Chapter M: PYGOPODES. Feet palmate or lobate. Tibiæ feathered, often (4)

GEN. CHAR. Bill not much more than half the length of the head; gently decurved from the base, notched at tip; commissure curved. Gonys straight, or slightly concave. Rictal bristles quite well developed. Wings rather shorter than the tail. First primary about equal to, or rather more than, half the second; third, fourth, and fifth quills nearly equal, sixth scarcely shorter. Tail considerably graduated; the feathers stiff, rather narrow, especially the outer webs, lateral feathers about three quarters of an inch the shorter in the type. Tarsi longer than middle toe and claw by rather less than an additional claw; tarsi conspicuously and strongly scutellate; broad plates seven.

Of this genus there are many species in America, although but one occurs within the limits of the United States.

The single North American species _M. polyglottus_ is ashy brown above, white beneath; wings and tail black, the former much varied with white.

Mimus polyglottus, BOIE.

MOCKING-BIRD.

_Turdus polyglottus_, LINN. Syst. Nat. 10th ed. 1758, 169; 12th ed.
1766, 293.—_Mimus polyglottus_, BOIE, Isis, 1826, 972.—SCLATER,
P. Z. S. 1856, 212.—IB. 1859, 340.—IB. Catal. 1861, 8, no.
51.—BAIRD, Birds N. Am. 1858, 344.—IB. Rev. 48.—SAMUELS,
167.—COOPER, Birds Cal. 1, 21.—GUNDLACH, Repertorio, 1865, 230
(Cuba).—DRESSER, Ibis, 1865, 230.—COUES, Pr. A. N. Sc. 1866, 65
(Arizona).—_? Orpheus leucopterus_, VIGORS, Zoöl. Beechey, 1839.
Figures: WILSON, Am. Orn. II, 1810, pl. x, fig. 1.—AUD. Orn. Biog.
I, 1831, pl. xxi.—IB. Birds Amer. II, 1841, pl. 137.

SP. CHAR. Third and fourth quills longest; second about equal to eighth; the first half or more than half the second. Tail considerably graduated. Above ashy brown, the feathers very obsoletely darker centrally, and towards the light plumbeous downy basal portion (scarcely appreciable, except when the feathers are lifted). The under parts are white, with a faint brownish tinge, except on the chin, and with a shade of ash across the breast. There is a pale superciliary stripe, but the lores are dusky. The wings and tail are dark brown, nearly black, except the lesser wing-coverts, which are like the back; the middle and greater tipped with white, forming two bands; the basal portion of the primaries white; most extended on the inner primaries. The outer tail-feather is white, sometimes a little mottled; the second is mostly white, except on the outer web and towards the base; the third with a white spot on the end; the rest, except the middle, very slightly or not at all tipped with white. The bill and legs are black. Length, 9.50; wing, 4.50; tail, 5.00.

_Young._ Similar, but distinctly spotted with dusky on the breast, and obsoletely on the back.

HAB. North America, from about 40° (rare in Massachusetts, Samuels), south to Mexico. Said to occur in Cuba.

The Mocking-Birds are closely allied, requiring careful comparison to distinguish them. A near ally is _M. orpheus_, of Jamaica, but in this the outer feather is white, and the 2d, 3d, and 4th tail-feathers are marked like the 1st, 2d, and 3d of _polyglottus_, respectively.

We have examined one hundred and fourteen specimens, of the present species, the series embracing large numbers from Florida, the Rio Grande, Cape St. Lucas, and Mazatlan, and numerous specimens from intermediate localities. The slight degree of variation manifested in this immense series is really surprising; we can discover no difference of color that does not depend on age, sex, season, or the individual (though the variations of the latter kind are exceedingly rare, and when noticed, very slight). Although the average of Western specimens have slightly longer tails than Eastern, a Florida example (No. 54,850, ♂, Enterprise, Feb. 19), has a tail as long as that of the longest-tailed Western one (No. 8,165, Fort Yuma, Gila River, Dec.). Specimens from Colima, Mirador, Orizaba, and Mazatlan are quite identical with Northern ones.

