto mem perdis la vojon, the guide himself lost the way.
Mi kredos al la viro mem, I shall give credence to the man himself.
La viroj mem defendis sin, the men themselves defended themselves.
Gxi pendas sur la muro mem,
it hangs on the very wall (the wall itself).
Sxi venis mem por vidi vin, she came herself to see you.
Mi ekvidis la sxteliston mem,
I caught a glimpse of the thief himself.

VOCABULARY

Arhximed-o = Archimedes. jxet-i = to throw, to cast.
ban-i = to bathe (trans.). kompren-i = to understand.
fals-i = to debase, to forge. kron-o = crown.
Hieron-o = Hiero. lev-i = to lift, to raise.
honest-a = honest. lok-o = place.
ide-o = idea. mem = self, selves (219).
iel = somehow (216). or-o = gold.
iom = some (217). Sikeli-o = Sicily.

ARHXIMEDO KAJ LA KRONOJ.

Iam bonekonata regxo, nomita Hierono, vivadis en granda urbo en Sikelio, kiu estas sudokcidenta de Italujo. Li suspektis ke iam la kronfaristoj, kiuj fabrikadis kronojn por li, ne uzis cxiom de la oro donita al ili de la regxo, sed falsadis gxin per la uzado de iu alia materialo. Tamen, Hierono ne povis per si mem eltrovi cxu oni falsadas la oron. Tial li venigis grekan klerulon, kies nomo estis Arhximedo, kaj rakontis al li sian timon pri la falsita oro. Arhximedo certigis lin ke iel li ja eltrovos pri la falsado, kaj helpos la regxon kontraux la falsintoj, kiuj estis tiel indiferentaj al la honesteco. Cxiutage li multe pensadis pri la afero, sed ju pli longe li pensadis, des malpli sukcesaj estis liaj penoj, gxis iu tago, kiam li okaze faris interesan eltrovon. Li estis jxus baninta sin, kaj subite ekrimarkis ke dum li mem restis en la akvo, ial sxajnis esti iomete pli multe da akvo en la banujo ol antauxe. Tuj li komprenis ke lia korpo estas forpusxinta iom de la akvo el gxia loko. Li komprenis ke tiom da akvo estas elpusxita, kiom antauxe estis en tiu loko kie li mem estas. Tia levado de la akvo per lia korpo donis al li sagxan ideon, kaj li prenis en la mano du aux tri orajn kronojn. Li jxetis ilin unu post la alia en la banujon, kaj zorge rimarkis al kiu alteco cxiu el ili levis la akvon. Tiam li eltiris ilin, kaj enmetis la kronon pri kiu Hierono estis plej suspektema. Li rimarkis ke cxi tiu ne tiel alten levis la akvon, tial li estis certa ke la oro en gxi estas multe falsita. Oni diras ke kiam li eltrovis cxi tiun metodon por montri la falsadon de la malhonestaj kronfaristoj, li eksaltetis pro gxojo kaj ekkriis "euxreka," kiu estas la greka vorto por "mi estas trovinta." Tiun saman vorton oni ankoraux nun uzadas en la angla lingvo.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Several centuries ago, a rich and powerful ("multepova") king, named Hiero, lived in Sicily. 2. Sometimes he was suspicious about the crown-makers who wrought ("faris") crowns for him, out of the gold which he himself gave them. 3. He wondered whether these men were honest. 4. He suspected that perhaps ("eble") they did not use all of the gold which was given them, but kept some of it for themselves. 5. He could not of himself ("per si mem") discover whether they were debasing the gold in his crowns, so he summoned a wise man from ("el") Greece. 6. To this well-informed man, whose name was Archimedes, he made clear his fears. 7. Archimedes assured the king that he would find out somehow about the matter. 8. He meditated several hours every day, and tried to discover a satisfactory ("kontentiga") method, but for some reason he did not succeed. 9. One day, however, when he was bathing (himself), he noticed that there seemed to be a little more water in the bathtub when he himself was in it, than before. 10. The rising of the water gave him an idea. 11. He threw the crowns one after another into the water, and noticed how much water each displaced. 12. In this manner ("tiamaniere") he understood how much each had been alloyed by the local ("lokaj") crown-makers, whom Hiero soon threw into prison ("la malliberejon").

