Chapter IV: Preface (4)

Nu, kia pluvego okazis hieraux vespere! Post kvieta varmega mateno, subite multaj nuboj kovris la cxielon. La aero sxajnis peza, kaj estis tute silenta kelkan tempon. Tiam forte blovanta vento frapegis la arbojn, kaj komencis fortege skui la brancxojn. Multege da polvo kaj malgrandaj pecoj da papero dancis kaj flugis cxirkauxen en la aero, kaj ankaux cxielen. Falis tiam kelkaj grandaj gutoj da pluvo, kaj ni sciis ke la pluvego estas venanta. Ni malfermis niajn ombrelojn, kaj kuris antauxen, por iri hejmen antaux ol falos multe da pluvo. La fulmo tiel ofte brilis ke ni fermis la okulojn pro gxi, kaj treege gxin timis. Preskaux tuj la tondro sekvis gxin. Tondris tiom kaj tiel lauxtege ke la bruo sxajnis frapi kontraux niajn kapojn. Tiam komencis subite pluvegi, sed je tiu tempo ni estis preskaux sub la tegmento de nia domo. Dume la vento pli kaj pli blovegis, kaj ju pli forte gxi blovis, des pli peze la gutoj da pluvo falis teren, kun multege da bruo. Mi opinias ke mi malofte antauxe vidis tian pluvegon. La sekvintan tagon mi promenis tre frue, kaj vidis ke la pordego al la gxardeno de mia avo estas kusxanta sur la tero. Apude mi vidis ventoflagon falintan de la tegmento de tiu granda cxevalejo. Velkintaj floroj kusxis sur la tero cxirkaux mi, kaj inter ili estis brancxoj falintaj de la arboj, cxar la grandega forto de la vento forrompis ecx cxi tiujn. Sur malgranda brancxo restis nesto, sed kie estis la birdoj! Mi sercxis la junajn birdojn sed tute ne povis trovi ilin, tial mi opinias ke ili forflugis antaux ol la ventoj forrompis de la arbo ilian malgrandan hejmon. Mi ne scias kien ili flugis, sed mi opinias ke ili flugis suden al la arboj en tiu granda kampo trans la rivero.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. While we were walking home (121) from school yesterday, it rained very suddenly. 2. What a storm it was! 3. We were talking about the lessons in geometry, and were looking at these books about the German language. 4. So we did not see the clouds in (on) the sky. 5. Well, we forgot about examinations and began to wonder where to go. 6. We did not know whether we had enough time to run even to Grandfather's house before it would rain. 7. Many papers fell out of our books, and the wind caught them. 8. The wind chased them away from us, and they seemed to dance around in the air. 9. However, we easily caught and gathered them, and then we ran forward. 10. Suddenly it thundered very loudly, and we saw the brilliant lightning in the sky. 11. We almost closed our eyes for the lightning. 12. Big drops of rain fell heavily and struck the dust violently. 13. The air was heavy and still then, and the storm immediately followed the few drops of rain. 14. We hastened across the street, and ran faster and faster. 15. We were exhausted (122) and our clothes were exceedingly wet before we were in the house. 16. The rain was dropping from the roof, but we ran through it, and knocked on the door. 17. We rested some time here, before going home.

LESSON XXVII.

THE INTERROGATIVE TEMPORAL ADVERB

123. The interrogative temporal adverb, related to the interrogative pronoun "kiu", is "kiam", when, at what time?

Kiam li sercxos min? When will he look for me?
Oni miras kiam li venos, they wonder when he is coming (will come).
Kiam falis tiuj gutoj da pluvo? When did those drops of rain fall?

THE PERFECT TENSE.

124. The compound tense formed by using the past active participle with the present tense of "esti" is called the "perfect tense". It differs from the aoristic past tense (35) and from the imperfect (113) by expressing an act or condition as definitely completed or perfected. The conjugation of "vidi" in the perfect tense is as follows:

mi estas vidinta, I have seen (I am having-seen).
vi estas vidinta, you have seen (you are having-seen).
li (sxi, gxi) estas vidinta, he (she, it) has seen (is having-seen).
ni estas vidintaj, we have seen (we are having-seen).
vi estas vidintaj, you have seen (you are having-seen).
ili estas vidintaj, they have seen (they are having-seen).

THE PREPOSITION "CXE".

125. The general situation of a person, object or action is expressed by the use of the preposition "cxe", at, at the house of, in the region or land of, among, with, etc.:

Li staris silente cxe la pordego, he stood silently at the gate.
Li logxas cxe mia avo, he lives (dwells) at my grandfather's.
Ili estas cxe la lernejo, they are at the school.
Li restos cxe amikoj, he will stay with (at the house of) friends.
Li vizitos cxe ni morgaux, he will visit at-our-house tomorrow.

THE SUFFIX "-AR-".

126. Words expressing a collection, group or assemblage of similar persons or things, as "forest" (collection of trees), "army" (assemblage of soldiers), etc., may be formed by the use of the suffix "-ar-". This suffix may itself be used as a root to form "aro", "group, flock", etc., "are", in a group, by throngs, etc. Words formed with the suffix "-ar-" are called collectives:

arbaro, forest (from arbo, tree).
cxevalaro, herd of horses (from cxevalo, horse).
kamparo, country (from kampo, field).
libraro, collection of books, library (from libro, book).
amikaro, circle of friends (from amiko, friend).

"TEMPO" AND "FOJO".

127. The general word for "time" in the sense of duration, or suitability (as "the proper time"), is "tempo". The word "fojo", time, occasion, refers to the performance or occurrence of an act or event, in repetition or series:

Mi ne havas multe da tempo, I have not much time.
Li venis multajn fojojn, kaj la lastan fojon li restis longan tempon,
he came many times, and the last time he remained a long time.
Kelkajn fojojn lauxte tondris, several times it thundered loudly.
Multe da fojoj ni fermis la okulojn pro la fulmo,
many times we closed our eyes on account of the lightning.

THE ORTHOGRAPHY OF PROPER NOUNS.

128. Proper nouns, that is, nouns which are names of persons, cities, countries, etc., are given Esperanto spelling if they are names of continents, countries, large or very well-known cities, or if they are first (Christian) names of persons, as "Azio", Asia, "Skotlando", Scotland, "Bostono", Boston, "Johano", John, "Mario", Mary. Surnames and names of places which are small or not well known are more often quoted in the national spelling. The pronunciation may be indicated in parentheses, as "Mt. Vernon" ("Mauxnt Vernon"), "Roberto Bruce" ("Brus"), "Martinique" ("Martinik'"), etc.