HABITS. The Mocking-Bird is distributed on the Atlantic coast, from Massachusetts to Florida, and is also found to the Pacific. On the latter coast it exhibits certain variations in forms, but hardly enough to separate it as a distinct species. It is by no means a common bird in New England, but instances of its breeding as far north as Springfield, Mass., are of constant occurrence, and a single individual was seen by Mr. Boardman near Calais, Me. It is met with every year, more or less frequently, on Long Island, and is more common, but by no means abundant, in New Jersey. It is found abundantly in every Southern State, and throughout Mexico. It has also been taken near Grinnell, Iowa.

A warm climate, a low country, and the vicinity of the sea appear to be most congenial to their nature. Wilson found them less numerous west of the Alleghany than on the eastern side, in the same parallels. Throughout the winter he met with them in the Southern States, feeding on the berries of the red cedar, myrtle, holly, etc., with which the swampy thickets abounded. They feed also upon winged insects, which they are very expert in catching. In Louisiana they remain throughout the entire year, approaching farmhouses and plantations in the winter, and living about the gardens and outhouses. They may be frequently seen perched upon the roofs of houses and on the chimney-tops, and are always full of life and animation. When the weather is mild the old males may be heard singing with as much spirit as in the spring or summer. They are much more familiar than in the more northern States. In Georgia they do not begin to sing until February.

The vocal powers of the Mocking-Bird exceed, both in their imitative notes and in their natural song, those of any other species. Their voice is full, strong, and musical, and capable of an almost endless variation in modulation. The wild scream of the Eagle and the soft notes of the Bluebird are repeated with exactness and with apparently equal facility, while both in force and sweetness the Mocking-Bird will often improve upon the original.

The song of the Mocking-Bird is not altogether imitative. His natural notes are bold, rich, and full, and are varied almost without limitation. They are frequently interspersed with imitations, and both are uttered with a rapidity and emphasis that can hardly be equalled.

The Mocking-Bird readily becomes accustomed to confinement, and loses little of the power, energy, or variety of its song, but often much of its sweetness in a domesticated state. The mingling of unmusical sounds, like the crowing of cocks, the cackling of hens, or the creaking of a wheelbarrow, while they add to the variety, necessarily detracts from the beauty of his song.

The food of the Mocking-Bird is chiefly insects, their larvæ, worms, spiders, etc., and in the winter of berries, in great variety. They are said to be very fond of the grape, and to be very destructive to this fruit. Mr. G. C. Taylor (Ibis, 1862, p. 130) mentions an instance that came to his knowledge, of a person living near St. Augustine, Florida, who shot no less than eleven hundred Mocking-Birds in a single season, and buried them at the roots of his grape-vines.

Several successful attempts have been made to induce the Mocking-Bird to rear their young in a state of confinement, and it has been shown to be, by proper management, perfectly practicable.

In Texas and Florida the Mocking-Bird nests early in March, young birds appearing early in April. In Georgia and the Carolinas they are two weeks later. In Pennsylvania they nest about the 10th of May, and in New York and New England not until the second week of June. They select various situations for the nest; solitary thorn-bushes, an almost impenetrable thicket of brambles, an orange-tree, or a holly-bush appear to be favorite localities. They often build near the farm-houses, and the nest is rarely more than seven feet from the ground. The base of the nest is usually a rudely constructed platform of coarse sticks, often armed with formidable thorns surrounding the nest with a barricade. The height is usually 5 inches, with a diameter of 8. The cavity is 3 inches deep and 5 wide. Within the external barricade is an inner nest constructed of soft fine roots.

The eggs, from four to six in number, vary in length from .94 to 1.06 inches, with a mean length of .99. Their breadth varies from .81 to .69 of an inch, mean breadth .75. They also exhibit great variations in the combinations of markings and tints. The ground color is usually light greenish-blue, varying in the depth of its shade from a very light tint to a distinct blue, with a slight greenish tinge. The markings consist of yellowish-brown and purple, chocolate-brown, russet, and a very dark brown.

GENUS GALEOSCOPTES, CABANIS.

_Galeoscoptes_, CABANIS, Mus. Hein. I, 1850, 82. (Type _Muscicapa
carolinensis_, L.)