LESSON XLVII.

THE NEGATIVE PRONOUN.

220. The negative pronoun (and pronominal adjective) is "neniu", no one, nobody, no (formed of "ne" and "iu", with a medial "n" inserted for the sake of euphony):

Neniu el vi komprenas min, no one of you understands me.
Mi trovis neniun preta por iri, I found nobody ready to go.
Li havis neniun honestan serviston, he had no honest servant.

221. The negative pronoun "neniu" has a possessive or genitive form, "nenies", nobody's, no one's:

Cxies afero estas nenies afero,
everybody's affair is nobody's affair.
Li lauxdos nenies ideojn,
he will praise no one's ideas.

THE ADVERBIAL PARTICIPLE.

222. A participle may be equivalent not only to a clause describing or determining the substantive modified, as in "la parolanta viro", the man who-is-talking, "la sendota knabo", the boy who-will-be-sent, but also to an "adverbial" clause.

[Footnote: An adverbial clause modifies a verb, as in "dum vi atendis, li foriris", while you waited, he went away; "cxar mi gxojis, mi ridis", because I was happy, I laughed.]

Such a participle has for its subject the subject of the verb in the sentence (though not in attributive or predicate relation with it), and indicates some relation of time, cause, manner, situation, etc., between the action of the participle and that of the main verb in the sentence. An adverbial participle is given the ending "-e":

Gxojante, mi ridis,
rejoicing, I laughed.
Forironte, ni adiauxis lin,
being about to depart, we bade him farewell.
Baninte la infaneton, sxi dormigis gxin,
after bathing (having bathed) the baby, she put it to sleep.
Estante ruzaj, ili falsis la oron,
being sly, they debased the gold.
Tiel helpate de vi, mi sukcesos,
thus helped by you, I shall succeed.
Silentigite de li, ili ne plendis,
(having been) silenced by him, they did not complain.
Punote, li ekkriis,
being about to be punished, he gave a cry.
Ne parolinte, li foriris,
without speaking (not having spoken), he left.
Li venis, ne vokite,
he came without being (came not-having-been) called.

[Footnote: The adverbial participle must not be used in rendering the English "nominative absolute" construction of a participial clause referring to something else than the subject. In such a sentence a clause must be used: "The youth being young, everyone watched him", cxar la junulo estis juna, cxiu rigardadis lin; "the work being finished, he went away", kiam la lahoro estis finita, li foriris.]

THE PREFIX "RE-".

223. The prefix "re-" indicates the repetition of an action or state, or the "return" of a person or thing to its original place or state. (Cf. English prefix "re-"; meaning either "again" or "back.")

rekapti = to recapture. rebrili = to shine back, to reflect.
renovigi = to renew. reteni = to hold back, to retain.
rekoni = to recognize. reveni = to come back, to return.
gxis la revido = au revoir. reiri = to go back, to return.
ree = again, anew. rejxeti = to throw back, to reject.

VOCABULARY

brul-i = to be in flames, to burn. masxin-o = machine.
cilindr-o = cylinder. nenies = nobody's (221).
detru-i = to destroy. neniu = no one (220).
fam-a = famous. problem-o = problem.
filozof-o = philosopher. Sirakuz-o = Syracuse.
fizik-o = physics. spegul-o = mirror.
insul-o = island. sxrauxb-o = screw.

LA FILOZOFO ARHXIMEDO.