VOCABULARY

arane-o = spider. ramp-i = to crawl.
Azi-o = Asia. rekt-a = direct, straight.
cxe = at (125). rimark-i = to notice.
fin-o = end, ending. send-i = to send.
foj-o = time, instance (127). Skotland-o = Scotland.
kiam = when (123). soldat-o = soldier.
pacienc-o = patience. sukces-i = to succeed.
pied-o = foot. supr-e = above.
plafon-o = ceiling. venk-i = to conquer.

ROBERTO BRUCE KAJ LA ARANEO.

Oni rakontas la sekvantan interesan rakonton pri Roberto Bruce, regxo antaux multaj jaroj en Skotlando. Okazis ke li estis rigardanta la soldataron de siaj malamikoj, de la fenestro de granda cxevalejo. Por povi rigardi plej facile, kaj ankaux por sin kasxi, li forsendis siajn soldatojn kaj restis la tutan tagon sub tiu tegmento. Kvankam la cxevalejo estis granda gxi estis malnova, kaj li opiniis ke la malamikoj ne sercxos lin tie. Je la fino de la tago li subite rimarkis araneon sur la muro apud si. La araneo estis rampanta supren, sed baldaux gxi falis en la polvon cxe liaj piedoj. Tuj la falinta araneo komencis alian fojon supren rampi. Alian fojon gxi falis teren, sed post ne longe gxi komencis rampi alian fojon. "Kia pacienco!" diris la regxo al si. "Mi ne sciis ke la araneo havas tiel multe da pacienco! Sed kien gxi nun estas falinta?" Li rigardis cxirkauxen kaj fine ("finally") li vidis la falintan araneon. Kun granda surprizo li rimarkis ke gxi estas komencanta supren rampi. Multajn fojojn gxi supren rampis, kaj tiom da fojoj gxi falis malsupren. Fine, tamen, gxi sukcese rampis gxis la plafono. La regxo malfermis la busxon pro surprizo, kaj diris al si "Kiam antauxe mi vidis tiom da pacienco! Mi opinias ke la fina sukceso de tiu malgranda araneo donas al mi bonegan lecionon. Mi estas ofte malsukcesinta, sed malpli ofte ol tiu araneo sur la muro. Mi estas perdinta multe da soldatoj, kaj la malamikoj estas venkintaj multajn fojojn, cxar ili havas multe pli grandan nombron da soldatoj. Tamen, mi estos pacienca, cxar oni ne scias kiam li fine sukcesos." La sekvintan tagon, la regxo Roberto Bruce komencis treege labori kontraux siaj malamikoj. Post mallonga tempo li bone sukcesis, kaj tute venkis la malamikoj en granda venko cxe Bannockburn (Banokb'rn).

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Although the enemies of Robert Bruce conquered him many times, he finally conquered them in Scotland, because he was patient and very courageous. 2. He was sitting in a large stable, to hide (himself), and also in order to (98) look directly from its roof (at) the soldiery (126) of the enemy. 3. At the end of the day he noticed a spider crawling up (ward) on the wall. 4. The spider fell suddenly into the dust and lay at the king's feet, but soon began to crawl up. 5. "Where does it wish to go?" said the king to himself. 6. "What patience it shows! It has crawled up and fallen down a great many times." 7. Finally however the spider succeeded, and crawled up to the ceiling. 8. The king said that he had learned a lesson from the patient spider. 9. He said "Although the enemy have conquered many times, because they have a larger number of soldiers, I shall finally succeed against them." 10. Soon it happened that the wind blew violently, and a rainstorm occurred. 11. The blast shook the foliage (126) on the trees, and broke away many small branches. 12. A group of soldiers ran right ("rekte") toward the stable, and Robert Bruce was much afraid that they would find him. 13. But they merely stole the horses there, and rode away.

LESSON XXVIII.

THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF MOTIVE OR REASON.

129. The interrogative adverb of motive or reason related to the interrogative pronoun "kiu" is "kial", why, wherefore, for what reason:

Kial la araneo supren rampis? why did the spider crawl up?
Mi demandos kial li rimarkis gxin, I will ask why he noticed it.

THE INFINITIVE AS SUBJECT.

130. The infinitive may be used as the subject of a verb.

[Footnote: Cf. the complementary infinitive (28), equivalent to the object of a verb, and the use of the infinitive after the prepositions "por", "anstataux", "antaux ol" (98).]

Any modifier of the infinitive is necessarily adverbial. An indefinite personal object (or pronominal complement of a preposition) after an infinitive used as subject is expressed by the reflexive pronoun "si":

Promeni estas granda plezuro, to go walking is a great pleasure.
Promeni estas agrable, to go walking is pleasant.
Cxu estas facile rigardi la plafonon?
Is it easy to look at the ceiling?
Estas bone sin helpi, it is well to help oneself.
Paroli al si estas malsagxe, to talk to oneself is silly.

PRESENT ACTION WITH PAST INCEPTION.

131. A present act or state which began in the past is expressed by the present tense (instead of by the past as in English):

Mi estas cxi tie de lundo, I have been (I am) here since Monday.
De Marto mi studas tiun lingvon,
since March I have been (I am) studying that language.
Ili estas amikoj de tiu tago,
they have been (they are) friends from that day.
Ni logxas tie de antaux kelkaj monatoj,
we have been living (we are living) here since some months ago.

[Footnote: Cf. German "er ist schon lange hier", he has already been here a long time, French "je suis ici depuis deux ans", I have been here two years, etc.]

THE SUFFIX "-UL-".

132. The suffix "-ul-" is used to form nouns indicating a person characterized by or possessing the distinguishing trait, character or quality in the root:

junulo, a youth, a young man (from "juna", young).
belulino, a beauty, a belle (from "bela", beautiful).
maljunulo, an old man (from "maljuna", old).
sagxulo, a sage, a wise man (from "saga", wise).
malricxulino, a poor woman (from "malricxa", poor).

[Footnote: Cf. the English adjectives "quer-ul-ous", "cred-ul-ous", "garr-ul-ous", etc., and the Latin nouns "fam-ul-us", a servant, "fig-ul-us", a potter, and "leg-ul-us", a gatherer.]

"LOGXI" AND "VIVI".

133. The verb "logxi", "to reside, to dwell, to lodge", must not be confused with "vivi", which means "to live" in the sense of "to be alive":

Li logxas apude, he lives near by.
Li vivis longan tempon, he lived a long time.
Vivi felicxe estas pli bone ol logxi ricxe,
to live happily is better than to live (lodge) richly.

VOCABULARY

afabl-a = amiable, affable. kial = why (129).
afer-o = thing, matter, affair. mejl-o = mile.
balanc-i = to balance, to nod. okulhar-o = eyelash.
barb-o = beard. okulvitr-oj = spectacles.
batal-o = battle. pens-i = to think, to ponder.
brov-o = eyebrow. vang-o = cheek.
bukl-o = curl (of hair). verand-o = porch, veranda.
har-o = hair. viv-i = to live (133).