GEN. CHAR. Bill shorter than the head, rather broad at base. Rictal bristles moderately developed, reaching to the nostrils. Wings a little shorter than the tail, rounded; secondaries well developed; fourth and fifth quills longest; third and sixth little shorter; first and ninth about equal, and about the length of secondaries; first quill more than half the second, about half the third. Tail graduated; lateral feather about .70 shorter than the middle. Tarsi longer than middle toe and claw by about an additional half-claw; scutellate anteriorly, more or less distinctly in different specimens; scutellæ about seven.

The conspicuous naked membranous border round the eye of some Thrushes, with the bare space behind it, not appreciable.

[Line drawing: _Galeoscoptes carolinensis._
2596]

There is little difference in form between the single species of _Galeoscoptes_ and _Mimus polyglottus_, beyond the less degree of definition of the tarsal plates; and but for the difference in coloration (uniform plumbeous instead of gray above and white beneath), we would hardly be inclined to distinguish the two generically.

The single species known is lead-colored, with black cap, and chestnut-red under tail-coverts.

Galeoscoptes carolinensis, CABAN.

THE CATBIRD.

_Muscicapa carolinensis_, LINN. Syst. Nat. I, 1766, 328. _Turdus
carolinensis_, LICHT. Verz. 1823, 38.—D’ORBIGNY, La Sagra’s Cuba,
Ois. 1840, 51. _Orpheus carolinensis_, JONES, Nat. Bermuda, 1859,
27 (breeds). _Mimus carolinensis_, GRAY, BAIRD, Birds N. Am. 1859,
346.—BRYANT, Pr. Bost. Soc. 1867, 69 (Inagua).—LORD, Pr. R. Art.
Inst. (Woolwich), IV, 1864, 117 (east of Cascade Mts.).
_Galeoscoptes carolinensis_, CAB. Mus. Hein. I, 1850, 82 (type of
genus).—IB. Jour. Orn. 1855, 470 (Cuba).—GUNDLACH, Repert. 1865,
230 (Cuba, very common).—SCLATER, Catal. Birds, 1861, 6, no.
39.—SCL. & SALV. Pr. 1867, 278 (Mosquito Coast).—BAIRD, Rev.
1864, 54.—SAMUELS, 172.—COOPER, Birds Cal. 1, 23.
Figures: AUD. B. A. II, pl. 140.—IB. Orn. Biog. II, pl. 28.—VIEILLOT,
Ois. Am. Sept. II, pl. lxvii.—WILSON, Am. Orn. II, pl. xiv, f. 3.

SP. CHAR. Third quill longest; first shorter than sixth. Prevailing color dark plumbeous, more ashy beneath. Crown and nape dark sooty-brown. Wings dark brown, edged with plumbeous. Tail greenish-black; the lateral feathers obscurely tipped with plumbeous. The under tail-coverts dark brownish-chestnut. Female smaller. Length, 8.85; wing, 3.65; tail, 4.00; tarsus, 1.05.

HAB. United States, north to Lake Winnipeg, west to head of Columbia, and Cascade Mountains (Lord); south to Panama R. R.; Cuba; Bahamas; Bermuda (breeds). Accidental in Heligoland Island, Europe. Oaxaca, Cordova, and Guatemala, SCLATER; Mosquito Coast, SCL. & SALV.; Orizaba (winter), SUMICHRAST; Yucatan, LAWR.

Western specimens have not appreciably longer tails than Eastern. Central American examples, as a rule, have the plumbeous of a more bluish cast than is usually seen in North American skins.

HABITS. The Catbird has a very extended geographical range. It is abundant throughout the Atlantic States, from Florida to Maine; in the central portion of the continent it is found as far north as Lake Winnepeg.

On the Pacific coast it has been met with at Panama, and also on the Columbia River. It is occasional in Cuba and the Bahamas, and in the Bermudas is a permanent resident. It is also found during the winter months abundant in Central America, It breeds in all the Southern States with possibly the exception of Florida. In Maine, according to Professor Verrill, it is as common as in Massachusetts, arriving in the former place about the 20th of May, about a week later than in the vicinity of Boston, and beginning to deposit its eggs early in June. Near Calais it is a less common visitant.