Eble neniu greka klerulo estis pli fama ol la filozofo Arhximedo. Longe studadinte la problemojn de la geometrio kaj de la fiziko, li faris multe da eltrovoj. Li tiel multe komprenis pri la uzado de la levilo ("lever") ke oni rakontas la sekvantan rakonteton pri li: Li diris al la regxo Hierono "Kiam oni donos al mi lokon sur kiu mi povos stari, mi mem ekmovos la mondon per mia levilo!" Zorge ekzameninte la ecojn (202) de la sxrauxbo kaj de la cilindro, li elpensis diversajn masxinojn en kiuj sxrauxboj kaj cilindroj estas iamaniere kunigitaj. Uzante unu el tiuj masxinoj, oni povis facile pusxi al la akvo la sxipojn (necese konstruitajn sur la tero); kiujn antauxe la viroj mem enpusxis en la akvon, kun multe da laboro, aux tiris tien per cxevaloj. Uzante alian masxinon elpensitan de tiu greko, oni povis levi akvon de unu loko al alia. Ankoraux nun oni nomas tian masxinon la "sxrauxbo de Arhximedo." En la dauxro de granda militado kontraux la urbo Sirakuzo, sur la insulo Sikelio, Arhximedo elpensis diversajn masxinojn por helpi la Sirakuzanojn. Vidinte ke la sunlumo rebrilas de spegulo, li faris el speguloj masxinon per kiu li ekbruligis ("set on fire") la sxipojn de la malamikoj. Cxi tiuj, ne komprenante kiamaniere* la sxipoj ekbrulis, estis multe timigitaj. Sed ecx helpite de Arhximedo la Sirakuzanoj ne venkis. Post iom da tempo, la malamikoj kaptis kaj tute detruis la urbon Sirakuzon. Nenies domo restis netusxita, kaj centoj da personoj estis mortigataj. Oni ne scias per kia morto Arhximedo mortis, sed eble la malamikoj, iel rekoninte la elpensinton de la spegulmasxino, jxetis lin en la maron aux alimaniere lin mortigis.

[Footnote: The use of "kiamaniere" (in what manner, how) is preferable to that of "kiel" in indirect questions, as the latter might be confused with the use of "kiel", meaning "as" (156).]

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. The Greek philosopher Archimedes was not only famous long ago, among his contemporaries (167, b, 132), but even today his name is well known everywhere. 2. No one's knowledge about the problems of geometry and physics was greater. 3. No one understood better the properties of the cylinder and the screw. 4. Having studied these properties a long time, and having meditated a great deal about them, he understood them a little (217) better than any one else ("iu alia"). 5. The story about the debasing of the gold crowns has already been told. 6. There is another anecdote, namely ("nome"), that he remarked to Hiero, king of Syracuse, that with a lever he would move the world, as soon as he had a place on which he himself could stand. 7. Having discovered how ("kiamaniere") the sunlight is reflected by a mirror, and heats the wood upon which it shines, he invented a machine made out of mirrors. 8. Aided by this machine, the Syracusans were able to set on fire the wooden ships of the enemy. 9. The enemy, however, were not repulsed from the island, but at once rebuilt and repaired their ships, and sent them back to attack the city again. 10. Finally, having captured the city, they destroyed it, and killed a large number of the inhabitants ("logxantoj"), also Archimedes himself.

LESSON XLVIII.

THE NEGATIVE ADJECTIVE.

224. The negative adjective, related to the negative pronoun "neniu," is "nenia", no kind of, no sort of, expressing a negative idea concerning the quality of a person or thing:

Mi havas nenian spegulon, I have no sort of mirror.
Nenia problemo estas tro malfacila por li,
no sort of problem is too difficult for him.

THE NEGATIVE ADVERB OF PLACE.

225. The negative adverb of place is "nenie", nowhere. The ending "-n" may be added, as to other adverbs (121), to indicate direction:

Nenie estas pli bona masxino, nowhere is there a better machine.
Mi iros nenien morgaux, I shall go nowhere tomorrow.

THE NEGATIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB.

226. The negative adverb of time is "neniam", never, at no time:

Neniam vivis pli fama filozofo,
there never lived a more famous philosopher.
Vi neniam trovos tiajn sxrauxbojn aux cilindrojn,
you will never find that kind of screws or cylinders.

THE SUFFIX "-AJX-".

227. The suffix "-ajx-" is used to form "concrete" words. It is thus in contrast to the abstract-forming suffix "-ec-" (202).

a. A word formed from a verbal root by means of the suffix "-ajx-" expresses a concrete example of "a thing which undergoes" (or, in the case of intransitives, "results from") the action indicated in the root:

konstruajxo = a building. kreskajxo = a plant, a growth.
sendajxo = consignment, thing sent. rebrilajxo = a reflection.
mangxajxo = food. restajxo = remainder.

b. A word formed from an adjectival root or formation by means of the suffix "-ajx-" indicates "a thing characterized by" or "possessing the quality" expressed in the root or formation to which it is attached:

belajxo = a thing of beauty. mirindajxo = a marvel.
maljustajxo = an injustice. okazintajxo = an occurrence.

c. A word formed from a noun-root by means of the suffix "-ajx-" indicates "a thing made" or "derived from" that which is expressed in the root:

sukerajxo = a sweet, confection. orajxo = a gold object.
ovajxo = an omelet. araneajxo = a spider-web.