PRI LA AVO KAJ LA AVINO.

Mia avo estas tre afabla persono. Li estas maljunulo kun blankaj haroj kaj blanka barbo. Li havas bluajn okulojn, kaj la brovoj super ili estas ecx pli blankaj ol liaj haroj. Kvankam li logxas en nia vilagxo de antaux kelkaj jaroj, li antauxe logxis en Skotlando. Antaux multaj jaroj li estis soldato, kaj li ofte parolas al mi pri la bataloj kaj venkoj de tiu tempo. Sidi kviete sur la verando kaj rakonti tiajn rakontojn al la nepo sxajne donas al li multe da plezuro. Multajn fojojn je la fino de la tago li sidas tie, kaj parolas pri tiaj aferoj gxis malfrua horo de la vespero. Sidi cxe liaj piedoj kaj auxdi liajn rakontojn estas tre interese al mi. Komence, dum mi estas cxe li, mi kutime demandas "Cxu oni sukcesis en tiu batalo?" Tuj li balancas la kapon kaj komencas pacience rakonti pri la venkoj kaj malvenkoj ("defeats"). Li malofte respondas "Mi ne scias," al miaj demandoj "Kiam," kaj "Kial." Kelkajn fojojn li diras "Mi havas tiun opinion, sed mi ne bone scias pri la tuta afero, kaj mi miras cxu aliaj personoj scias pli bone." Cxar li estas multe studinta kaj pensinta, liaj opinioj estas treege interesaj. Li gxojas tial ke mi demandas pri aferoj okazintaj ("things that have happened"), cxar tiaj demandoj montras ke mi ankaux pensas pri ili. Mia avino estas malgranda, kun belaj bukloj da tute blankaj haroj. Sxi havas belajn brunajn okulojn, kun longaj nigraj okulharoj. Oni diras ke antaux multaj jaroj sxi estis belulino. Ecx nun estas plezure rigardi sxin, kaj vidi sxiajn rugxajn vangojn. De antaux kelkaj jaroj sxi portas okulvitrojn por legi aux skribi aux kudri, kaj sxi bezonas ripozon post malmulte da laboro. Promeno de ecx mejlo estas tro longa nun por la avino. Oni diras ke sxi ne vivos tre longan tempon, kaj tia penso donas malgxojon al ni, cxar ni treege amas la afablan paciencan avinon.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Our grandfather is an old man, and they say that he will not live much longer. 2. He is not very strong, and can not take ("fari") long walks. 3. The mile between his house and ours now seems long to him. 4. He prefers to sit quietly in the house or on the veranda, and think, nearly all day long (the whole day). 5. He is very amiable, and can tell exceedingly interesting stories, about the victories and defeats which happened (119) many years ago. 6. Such things are wicked I think, and I am very glad that (83) such battles do not happen now. 7. Grandfather has a long white beard and much white hair. 8. It is very interesting to hear his stories, and also to look directly at him while he is telling them. 9. He tells such stories with great pleasure. 10. Although he has lived with (125) us since February (131), he does not know (117) a great many of the neighbors, or of the other persons living (133) near. 11. Grandmother has blue eyes, red cheeks, and soft white curls. 12. She speaks slowly, with a sweet voice, and is very patient. 13. Today she said to me "Good morning, my dear (132), I have lost my spectacles. Will you look-for them for me?" I nodded (the head) and soon found the spectacles.

LESSON XXIX.

THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF MANNER AND DEGREE.

134. The interrogative adverb of manner or degree, related to the interrogative pronoun "kiu", is "kiel", how, in what way, to what degree:

Kiel oni vivas en tia aero? How do people live in such air?
Kiel afabla sxi estas! How amiable she is!
Mi miras kiel la batalo okazis, I wonder how the battle happened.
Kiel longe li pensis pri gxi? How long did he think about it?

THE PLUPERFECT TENSE.

135. The compound tense formed by combining the past active participle with the past tense of "esti" represents an act or condition as having been completed at some time in the past, and is called the "pluperfect tense". The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as follows:

mi estis vidinta, I had seen (I was having-seen).
vi estis vidinta, you had seen (you were having-seen).
li (sxi, gxi) estis vidinta, he (she, it) had seen (was having-seen).
ni estis vidintaj, we had seen (we were having-seen).
vi estis vidintaj, you had seen (you were having-seen).
ili estis vidintaj, they had seen (they were having-seen).

CARDINAL NUMERALS.

136. Cardinals are numeral adjectives which answer the question "How many?" The cardinals from one to twelve are as follows:

unu = one. sep = seven.
du = two. ok = eight.
tri = three. naux = nine.
kvar = four. dek = ten.
kvin = five. dek unu = eleven.
ses = six. dek du = twelve.

137. With the exception of "unu", none of the cardinals may receive the plural ending "-j" or the accusative ending "-n". That is, they are invariable in form. "Unuj" may be used to mean "some" in contrast to "aliaj", others:

Unuj marsxis, aliaj kuris, some walked, others ran.
Mi prenis unujn kaj lasis la aliajn, I took some and left the others.

138. The preposition "el" is used after numeral adjectives expressing a number "out of" some larger number or quantity:

Ses el la knaboj venis, six of the boys came.
Ok el tiuj libroj estas la miaj, eight of those books are mine.
El tiuj cxapeloj mi sxatas nur unu, of those hats I like only one.

[Footnote: The cardinal "unu" must not be used in the sense of the English pronominal "one," as in "I am searching for a book, but not the one on the table", which should be translated "Mi sercxas libron, sed ne tiun sur la tablo."]

THE ACCUSATIVE OF MEASURE.

139. A substantive in the accusative case may be used, instead of a prepositional phrase or an adverb, not only to express measure (duration) of time (91), but also to express measure of weight, price, length, etc.:

Li marsxis dek unu mejlojn, he walked eleven miles.
La parko estas largxa tri mejlojn, kaj longa kvar mejlojn,
the park is three miles wide and four miles long.
La tablo pezas dek du funtojn,
the table weighs (is heavy) twelve pounds.

NIA FAMILIO.