The Northern migrations of the Catbird commence early in February, when they make their appearance in Florida, Georgia, and the Carolinas. In April they reach Virginia and Pennsylvania, and New England from the 1st to the 10th of May. Their first appearance is usually coincident with the blossoming of the pear-trees. It is not generally a popular or welcome visitant, a prejudice more or less wide spread existing in regard to it. Yet few birds more deserve kindness at our hands, or will better repay it. From its first appearance among us, almost to the time of departure in early fall, the air is vocal with the quaint but attractive melody, rendered all the more interesting from the natural song being often blended with notes imperfectly mimicked from the songs of other birds. The song, whether natural or imitative, is always varied, attractive, and beautiful.

The Catbird, when once established as a welcome guest, soon makes itself perfectly at home. He is to be seen at all times, and is almost ever in motion. They become quite tame, and the male bird will frequently apparently delight to sing in the immediate presence of man. Occasionally they will build their nest in close proximity to a house, and appear unmindful of the presence of the members of the family.

The Catbird’s power of mimicry, though limited and imperfectly exercised, is frequently very amusing. The more difficult notes it rarely attempts to copy, and signally fails whenever it does so. The whistle of the Quail, the cluck of a hen calling her brood, the answer of the young chicks, the note of the Pewit Flycatcher, and the refrain of Towhee, the Catbird will imitate with so much exactness as not to be distinguished from the original.

The Catbirds are devoted parents, sitting upon their eggs with great closeness, feeding the young with assiduity, and accompanying them with parental interest when they leave the nest, even long after they are able to provide for themselves. Intruders from whom danger is apprehended they will boldly attack, attempting to drive away snakes, cats, dogs, and sometimes even man. If these fail they resort to piteous cries and other manifestations of their great distress.

Towards each other they are affectionate and devoted, mutually assisting in the construction of the nest; and as incubation progresses the female, who rarely leaves the nest, is supplied with food, and entertained from his exhaustless vocabulary of song, by her mate. When annoyed by an intruder the cry of the Catbird is loud, harsh, and unpleasant, and is supposed to resemble the outcry of a cat, and to this it owes its name. This note it reiterates at the approach of any object of its dislike or fear.

The food of the Catbird is almost exclusively the larvæ of the larger insects. For these it searches both among the branches and the fallen leaves, as well as the furrows of newly ploughed fields and cultivated gardens. The benefit it thus confers upon the farmer and the horticulturist is very great, and can hardly be overestimated.

The Catbird can with proper painstaking be raised from the nest, and when this is successfully accomplished they become perfectly domesticated, and are very amusing pets.

They construct their nests on clusters of vines or low bushes, on the edges of small thickets, and in retired places, though almost always near cultivated ground. The usual materials of their nests are dry leaves for the base, slender strips of long dry bark, small twigs, herbaceous plants, fine roots, and finer stems. They are lined with fine dry grasses, and sedges. Their nests average 4 inches in height by 5 in diameter. The diameter and depth of the cavity are 3½ inches. The eggs are of a uniform deep bluish-green, and measure .97 in length and .69 of an inch in breadth.

FAMILY CINCLIDÆ.—THE DIPPERS.

On page 2 will be found the characteristics of this family, which need not be here repeated. There is only a single genus, _Cinclus_, with four American species, and several from Europe and Asia.

GENUS CINCLUS, BECHSTEIN.

_Hydrobata_, VIEILLOT, Analyse, 1816 (Ag.).—BAIRD, B. N. A. 229.
_Cinclus_, BECHSTEIN, Gemein. Naturg. 1802. (Not of Moehring, 1752.
Type _Sturnus cinclus_, L.)—SALVIN, Ibis, 1867, 109. (Monograph.)

[Line drawing: _Cinclus mexicanus._
8117]

GEN. CHAR. Bill without any bristles at the base; slender, subulate; the mandible bent slightly upward; the culmen slightly concave to near the tip, which is much curved and notched; the commissural edges of the bill finely nicked towards end. Feet large and strong, the toes projecting considerably beyond the tail; the claws large. Lateral toes equal. Tail very short and even; not two thirds the wings, which are concave and somewhat falcate. The first primary is more than one fourth the longest. Eggs white.