THE ADVERB "JEN".

228. The adverb "jen", behold, here, there, is used to point out or call attention to something:

Jen estas la problemo! There is the problem!
Jen la filozofo! Behold the philosopher!
Jen sxi ludas, jen sxi studas, now she plays, now she studies.
Mi faris gxin jene, I did it as follows.
Mi agis laux la jena metodo, I acted in the following way.
Li diris la jenajn vortojn, he spoke the following words.

VOCABULARY

arangx-i = to arrange. neniam = never (226).
art-o = art. nenie = nowhere (225).
ber-o = berry. pentr-i = to paint.
jen = there, behold (228). postul-i = to demand.
jxaluz-a = jealous. precip-a = principal, chief.
konkurs-o = competition. regul-o = rule.
lert-a = skilled, clever. tromp-i = to deceive.
nenia = no kind of (224). vin-o = wine.

DU ARTKONKURSOJ.

Vivadis en Grekujo antaux multaj jarcentoj du lertaj famaj pentristoj. Ili estis reciproke jxaluzaj, kaj neniam povis interparoli paceme. Ne povinte decidi la problemon, kaj eltrovi kiu el ili estas la plej lerta, ili fine arangxis konkurson pri la pentrado. Laux gxiaj reguloj, cxiu el ili pentris pentrajxon, por montri sian lertecon. Unu pentris teleron da vinberoj ("grapes"). Gxi estis tiel mirinde kolorigita ke ecx la birdoj venis kaj penis gxin mangxi, pensinte gxin ne nur pentrajxo, sed la vinberoj mem. "Nenia pentrajxo povos superi la mian," gxojege ekkriis la pentristo, "jen, la birdoj mem rekonas mian lertecon!" Tiam li diris al la alia artisto, "Nu, kial vi ne fortiras tiun kurtenon? Mi volas rigardi vian pentrajxon." La dua pentristo respondis kun rideto, "Jen estas mia pentrajxo. Nenie apud vi estas kurteno, sed vi vidas nur pentrajxon de kurteno antaux tiu konstruajxo." Tre mirigite, la pentrinto de la vinberoj diris "Vi ja superas min en la pentrado. Mi trompis la birdojn per mia pentrajxo, sed vi trompas ecx aliajn artistojn! Tia lerteco estas ja mirindajxo!"

Oni rakontas similan okazintajxon pri fama artisto kiu pentris multe da pentrajxoj por Aleksandro Granda. Malgajninte en konkurso kontraux iuj aliaj artistoj, li opiniis ke la jugxintoj estas maljustaj al li, precipe pro la jxaluzeco. Li ekkriis "Cxar niaj pentrajxoj estas bildoj de cxevaloj, ili certe postulas cxevalajn jugxantojn!" Tial oni enkondukis du aux tri cxevalojn. La cxevaloj, tute ne rigardinte la pentrajxojn de la aliaj artistoj, kuris rekte al tiu de la plendinta artisto, kaj klare montris sian rekonadon de la tie pentritaj cxevaloj. Surprizite, oni diris "Jen estas justaj jugxantoj!" Tuj oni lauxdis la pentriston kaj severe punis la malhonestajn homajn jugxintojn.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION

1. Syracuse was the largest city on the island of Sicily. 2. The famous philosopher and physicist Archimedes lost his life when that city was destroyed and entirely burned. 3. At least, no sort of trace of him seems to have been found after that occurrence. 4. Never, perhaps, was there a more learned man in Syracuse. 5. Greece was also famous for its skilled painters, and there are many anecdotes about them. 6. A painter who failed in a certain competition believed that none of the judges had been just to him. 7. He exclaimed "Behold this iniquity (injustice)! Nowhere can I find a human being who is not jealous. 8. Since the paintings are chiefly of horses, do they not require horses for judges?" 9. His proposal was accepted (54), and some horses were led in. 10. Without noticing (222) the other paintings, the horses walked at once to the picture of the unsuccessful artist, and showed immediate recognition of the horses painted there. 11. This act showed which competitor ("konkursinto") was the most skilful. 12. The painter, having deceived the horses, as another artist had once deceived birds by a picture of grapes, said "Animals decide not by rules, but by feelings."