Mi rakontos al vi kian familion ni havas. Ni estas ses personoj kaj ni logxas en cxi tiu domo de antaux preskaux kvar jaroj. Antaux ol veni cxi tien al la urbo, ni estis logxintaj tri jarojn en kvieta vilagxo en la kamparo. Mia patro estas alta, kun grizaj haroj kaj griza barbo. Kvankam li ne estas ricxulo, li tamen havas suficxe da mono por vivi kontente kaj felicxe. Li sxatas marsxi, kaj ofte li estas marsxinta kvin aux ses mejlojn por unu promeno. Unu fojon mi demandis "Kiel vi povas marsxi tiel multe?" Li respondis "Dum mi estis junulo mi estis soldato, kaj tiam mi estis tre multe marsxanta. Tial mi ne forgesas la plezurojn de longaj promenoj." La patrino estas malpli alta ol mi, kaj kiel bluajn okulojn sxi havas, sub nigraj okulharoj kaj nigraj brovoj! Sxiaj haroj estas nigraj kaj buklaj, kaj sxiaj vangoj estas rugxaj. Sxi havas dolcxan vocxon, kaj estas plezuro auxdi sxiajn kantojn. Por legi aux skribi sxi kutime portas okulvitrojn. Mi havas du fratojn kaj unu fratinon. La fratino havas dek unu jarojn.

[Footnote: Like French and some other languages, Esperanto commonly uses the verb "to have" rather than the verb "to be", in expressing age: Li havas sep jarojn, he is seven years old (he has seven years). Mi havis dek jarojn tiam, I was ten years old (I had ten years) then.]

Unu el la fratoj havas ok jarojn, la alia havas dek du jarojn. Ili povas bonege kuri, rajdi, kaj fari aliajn interesajn aferojn. Ili lernis siajn lecionojn en la lernejo tiel bone ke ses fojojn en unu monato oni lauxdis ilin. Ni multe gxojis pri tiom da lauxdo por la fratoj. La fratino estas malpli forta, tamen sxi ofte promenas kun ni ecx du aux tri mejlojn. La avino ankaux logxas cxe ni de antaux sep aux ok jaroj. Unu el ni kutime restas cxe la hejmo kun sxi, dum la aliaj promenas, cxar sxi ne estas suficxe forta por marsxi ecx unu mejlon. Mi ofte miras kial sxi preferas sidi sur la verando, kaj mi demandas al sxi "Cxu vi estas tro laca por marsxi?" Sxi kutime balancas la kapon kaj diras "Jes, mia nepo, mi estas tro laca."

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Three and four make seven. 2. Two and six make eight. Five and six make eleven. 3. Seven and five make twelve. 4. I have been studying geometry since five months ago, and German since January. 5. I have read three German books, but I shall not be able to talk in this language until after August. 6. To learn how to speak such a language is a difficult matter. 7. Nine of the children in our school are now studying German with me. 8. Some learn it easily, others do not like it. 9. Three of the boys and two of the girls in that school are German. 10. They had resided four years in a large city, but I think (that) they live more contentedly in our quiet village. 11. They can not talk with us very well, but merely nod their heads when we talk to them. 12. I had not seen them before they came to school, although they are neighbors of ours. 13. They are amiable children, with blue eyes, red cheeks, and yellow hair. 14. They can ride very well, and often ride eight or ten miles in one day. 15. They usually ride in a park three miles wide and four miles long, where there is but little ("nur malmulte da") dust.

LESSON XXX.

THE INTERROGATIVE ADVERB OF QUANTITY.

140. The interrogative adverb of quantity related to the interrogative pronoun "kiu" is "kiom", how much, how many:

Kiom da tempo vi ripozis? How much time did you rest?
Kiom da sukero kaj kiom da fragoj vi acxetis?
How much sugar and how many strawberries did you buy?
Ni miras kiom da mono li havos,
we wonder how much money he will have.
Kiom de la leciono vi lernis? How much of the lesson did you learn?

MODIFIERS OF IMPERSONALLY USED VERBS.

141. Any modifier of an impersonal verb (50) or of a verb used impersonally, that is, with an infinitive or clause for its subject, or without any definitely expressed or personal subject (as in "it is cold," "it seems too early"), must necessarily be adverbial:

Estas varme en la domo, it is warm in the house.
Estos malvarme morgaux, it will be cold tomorrow.
Estas bone ke li venis, it is well that he came.
Estas amuze ke ni forgesis lin, it is amusing that we forgot him.
Ke vi venis estis tre sagxe, that you came was very wise.
Estos pli agrable en la salono, it will be pleasanter in the parlor.

FORMATION OF CARDINAL NUMERALS.

142. The cardinal numerals for the tens, hundreds and thousands are formed by prefixing "du", "tri", "kvar", etc., to "dek", ten, "cent", hundred, and "mil", thousand, respectively.

Tens.
---------------------------------------------
dudek, twenty. sesdek, sixty.
tridek, thirty. sepdek, seventy.
kvardek, forty. okdek, eighty.
kvindek, fifty. nauxdek, ninety.

Hundreds. Thousands.
---------------------------- -------------------------
ducent, two hundred. trimil, three thousand.
kvincent, five hundred. kvarmil, four thousand.
sepcent, seven hundred, etc. sesmil, six thousand, etc.

143. The cardinals between ten and twenty, twenty and thirty, etc., are formed by placing "unu, du, tri", etc., after "dek, dudek, tridek", etc. (Cf. "dek unu", eleven, "dek du", twelve, 136):

dek kvar = fourteen. tridek kvin = thirty-five.
dek naux = nineteen. sepdek ok = seventy-eight.
dudek tri = twenty-three. nauxdek ses = ninety-six, etc.

144. Cardinals containing more than two figures begin with the largest number and descend regularly, as in English:

cent tridek kvin, one hundred and thirty-five.
kvarcent nauxdek sep, four hundred and ninety-seven.
sescent du, six hundred and two.
mil okdek, one thousand and eighty.
mil naucent dek du,
one thousand nine hundred and twelve
(nineteen hundred and twelve).

THE SUFFIX "-AN-".

145. The suffix "-an-" is used to form words indicating an inhabitant or resident of the place denoted by the root, or a member or adherent of the party, organization, etc., denoted by the root. The suffix "-an-" may itself be used as a root, forming "ano", member, etc.

bostonano = Bostonian. domano = inmate of a house.
kamparano = countryman, peasant. vilagxano = villager.

[Footnote: Cf. English "urb-an", "suburb-an", "Rom-an", "republic-an", "Mohammed-an", etc.]

VOCABULARY

aritmetik-o = arithmetic. memor-i = to remember.
cent = hundred (142). mil = thousand (142).
erar-o = error, mistake. minut-o = minute.
grad-o = grade, degree. ricev-i = to receive.
kalkul-i = to calculate, to reckon. sekund-o = second.
kiom = how much (140). superjar-o = leap-year.

LECIONO PRI ARITMETIKO.