The slightly upward bend of the bill, somewhat as in _Anthus_, renders the culmen concave, and the commissure slightly convex. The maxilla at base is nearly as high as the mandible; the whole bill is much compressed and attenuated. The lateral claws barely reach the base of the middle one, which is broad; the inner face extended into a horny lamina, with one or two notches or pectinations somewhat as in _Caprimulgidæ_. The stiffened sub-falcate wings are quite remarkable. The tail is so short that the upper coverts extend nearly to its tip.

The species are all dull-colored birds, usually brown, sometimes varied with white on the head, back, or throat. They inhabit mountainous subalpine regions abounding in rapid streams, and always attract attention by their habit of feeding under water, searching among the gravel and stones for their insect prey.

The only other species at all allied to the single North American one are the _C. ardesiacus_ of Central America, and _C. pallasi_ of Eastern Asia. They may be easily distinguished by the following characters:—

Plumage beneath scarcely lighter than that above; head and neck
brownish, darkest above. Wing, 4.00; tail, 2.15; bill, .50;
tarsus, 1.20; middle toe, .85. Legs (in life), pinkish white
(8,496 Fort Mass. N. M.). HAB. Mountains of Middle Province from
Sitka, south to Guatemala … var. _mexicanus_.

Plumage beneath much lighter than that above,—very light along
the median line; head not brownish, the contrast in shade between
upper and lower surfaces very marked. Wing, 3.50; tail, 2.05;
bill, .45; tarsus, 1.30; middle toe, .90. Legs yellow. (42,788 ♂
Costa Rica). HAB. Guatemala and Costa Rica. …
var. _ardesiacus_.[24]

Plumage uniform dusky-brown, middle of belly blackish; _back and
rump squamated with black_; wings and tail blackish-brown. Total
length, 8.00; wing, 4.00; tail, 2.50; tarsus, 1.25; bill (to
rictus), 1.10 (Salvin). HAB. Lake Baikal to Kamtschatka;
Amoorland; S. E. Siberia; Japan (Salvin) … var._pallasi_.[25]

Cinclus mexicanus, SWAINS.

AMERICAN DIPPER; WATER OUZEL.

_Cinclus pallasi_, BON. Zoöl. Jour. II, 1827, 52 (not the Asiatic
species). _Cinclus mexicanus_, SW. Phil. Mag. 1827, 368.—SCLATER,
Catal. 1861, 10.—SALVIN, Ibis, 1860, 190; 1867, 120
(Guatemala).—BAIRD, Review, 60.—DALL & BANNISTER (Alaska).—COOPER,
Birds Cal. 1, 25. _Hydrobata mexicana_, BAIRD, Birds N. Am.
1858, 229.—COOPER & SUCKLEY, Rep. P. R. R, XII, II, 1859, 175
(nest). _Cinclus americanus_, RICH. F. B. A. II, 1831, 273.
_Cinclus unicolor_, BON.; _C. mortoni_, TOWNS.; _C. townsendi_,
“AUD.” TOWNS.
Figures: BONAPARTE, Am. Orn. II, 1828, pl. xvi, fig. 1.—AUD. Orn.
Biog. pl. ccclxx, 435.—IB. Birds Amer. II, pl. cxxxvii.

SP. CH. Above dark plumbeous, beneath paler; head and neck all round a shade of clove or perhaps a light sooty-brown; less conspicuous beneath. A concealed spot of white above the anterior corner of the eye and indications of the same sometimes on the lower eyelid. Immature specimens usually with the feathers beneath edged with grayish-white; the greater and middle wing-coverts and lesser quills tipped with the same. The colors more uniform. Length, 7.50; wing, 4.00; tail, 2.55.

_Young._ Similar to the adult, but much mixed with whitish medially beneath; this in form of longitudinal suffusions.

Autumnal and winter specimens have numerous transverse crescents of whitish on lower parts and wings,—these very especially conspicuous posteriorly; the secondaries are also conspicuously terminated with a white crescent. Bill brown, paler toward base of lower mandible. In spring and summer the bill entirely black, and the whitish markings almost entirely disappear; the young bird has a greater amount of white beneath than the adult in winter dress, and this white is disposed in longitudinal, not transverse, suffusions. The color of the legs appears to be the same at all seasons.