LESSON XLIX.

THE NEGATIVE ADVERBS "NENIAL", "NENIEL", "NENIOM".

229. The negative adverb of motive or reason, related to the negative pronoun "neniu", is "nenial", for no reason:

Li estas nenial jxaluza, he is jealous for no reason.
Nenial li trompis vin, for no reason he deceived you.

230. The negative adverb of manner is "neniel", in no way.

Mi povos neniel arangxi konkurson,
I can in no way arrange a competition.
Tiu ago estas neniel lauxregula,
That act is in no way regular.

231. The negative adverb of quantity is "neniom", no amount of, not any, none, no:

Tiu pentrajxo postulas neniom da lerteco,
such a painting requires no skill.
Estas neniom da vino en lia glaso,
there is no wine in his glass.

THE SUFFIX "-IGX-".

232. The suffix "-igx-" is used to form intransitive verbs of an "inchoative" nature.

a. Inchoative verbs from the roots of "intransitive verbs" indicate the "beginning" or "coming into existence" of the act or condition expressed in the root:

sidigxi, to become sitting, to sit down, to take a seat.
starigxi, to become standing, to stand up.

b. Intransitive verbs may be similarly formed from the roots of "transitive" verbs, and indicate an action of the verb not immediately due to the subject's acting upon itself (as in the case of reflexive verbs, 41) and not caused by any direct agency (as in the case of the passive voice, 169):

La pordo fermigxas, the door closes (goes shut).
La veturilo movigxas, the vehicle moves.
La brancxo rompigxas, the branch breaks.
Grupo da personoj kolektigxis, a group of persons gathered.

[Footnote: Cf. the examples given and the following sentences in which the same verbal roots are used in the simple form and in the passive voice:

Ni fermas la pordon, La pordo estas fermita,
we close the door. the door is (has been) closed.

Oni movas la veturilon, La veturilo estas movata,
they move the vehicle. the vehicle is being moved.

Mi rompas la brancxon, La brancxo estas rompita,
I break the branch. the branch is (has been) broken.

Li kolektis florojn, Floroj estas kolektitaj,
he gathered flowers. flowers have been gathered.]

c. Intransitive verbs may similarly be formed from "adjectival" roots, and indicate the acquiring of the characteristic or quality expressed in the root:

lacigxi, to become tired, to get tired.
varmigxi, to become warm, to get warm.
maljunigxi, to become old, to age.

d. Verbs may similarly be formed from noun-roots, adverbs, prepositions, prefixes and suffixes whose meaning permits:

amikigxi, to become a friend. kunigxi, to become joined.
forigxi, to go away, to disappear. ebligxi, to become possible.

VOCABULARY

apenaux = hardly, scarcely. nenial = for no reason (229).
atmosfer-o = atmosphere. neniel = in no way (230).
dub-i = to doubt. neniom = none, no (231).
efektiv-a = effective, real. ombr-o = shadow.
hel-a = clear, bright. pejzagx-o = landscape.
horizont-o = horizon. radi-o = ray.
krepusk-o = twilight. tropik-a = tropical.

LA KREPUSKO.