Estas malvarme hodiaux, kaj tute ne agrable ekster la domo. La urbanoj ne estas promenantaj en la parko, cxar ili preferas resti en la domoj. Mi ankaux restis en la domo, kaj parolis al mia juna frato. Mi helpis lin pri la leciono en aritmetiko, tial ke li baldaux havos ekzamenojn, kaj li volas esti preta por skribi tre bonajn respondojn. Mi demandis al li "Kiom faras dek tri kaj dek kvar?" Li respondis ke tiuj faras dudek sep. Tiam mi demandis kiom faras dudek unu kaj tridek kvar. Li kalkulis kvin aux ses sekundojn, per mallauxta vocxo, kaj diris "Ili faras kvindek kvin." Mi demandis kiom faras ducent tri kaj sepcent ok, kaj li respondis ke ili faras nauxcent dek unu. Li tute ne faris erarojn al mi, kaj fine mi diris al li ke li povas bonege kalkuli. Mi opinias ke li ricevos bonan gradon en la ekzamenoj. Post kelkaj minutoj ni komencis paroli pri aliaj aferoj. Mi demandis "Kiom da tagoj en la monato septembro?" La frato respondis "Septembro, novembro, aprilo kaj junio havas tridek tagojn. Kvankam tiuj monatoj havas tiom da tagoj, la aliaj monatoj havas tridek unu tagojn. Sed la monato februaro havas nur dudek ok tagojn." Estas interese lerni pri cxi tiu monato februaro. Dum tri jaroj gxi havas dudek ok tagojn, sed en la sekvanta jaro gxi havas dudek naux tagojn. La jaro havanta tian februaron estas la "superjaro." Mi rakontis tiun interesan aferon al la frato, kaj li diris ke li bone memoros gxin. Li diris ke li ne antauxe sciis pri la superjaro. Li ne sciis ke la superjaro havas tricent sesdek ses tagojn, kvankam la aliaj jaroj havas nur tricent sesdek kvin tagojn. Li diris ke li ankaux memoros pri la nombro da tagoj en la superjaro, kaj ke li rakontos la aferon al la aliaj knaboj.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. (To be written out in full): 14, 18, 42, 86, 79, 236, 431, 687, 788, 1240, 1885, 9872, 4500, 1912. 2. There are twelve months in a year, and in most of the months of the year there are thirty-one days. 3. There are only thirty days in the months April, June, September and November. 4. There are seven days in a week, and twenty-four hours in a day. 5. Twelve of these hours make the day, and the others make the night. 6. There are sixty minutes in one hour, and sixty seconds in one minute. 7. There are four weeks and also two or three days in one month. 8. In the year there are fifty-two weeks. 9. How many weeks are there in ten years? 10. At least one year in ten years is a leap-year. 11. In a leap-year there are three hundred and sixty-six days, instead of three hundred and sixty-five. 12. Wise men calculated about this matter, many years ago. 13. It is well for us that they liked to study arithmetic. 15. I have often received good grades in this study. 16. I remember it easily, and seldom make mistakes.

LESSON XXXI.

THE RELATIVE PRONOUN.

146. A connecting pronoun referring to something which precedes (or follows) is called a "relative pronoun". The person or thing to which it refers is called its "antecedent." The relative pronoun, identical in form with the interrogative pronoun (106), as in English, is "kiu", which, who.

[Footnote: Sometimes English uses "that" for a relative pronoun, as "I saw the book that you have." This must always be translated by "kiu". Likewise, English sometimes omits the relative pronoun, as "I saw the book you have." The relative pronoun is never thus omitted in Esperanto.]

The relative pronoun agrees in number with its antecedent. Whether it is in the accusative case or not depends upon its relation to its own verb or to other words in its own clause (called the relative clause):

La junuloj, kiuj venis, estas afablaj,
the youths who came are amiable.
La personoj, kiujn li vidos, estas amikoj miaj,
the persons (whom) he will see are friends of mine.
Mi kalkulis la gradon, kiun li ricevos,
I calculated the grade (which) he will receive.
Mi memoras tiun aferon, pri kiu vi parolas,
I remember that matter about which you speak.

147. Like English "whose" the genitive form "kies" of the interrogative pronoun (107) is also used as a relative, referring to a substantive (singular or plural) for its antecedent:

Li estas la viro, kies libron vi trovis,
he is the man whose book you found.
Mi konas la infanojn, kies patro estas amiko via,
I know the children whose father is a friend of yours.

THE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.

148. The compound tense formed by combining the past participle with the future tense of the auxiliary verb "esti" represents an act or condition as having been already completed or perfected at a future time, and is called the "future perfect tense." The conjugation of "vidi" in this tense is as follows:

mi estos vidinta, I shall have seen (I shall be having-seen).
vi estos vidinta, you will have seen (you will be having-seen).
li (sxi, gxi) estos vidinta,
he (she, it) will have seen (will be having-seen).
ni estos vidintaj, we shall have seen (shall be having-seen).
vi estos vidintaj, you will have seen (will be having-seen).
ili estos vidintaj, they will have seen (will be having-seen).

ORDINAL NUMERALS.

149. Ordinal numerals are adjectives which answer the question "Which in order?" as "first", "third", etc. They are formed by adding the adjectival suffix "-a" to the cardinals. The various parts of an ordinal must be connected by hyphens, since it is to the entire cardinal, and not any part of it, that the adjective ending "-a" is attached:

unua = first. kvardek-sesa = forty-sixth.
dua = second. cent-okdek-kvina :
tria = third. hundred and eighty-fifth.
oka = eighth. mil-okcent-kvara :
dek-unua = eleventh. one thousand eight hundred and
dek-nauxa = nineteenth. fourth.
dudek-sepa = twenty-seventh. sesmil-sepa :
six thousand and seventh.

[Footnote: Ordinal numerals may be abbreviated thus: "la", "1st", "2a", "2nd", "3a", "3rd", "5a", "5th", "1912a", "1912th", "233a", "233rd", etc. If the ordinal number is used in an accusative construction, the abbreviation is given the accusative ending, as "lan", "2an", "3an", "1912an", etc.]

VOCABULARY

angl-a = English. neces-a = necessary.
dezir-i = to desire. paf-i = to shoot.
dolar-o = dollar. pafark-o = bow (for shooting).
gajn-i = to win, to gain. part-o = part, share.
kost-i = to cost. pen-i = to strive, to try.
last-a = last. traduk-i = to translate.
latin-a = Latin. sag-o = arrow.
mar-o = sea. sam-a = same.

ALFREDO GRANDA KAJ LA LIBRO.