1. Cinclus mexicanus, _Sw._ N. M., 8496.
2. Sialia mexicana, _Sw._ Cal., 10623.
3. “ sialis, _Baird_. D. C., 28245.
4. “ arctica, _Sw._ Rocky Mts., 18319.
5. Phyllopneuste borealis. Alaska, 45909.
6. Saxicola œnanthe, _Bechst._ France, 18959.
7. Regulus cuvieri, _Aud._ (From Aud.’s plate.)
8. “ satrapa, _Licht._ D. C., 1160.
9. “ calendula, _Licht._ Penn., 736.]

Specimens, of any age, from the coast of Oregon and the Cascade Mountains, have the head more deeply brownish than those from other regions.

HAB. Found through the mountainous region of the central and western part of North America, from Fort Halkett south into Mexico and Guatemala. Orizaba (Alpine region) SUMICH. None received from the coast region of California. Abundant on the N. W. coast, Laramie Peak and Deer Creek, Neb.

This species has a wide range along the mountainous region of North and Middle America. Mexican specimens are darker.

HABITS. This interesting bird inhabits exclusively the mountainous portions of North America west of the Mississippi from Alaska south to Guatemala. It does not appear to have been obtained on the coast of California, nor in the valley of the Mississippi. In the British Possessions specimens have been procured on Fraser’s River, at Fort Halkett, and at Colville. At the latter place Mr. J. K. Lord states that a few remain and pass the winter. They are found among the mountain streams of Vera Cruz, and probably throughout Mexico, and no doubt may be met with in all the highlands between these extreme points. Dr. Newberry met with it in the rapid streams of the Cascade Mountains. He describes it as flitting along in the bed of the stream, from time to time plunging into the water and disappearing, to appear again at a distant point, up or down the stream, skipping about from stone to stone, constantly in motion, jerking its tail and moving its body somewhat in the manner of a wren.

Dr. Cooper observed this species both on the Columbia and its tributaries, and also among the mountain streams of the Coast Range west of Santa Clara. At the latter place he found a pair mated as early as March 16th. At sunset he heard the male singing very melodiously, as it sat on one of its favorite rocks in the middle of the foaming rapids, making its delightful melody heard for quite a long distance above the sound of the roaring waters.

“This bird,” adds Dr. Cooper, “combines the form of a sandpiper, the song of a canary, and the aquatic habits of a duck. Its food consists almost entirely of aquatic insects, and these it pursues under water, walking and flying with perfect ease beneath a depth of several feet of water.” He also states that they do not swim on the surface, but dive, and sometimes fly across streams beneath the surface; that their flight is rapid and direct, like that of a sandpiper; also that they jerk their tails in a similar manner, and generally alight on a rock or log.

Dr. Cooper on the 5th of July found a nest of this bird at a saw-mill on the Chehalis River, built under the shelving roots of an enormous arbor-vitæ that had floated over, and rested in a slanting position against the dam. The floor was of small twigs, the sides and roof arched over it like an oven, and formed of moss, projecting so as to protect and shelter the opening, which was large enough to admit the hand. Within this nest was a brood of half-fledged young. The parents were familiar and fearless, and had become accustomed to the society of the millers. They had previously raised another brood that season.

The same observant naturalist, some time afterwards, in May, found the nest of another pair, a few miles north of Santa Clara. This was built near the foot of a mill-dam, resting on a slight ledge under an overhanging rock, from which water was continually dropping. It was, in shape, like an oven, with a small doorway, and it was built externally of green moss, which, being still living, prevented the easy discovery of the nest. It was lined with soft grass, and contained young.

These birds are found singly or in pairs, and never more than two together. They are never found near still water, and frequent only wild mountain-streams, cascades, eddies, and swift currents.

According to Mr. Dall’s observations in Alaska, the species is essentially solitary. He obtained several specimens in January, February, and March, always near some open, unfrozen spots in the Nulato River. It was only found in the most retired spots, and almost invariably alone. When disturbed, it would dive into the water, even in midwinter.

Mr. Ridgway describes the Dipper as remarkably quick, as well as odd, in its movements,—whether walking in the shallow bed of the stream, or standing on a stone along the edge, continually tilting up and down, now chattering as it flies rapidly along the stream, again alighting into the water, in which it wades with the greatest facility. Its flight is remarkably swift and well sustained, and in manner is very unusual, the bird propelling itself by a rapid buzzing of the wings, following in its flight every undulation in the course of the stream into which it drops suddenly. Its song is described as remarkably sweet and lively, in modulation resembling somewhat that of the _Harporhynchus rufus_, but less powerful, though sweeter in effect.