Estas tre agrable sidigxi sur la herbon, kaj rigardi la plilongigxantajn ombrojn, en la dauxro de bela somera vespero. La suno grade mallevigxas post la montetoj, la nuboj farigxas ("become") bele kolorigitaj, kaj la tuta pejzagxo pli kaj pli beligxas. Malrapide la krepusko anstatauxas la helan sunlumon, kaj fine cxie noktigxas. La krepusko estas la rebrilado de la sunlumo tra la atmosfero, post la mallevigxo de la suno mem, laux la jena maniero: la radioj suprenbriladas, en la aeron super niaj kapoj, en la okcidenta parto de la cxielo. De tie ili rebriladas tiamaniere ke la cxielo lumigxas. Kiam estas iom da nuboj sur la cxielo okcidenta, la sunradioj briladas rekte kontraux ilin, belege kolorigante tiujn nubojn. En tropikaj landoj la krepuskigxo okazas tre rapide. Gxi ne nur komencigxas subite, sed ankaux dauxras tre mallongan tempon. La noktigxo preskaux tuj sekvas la taglumon, kun rimarkinda subiteco. Apenaux komencigxas la krepusko, kiam la subiranta suno sxajnas fali preter la horizonto. Tute male ("quite on the contrary"), en landoj treege nordaj, krepuskigxas tre frue en la tago, kaj la krepusko dauxras longan tempon antaux ol la nokto venas. Efektive ("really"), en tiuj landoj la krepusko tute anstatauxas la nokton, dum ses monatoj de la jaro. Tie oni havas krepuskon dum la unua duonjaro, kaj la taglumon dum la sekvinta duonjaro. Krepusko dauxranta tiom da tempo estas tiel rimarkinda kiel tago de tia sama longeco. Mi dubas cxu tia dividado de la tempo inter tago kaj malhela nokto estas agrabla, sed oni povas neniel malhelpi gxin. Cxiu tre norda lando havas la saman travivajxon ("experience"), cxiujare, kaj efektive oni apenaux rimarkas gxin. Pri cxiu plendanto oni nur diras "Li estas nenial malkontenta."

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

of ("pri") the two painters who, being mutually (180) jealous, arranged a competition. 2. One painted a cluster (126) of grapes, so excellently that the birds flew to it. 3. The other deceived his rival (competitor) himself, by a painting of a curtain. 4. The most famous artists, however, often show their skill by painting (222) pictures of the sunset, chiefly, I think, because of the brilliant colors. 5. In fact ("efektive"), I doubt whether there is a more beautiful sight (227, b) than the sunset. 6. It is made by the bright rays of the sun, which shine back through the atmosphere, long after the sun itself has passed below the horizon. 7. The more moisture ("malsekajxo") there is in the air, the more brilliant the colors are, and the more beautiful the entire landscape becomes. 8. In tropical lands, night falls very suddenly, and there is almost no sort of twilight. 9. In fact, a twilight scarcely occurs there. 10. In the lands far north, on the contrary, the twilight lasts six months, and the remainder of the year is the day. 11. To dwell in such a land is surely a remarkable experience. 12. It can in no way be understood by persons who have never lived there. 13. Such things increase (make greater) my desire to visit those northern lands. 14. For no reason, however, do I

LESSON L.

THE PRONOUNS ENDING IN "-O".

233. In contrast to the pronouns ending in "-u" ("tiu", "kiu", "cxiu", "iu", "neniu"), a similar series ending in "-o" refers to an object, fact or action not definitely specified (but never to a person), like English "what, anything, something, nothing," etc. Because of their somewhat vague meaning, these pronouns do not occur in the plural, nor are they ever used as pronominal adjectives:

Demonstrative: tio = that (thing, fact or action).
cxi tio = this (thing, fact or action).

Interrogative and Relative: kio = what.

Distributive: cxio = everything.
cxio cxi = all this.

Indefinite: io = anything, something.

Negative: nenio = nothing.

234. A pronoun (not personal) in predicate or relative relation to a pronoun ending in "-o" must itself be of the same series:

Kio estas cxi tio, kion vi diras? What is this, which you say?
Sxi vidis tion, kio jxus okazis, she saw that which just occurred.
Cxio cxi, kion vi vidas, estas farita de ili,
everything here (all this), which you see, was done by them.
Li havas ion por vi, sed nenion por mi,
he has something for you, but nothing for me.

CORRELATIVE WORDS.