Antaux pli multe ol mil jaroj vivis Alfredo Granda, unu el la plej interesaj personoj pri kiuj ni estas auxdintaj. Li estis la unua angla regxo, kiu deziris legi librojn. Li estis ankaux la lasta, kiu povis legi ilin, gxis post multaj jaroj. Unu tagon, dum li estis malgranda knabo kun flavaj buklaj haroj, lia patrino, tre sagxa regxino, montris al li kaj al liaj fratoj belegan libron. Sxi diris ke la libro kostis multe da mono en lando trans la maro, kaj ke gxi nun apartenas al sxi. Si diris "Miaj filoj, mi donos cxi tiun libron al tiu el vi, kiu lernos legi gxin. Kiu el vi estos la unua, kiu povos legi? Tiu ricevos la libron." Nu, Alfredo komencis studi, kaj post ne longe li gajnis la belegan libron. Liaj fratoj ecx ne penis gajni gxin. Tiam oni tre malmulte pensis pri libroj. La regxoj kaj iliaj filoj nur malofte povis legi, kaj treege malofte povis skribi. Oni lauxdis nur personojn, kiuj bone rajdis kaj batalis per sagoj kaj pafarkoj. Sed oni opiniis ke tute ne estis necese scii pri la aferoj, kiujn la libroj rakontas. Tial Alfredo ne ricevis lauxdon pro sia deziro por legi. La sesan aux sepan jaron post sia ricevo de la libro, Alfredo volis lerni la latinan lingvon, cxar tiam oni skribis latine ("in Latin") la librojn, kiuj estis plej bonaj. Oni sercxis gxis la finoj de la lando, kaj iris multajn mejlojn, sed preskaux ne povis trovi personon, kiu ecx estis auxdinta pri tia lingvo. Fine oni trovis personon por helpi Alfredon, kiu tiam lernis la latinan lingvon. Tiu sama Alfredo estis regxo multajn jarojn, kaj estis unu el la plej bonaj regxoj, kiujn la angla lando estas havinta. Alfredo skribis librojn en la latina lingvo, kaj ankaux tradukis latinajn librojn en la anglan lingvon.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. (To be written out in full): 37th, 59th, 73rd, 92nd, 846th, 119th, 1274th, 1910th, 14235th. 2. Before my friend will have finished that mansion (122), it will have cost twenty thousand dollars. 3. Before coming to visit you, I shall have ridden twelve miles on my horse. 4. The grade which you will have received in arithmetic soon after the first of March will be excellent. 5. You do not make mistakes very often in the lessons. 6. I shall try after a few minutes to translate that Latin book, for ("cxar") it seems interesting. 7. It is necessary to study Latin, for I desire to read the stories which are in my Latin book. 8. The one thousand nine hundred and fourth year was a leap-year. 9. The fourth year after that year was also a leap-year. 10. The 1912th year will be a leap-year. There are three hundred and sixty-six days in such a year. 12. Alfred won the book which his mother had bought. 13. Such a book now costs four or five hundred dollars. 14. Alfred the Great was the last king until many years afterward (until after many years) who could read or write. 15. He was the first king in that land who even wished to be able to read books. 16. We often talk about this same King Alfred, and say that he was the father of the English language. 17. People say so ("diras tiel") because he translated Latin books into the language of his land, and because he also wrote books in that language.

LESSON XXXII.

"KIA" AS A RELATIVE ADJECTIVE.

150. The interrogative adjective "kia" (112) is also used as a relative adjective, referring back to "tia," or to some equivalent phrase or word indicating quality, such as "sama", etc. In this use it may often be translated "as", or "which":

Mi havas tian libron, kian mi volas,
I have such a (that kind of) book as (which kind) I wish.
Tiaj amikoj, kiajn vi havas, estas afablaj,
such friends as (of which kind) you have are amiable.
Li deziras tian cxapelon, kia kostas ses dolarojn,
he desires that kind of hat which (kind) costs six dollars.
Mi havas la saman deziron, kian vi,
I have the same desire as you (same kind which you have).

"KIE" AS A RELATIVE ADVERB.

151. The interrogative adverb "kie", "kien" (118) is also used as a relative adverb of place with "tie", "tien", or some other expression of place for its antecedent.

[Footnote: Any interrogative adverb may also be used to introduce an indirect question, thus serving as a subordinating conjunction (cf. "cxu").]

"Kien" is used when the verb in the relative clause expresses motion toward the place indicated, whether or not its antecedent has this ending. Similarly, "kie" may refer to "tie" or to "tien":

Mi iros tien, kie vi estas,
I shall go there where you are.
Mi estis tie, kien vi iros,
I was there (at that place) where you will go.
Mi iros tien, kien vi iris,
I shall go to that place to which you went
(I shall go where you went).
Mi trovis lin en la urbo, kie li logxas,
I found him in the city where he lives.
Cxu vi venos cxi tien, kie ni estas?
Are you coming here where we are?

THE FUTURE ACTIVE PARTICIPLE.

152. The future active participle, expressing what the word modified will do or is about to do, ends in "-onta," as "vidonta", about to see, "ironta", about to go:

La forironta viro vokis sian serviston,
the man going to depart (the about-to-depart man)
called his servant.
La virino salutonta vin estas tre afabla,
the woman about to greet you is very affable.
La venonta monato estas marto,
the coming month is March.
La venontan semajnon mi foriros,
the coming (next) week I shall depart.

THE PERIPHRASTIC FUTURE TENSES.

153. The compound tenses formed by combining the future active participle with each of the three aoristic tenses of "esti" represent an act or state as about to occur in the present, past, or future, respectively, and are called "periphrastic future tenses." Except when great accuracy is desired, these tenses are not often used. A synopsis of "vidi" in the first person singular and plural of these tenses is as follows:

Present Periphrastic Future.

mi estas vidonta, ni estas vidontaj,
I am about to (going we are about to (going
to) see. to) see.

Past Periphrastic Future.

mi estis vidonta, ni estis vidontaj,
I was about to (going we were about to (going
to) see. to) see.

Future Periphrastic Future.

mi estos vidonta, ni estos vidontaj,
I shall be about to (going we shall be about to (going
to) see. to) see.

THE SUFFIX "-IND-".

154. The suffix "-ind-" is used to form words expressing "worthy of, deserving of," that which is indicated in the root. It may also be used as a root, to form "inda", worthy, "malinda", unworthy, "indo", worth, merit, etc.:

dezirinda = desirable. rimarkinda = noteworthy, remarkable.
lauxdinda = praiseworthy. ridinde = ridiculously, laughably.
mallauxdinda = blameworthy. tradukinda = worth translating.

VOCABULARY

ankoraux = still, yet. flar-i = to smell.
atak-i = to attack. gast-o = guest.
bat-i = to beat. ho! = Oh!
cert-a = sure, certain. kri-i = to exclaim, to cry.
defend-i = to defend. kruel-a = cruel.
difekt-i = to spoil. kuk-o = cake.
edz-o = husband. lign-o = wood.
fajr-o = fire. suspekt-i = to suspect.

[Footnote: The adverb "ankoraux" expresses the ideas "until and during the present time", "in the future as now and before", "in constant or uniform succession", "in an increasing or additional degree", given sometimes by English "yet", sometimes by "still": Mi estas ankoraux sidanta cxi tie, "I am still sitting here." Li ankoraux ne venis, "still he has not come (he has not come yet)." Li ankoraux restos tie, "he will still stay there." Ankoraux ili venas, "still they come." Li estos ankoraux pli ruza, "he will be still (yet) more crafty."]

ALFREDO GRANDA KAJ LA KUKOJ.

Unu fojon antaux pli multe ol mil jaroj, soldatoj venis de trans la maro por ataki la anglan regxon Alfredon Grandan. Ili nek konis nek malamis lin, sed ili sciis ke li estas persono kies landon ili deziras gajni. Cxi tiuj malamikoj estis venintaj tiel subite ke Alfredo ne estis preta por defendi sian landon kontraux ili. Tial li forkuris kelkajn mejlojn de la urbo, kaj sin kasxis en granda arbaro malantaux vilagxo. Anstataux porti regxajn vestojn li acxetis tiajn cxifonojn kiajn kamparanoj kaj malricxuloj portas. Li logxis cxe malricxa sed lauxdinda kamparano, kiu ne konis la regxon, kaj tute ne suspektis kia persono lia gasto estas. Unu memorindan tagon Alfredo estis sidanta apud la fajro, kaj estis rigardanta siajn sagojn kaj pafarkon dum li pensis malgxoje pri sia lando. La edzino de la arbarano demandis "Cxu vi ankoraux sidos tie dekkvin aux dudek minutojn?" "Jes," respondis la regxo. Sxi diris "Nu, estos necese fari pli varmegan fajron por tiaj kukoj kiajn mi nun estas bakonta. Cxu vi gardos tiujn kukojn kiuj nun estas super la fajro, dum mi kolektos pli multe da ligno?" Alfredo respondis "Certe mi gardos ilin kontraux la fajro." La virino sercxonta lignon foriris en alian parton de la arbaro, kie estis multe da ligno, kaj la regxo penis zorgi pri la kukoj. Sed baldaux li forgesis ilin, kaj la fajro ilin difektis. Kiam la virino venis kaj flaris la kukojn sxi kriis "ho, vi riprocxinda viro! Kvankam vi ankoraux sidas tie, vi ne pensas pri la kukoj, kaj la fajro estas difektinta ilin!" Sxi estis kruele batonta la regxon, kiam li diris al sxi kiu li estas, kaj kial li forgesis la kukojn. Tiam sxi tre hontis, kaj anstataux mallauxdi lin sxi volis esti ankoraux pli bona al li.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. Alfred the Great was a praiseworthy king who lived more than a thousand years ago. 2. People still talk about him because he not only translated many Latin books into the English language, but also wrote in English. 3. He wished to help the peasants still more. 4. But enemies often attacked him, and finally they conquered his soldiers. 5. Then they hastened to where (151) Alfred was. 6. They were about to attack him, when he rode away secretly ("kasxe") into a large forest. 7. There he dwelt some time in the house of a poor forester. 8. He wore such rags as a peasant usually wears, and did not tell the forester who he was. 9. One day he was sitting near the fire and wondering, "Will the enemy have conquered my soldiers next week?" 10. The forester's wife said, "Will you sit there yet a while and take-care of those cakes? I am about to gather more wood." 11. He replied, "Certainly, I will try to help you." 12. But when after a few minutes the woman smelled the cakes, she knew that the fire had spoiled them. 13. She exclaimed "Oh, what a blame-worthy man!" 14. She commenced to beat the king cruelly, but he did not defend himself. 15. Instead (120), he told her who he was.

LESSON XXXIII.

"KIAM" AS A RELATIVE ADVERB.

155. The interrogative temporal adverb "kiam" (123) is also used as a relative temporal adverb, with "tiam" or an equivalent word or phrase for its antecedent. (It may not be omitted as in English "at the time he came"):

Mi suspektis lin je la tempo kiam li venis,
I suspected him at the time when he came (the time that he came).
Li defendis sin tiam, kiam oni atakis lin,
he defended himself then, when he was attacked.
Mi ankoraux sidos tie gxis kiam vi venos,
I shall still sit there until when you come (until you come).
Post kiam li tiel lauxte kriis, li komencis plori,
after he shouted so loudly, he began to cry.

"KIEL" AS A RELATIVE ADVERB.

156. The interrogative adverb "kiel" (134) is also used as a relative adverb of manner and degree, with "tiel", or "same", or an equivalent adverb or phrase for its antecedent. It may often be translated "as":

Mi defendis min tiel, kiel li defendis sin,
I defended myself in that way in which (way) he defended himself.
Vi ne estas tiel kruela kiel li,
you are not so cruel as he (is).
Ili batis lin same kiel vi,
they beat him in the same way as you (did).
Ili batis lin same kiel vin,
they beat him the same as (they did) you.
Kiel mi diris al li, mi estas felicxa,
as I told him, I am happy (antecedent not expressed).
Li parolis tiel mallauxte kiel antauxe,
he spoke as softly as before.
Sxi estas tiel bona kiel sxi estas bela,
she is as good as she is fair.

NUMERAL NOUNS AND ADVERBS.

157. Nouns may be formed from the cardinals by addition of the ending "-o." After such nouns the preposition "da" or "de" is used:

dekduo = a dozen. milo = a thousand.
dudeko = a score. unuo = a unit.
deko = a ten, half a score. kvaro = a four, a quartette.
cento = a hundred. trio = a three, a trio.

[Footnote: The prepositions "da" and "de" follow nouns (99, 100) or adverbs (101), while "el" follows adjectives in the superlative degree (75), cardinal numerals (138), and the pronouns tiu, kiu (106), etc.: "dekduo da ovoj", a dozen (of) eggs. "dekduo de la ovoj", a dozen of the eggs. "dek du el tiuj ovoj", twelve of those eggs. "kiu el la ovoj?" which one of the eggs? "tiu el la ovoj", that one of the eggs. "la plej fresxa el la ovoj", the freshest of the eggs.]

158. Adverbs may be formed from the cardinals by addition of the ending "-e":

unue = firstly, at first. deke = tenthly.
due = secondly, in the second place. sesdeke = sixtiethly.
kvine = fifthly, in the fifth place. okdek-kvare = eighty-fourthly.

WORD DERIVATION FROM PREPOSITIONS.