235. Pronouns, adjectives and adverbs, which are related to each other as corresponding demonstratives, interrogatives, relatives, etc., are called "correlatives". In Esperanto the correlative system is more complete than in any other language, and may be summarized as follows:

Demonstrative Interrogative Distributive Indefinite Negative
and Relative

tio (233) kio (233) cxio (233) io (233) nenio (233)
that (thing) what, which everything anything nothing

tiu (56) kiu (146) cxiu (173) iu (203) neniu (220)
that (one) who, which every, each any (one) no (one)

ties (62) kies (147) cxies (174) ies (204) nenies(221)
that one's whose every one's any one's no one's

tia (65) kia (150) cxia (177) ia (208) nenia (224)
that kind of what kind of every kind any kind no kind of

tie (68) kie (151) cxie (182) ie (209) nenie (225)
there where everywhere anywhere nowhere

tiam (73) kiam (155) cxiam (187) iam (212) neniam (226)
then when always any time never

tial (78) kial (129) cxial (188) ial (213) nenial (229)
therefore, wherefore, for every for any for no
so why reason reason reason

tiel (88), kiel (156) cxiel (193) iel (216) neniel (230)
(156) thus, so how, as every way any way in no way

tiom (104) kiom (164) cxiom (194) iom (217) neniom (231)
that much, how much, all, the some, any none, no
so much as whole of amount quantity

THE USE OF "AJN".

236. The word "ajn" may be placed after any interrogative-relative or indefinite correlative word, to give a generalizing sense. In order to avoid confusion with the accusative plural ending, "ajn" is "never attached" to the correlative which it follows:

kio ajn = whatever. kiam ajn = whenever.
kies ajn = whosesoever. kiom ajn = however much.
kie ajn = wherever. ia ajn = any kind whatever.

THE SUFFIX "-ING-".

237. The suffix "-ing-" is used to form words indicating that which holds "one" specimen of what is expressed in the root:

glavingo = scabbard. plumingo = pen-holder.
lumingo = torch-holder. ingo = sheath, case, socket.

VOCABULARY

cxio = everything (233). nenio = nothing (233).
Gordio = Gordius. ofer-o = offering.
io = anything (233). reg-i = to rule, to govern.
jug-o = yoke. sankt-a = sacred, holy.
klin-i = to bend, incline (trans). templ-o = temple.
kio = what (233). tio = that (thing) (233).
lig-i = to tie, to bind. util-a = useful.

LA GORDIA LIGAJXO.

Unufoje en antikva tempo la regatoj de iu regxolando en Azio ne havis regxon. Ne sciante kion fari, ili demandis de la dioj. La dioj respondis, "Kiu ajn venos unue en nian sanktan templon hodiaux, por fari oferojn, estos via regxo." Okaze kamparano nomita Gordio venis al la templo, jxus post la tagigxo. La regatoj tuj rekonis la estontan regxon, kvankam li veturis sur peza malbela veturilo. Salutinte la surprizitan kamparanon, oni nomis lin regxo. Decidinte fari dankoferon al la dioj, Gordio metis en la templon la veturilon mem sur kiu li tien veturis, antaux ol li komencis regi kiel la nova regxo. La jugo estis alligita ("tied fast") per granda ligajxo el sxnurego. Post la morto de Gordio oni grade komencis kredi ion tre interesan pri tio. Oni diris ke tiu, kiu povos iel ajn malligi tiun ligajxon, farigxos reganto super cxiuj regxoj de Azio.

Post kelkaj jaroj Aleksandro Granda decidis fari grandan militadon kontraux Azio, kaj alproksimigxis al la lando kie estis reginta Gordio. Kiam li demandis, "Kio estas cxi tie la plej interesa vidindajxo?" oni rakontis al li tion, kion oni diras pri la sxnurega ligajxo sur la veturilo de Gordio. Kompreneble ("of course") Aleksandro deziris fari ion ajn utilan por venki Azion, tial li tuj venigis gvidiston por konduki lin al la templo. Alveninte tien, li zorge rigardadis la ligajxon, kaj ekzamenis la sxnuregon el kiu gxi estis farita. Tiam, elpreninte sian glavon el la glavingo, subite klinigxante li rekte tratrancxis la tutan ligajxon. "Nenio estas pli facila ol tio," li diris, "kaj nun mi ne dubas cxu mi certe regos super cxiuj regxoj de Azio." Pro tio, kion faris Aleksandro Granda, oni ankoraux nuntempe diras, kiam iu ajn superas malfacilajxon per kia ajn subita metodo, "Li trancxis la gordian ligajxon."

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.