159. Adjectives, verbs and nouns, as well as adverbs (120), may be derived from prepositions by addition of the formative endings (116), with sometimes a special suffix also:

anstatauxi = to replace, to take the place of.
anstatauxulo = a substitute.
antauxa = previous, preceding.
apuda = near, contiguous, adjacent.
cxirkauxi = to surround, to encircle.
cxirkauxo = a circuit, a circumference.
kontrauxa = adverse, opposite, contrary.
kontrauxulo = adversary, opponent.
kunulo = comrade, companion.
superi = to surpass, to exceed, to be above.
superege = surpassingly, exceedingly.

VOCABULARY

adiaux = farewell, goodbye. kuz-o = cousin.
akcept-i = to accept, to receive. malgraux = notwithstanding.
elekt-i = to choose, to select. par-o = pair.
fest-i = to celebrate, to entertain. pend-i = to hang.
gant-o = glove. prez-o = price.
gxentil-a = courteous. renkont-i = to meet.
invit-i = to invite. sxu-o = shoe.
jxus = just, at the moment. uz-i = to use.

[Footnote: The adverb "jxus" indicates the elapsing of the least possible time since the act or condition indicated, or between the two acts or conditions indicated. "Ni jxus venis", we just came (we came but a moment ago). "Mi havas la saman opinion kian vi jxus diris", I have the same opinion as you just gave (said). "Mi vidis lin jxus kiam li estis forironta", I saw him just when he was about to depart. "Jxus kiam vi venis li foriris", just as you came he went away.]

LA INVITO.

Hieraux matene mia kuzo vizitis cxe ni, kaj invitis min al malgranda festo kiu okazos morgaux vespere. Tiam li festos la lastan tagon de la jaro. Li diris ke la gastoj sidos cxirkaux la fajrejo kaj rakontos rakontojn gxis malfrua horo. Mi akceptis lian gxentilan inviton, kaj diris ke mi certe venos. Mia kuzo logxas en la sama urbo kie nia familio logxas, sed en alia parto. Lia hejmo estas preskaux du mejlojn de la nia. Tamen, ni estas bonaj kunuloj, kaj ofte promenas kune. Jxus kiam li estis elironta el la pordo hieraux, mi uzis la okazon ("opportunity") por proponi mallongan promenon. Li respondis ke li gxoje promenos kun mi, malgraux la negxa vetero. Tial ni formarsxis tien, kie la stratoj estis malplej kotaj. La kuzo havas dek ok jarojn, sed mi estas preskaux tiel alta kiel li. Mi estas certa ke mi estas ankaux tiel forta kiel li. Ni parolis pri multaj interesaj aferoj, kaj bonege nin amuzis, gxis kiam estis necese hejmen iri. La kuzo diris "adiaux," kaj iris rekte hejmen, sed mi iris al granda butiko. Unue, mi volis acxeti paron da novaj gantoj, por anstatauxi la malnovajn gantojn kiujn mi ankoraux estis portanta, kvankam mi acxetis ilin antaux tri monatoj. Due, mi bezonis paron da novaj sxuoj. Mi iris en la butikon kie pendis tiaj gantoj, kiajn mi sxatas, kaj oni tuj venis por renkonti min, kaj demandis "Kiajn vestojn vi volas acxeti?" Oni montris al mi preskaux dudekon da paroj da gantoj. Mi elektis tre bonan paron, kaj estis jxus acxetonta ilin, malgraux la tro granda prezo, kiam mi vidis alian pli belan paron. Tial mi acxetis cxi tiun, kaj poste mi rigardis la sxuojn. Mi trovis rimarkinde bonan paron, cxar estas centoj da sxuoj en tiu butiko. Mi tuj acxetis tiun paron, kaj tiam hejmen iris.

SENTENCES FOR TRANSLATION.

1. My friend likes to live in the city, but his wife prefers to live in their little wooden house in the country. 2. There she can see and smell the flowers, and can take ("fari") long walks in the adjacent fields and forest. 3. There are often hundreds of persons in a village, but there are thousands of persons in a city. 4. The larger a city is, the larger and better its stores are. 5. In the second place, one can buy better bread, vegetables and cake in the city. 6. Thirdly, one can also find better gloves, hats and shoes there, and the price is often less. 7. Therefore I make use of the opportunity when I go to the city, and usually buy a pair of new gloves. 8. I am still wearing a pair of gloves which the rain spoiled. 9. Notwithstanding their ugly color, they are still thick and good. 10. But soon I shall buy such a pair as (150) is hanging in the window of that store. 11. The price is low, and I need a new pair now, for my cousin has invited me to a small party ("festo") at his house. 12. I accepted his invitation courteously, and said that I would gladly be his guest. 13. We are good comrades, although he is younger than I am. 14. My (girl) cousin, his sister, is older than he is, but he is as tall as she. 15. I was just about to send a letter to him at the minute that (155) he knocked on our door. 16. His visit will take the place of (159) my letter. 17. Just as (just when) he was going away, I said goodbye to him, and said that I would meet him in the park tomorrow. 18. I think that we shall have a pleasant walk, although the weather is still remarkably cold, the same as (156) it was two or three months ago.

LESSON XXXIV.

PREPOSITIONS AS PREFIXES.

160. Any preposition may be used as a prefix to a verb, provided the resulting compound is intelligible. A few prepositional compounds are given below, only verbs being shown, although nouns, adjectives and adverbs may be formed from these (116):

alveni = to arrive. interparoli = to converse.
aldoni = to add. kontrauxdiri = to contradict.
antauxdiri = to predict. kunlabori = to collaborate.
cxirkauxpreni = to embrace. kunveni = to assemble.
cxeesti = to be present. priskribi = to describe.
dependi = to hang from, to depend. subteni = to support.
demeti = to lay aside. surmeti = to put on.
depreni = to subtract. traguti = to percolate.
enhavi = to contain. travidi = to see through
eliri = to go out. transiri = to cross.

[Footnote: Like English "out" the preposition "el" often develops in composition a secondary sense of "thoroughly" or "completely" (cf. "I am tired out"): "eltrovi", to find out, to discover. "elpensi", to think out, to invent. "ellabori", to work out, to elaborate. "ellerni", to learn thoroughly, to master. "eluzi", to use completely, to wear out (transitive).]

THE SUFFIX "-EBL-".

161. The suffix "-ebl-" is used to form adjectives, adverbs, etc., expressing the likelihood or possibility of that which is indicated by the root. It may be used as a root, to form "ebla", possible, etc.

eltrovebla = discoverable. rompebla = breakable.
legebla = legible. videbla = visible.
mangxebla = edible. travidebla = transparent.

[Footnote: The suffix "-ebl-" is often equivalent to the English suffixes "-able", "-ible", but these suffixes have other meanings also, as in "readable," "worth reading" (leginda), "lovable," "deserving of love" (aminda), etc.]

EXPRESSION OF THE HIGHEST DEGREE POSSIBLE.