Dr. E. Baldamus, of Halle, who possesses specimens of the eggs of this species, describes them as pure white in color, oval in shape, and hardly distinguishable from those of the European _C. aquaticus_.

A nest of this bird obtained by Mr. J. Stevenson, of Hayden’s Expedition, in Berthoud’s Pass, Colorado, is a hemisphere of very uniform contour built on a rock, on the edge of a stream. Externally it was composed of green moss, in a living state; within is a strong, compactly built apartment, arched over, and supported by twigs, with a cup-like depression at the bottom, hemispherical and composed of roots and twigs firmly bound together. The structure is 7 inches in height externally, and has a diameter of 10½ inches at the base. Within, the cavity has a depth of 6 inches; the entrance, which is on one side, is 3½ in breadth by 2½ in height. The eggs were three in number, uniform, dull white, and unspotted. They measure 1.04 inches by .70. They have an elongated oval shape, and are much pointed at one end.

FAMILY SAXICOLIDÆ.—THE SAXICOLAS.

The general characters of this family have already been given on p. 2, as distinguished from the _Turdidæ_. The relationships are very close, however, and but little violence would be done by making it a subfamily of _Turdidæ_ or even a group of _Turdinæ_, as was done in the “Birds of North America.”

While the group is very well represented in the Old World, America has but one peculiar genus _Sialia_, and another _Saxicola_, represented by a single species, a straggler, perhaps, from Greenland on the one side and Siberia on the other. The diagnostic characters of these are as follows, including _Turdus_ to show the relationships of the three genera:—

Turdus. Tarsi long, exceeding the middle toe; wings reaching to
the middle of the tail, which is about four fifths the length of
the wings. Bill stout; its upper outline convex toward the base.
Second quill shorter than fifth.

Saxicola. Tarsi considerably longer than the middle toe, which
reaches nearly to the tip of the tail. Tail short, even; two
thirds as long as the lengthened wings, which reach beyond the
middle of the tail. Second quill longer than fifth. Bill
attenuated; its upper outline concave towards the base.

Sialia. Tarsi short; about equal to the middle toe. Wings
reaching beyond the middle of the tail. Bill thickened.

GENUS SAXICOLA, BECHSTEIN.

_Saxicola_, BECHSTEIN, Gemeinnützige Naturg. 1802. (Type, _S. œnanthe_.)

[Line drawing: _Saxicola œnanthe_, Bechst.]

GEN. CHAR. Commissure slightly curved to the well-notched tip. Culmen concave for the basal half, then gently decurving. Gonys straight. Bill slender, attenuated; more than half the length of head. Tail short, broad, even. Legs considerably longer than the head; when outstretched reaching nearly to the tip of tail. Third quill longest; second but little shorter. Claws long, slightly curved; hind toe rather elongated.

As already stated, America possesses but a single member of this group of birds, so well represented in the Old World. The color is bluish-gray, with wings, a stripe through the eye, and the middle of exposed tail-feathers black.

Saxicola œnanthe, BECHST.

THE WHEAT-EAR.

_Motacilla œnanthe_, LINN. Syst. Nat. I, 1758, 186. _Saxicola
œnanthe_, BECHST. “Gemein. Naturg. 1802,” and of European
authors.—HOLBÖLL, Orn. Grœn. (Paulsen ed.), 1846, 23
(Greenland).—BAIRD, Birds N. Am. 1858, 220 (Europe); Review,
61.—JONES, Nat. Bermuda, 1859, 28 (Bermuda).—COUES, Pr. A. N. S.
1861, 218 (Labrador).—REINHARDT, Ibis, 1861, 5 (Greenland).—DALL
& BANNISTER (Alaska). _Saxicola œnanthoides_, VIGORS, Zoöl.
Blossom, 1839, 19 (N. W. America).—CASSIN, Ill. I, 1854, 208, pl.
xxxiv (Nova Scotia).

SP. CHAR. (Description from European specimen.) Male in spring, forehead, line over the eye, and under parts generally white; the latter tinged with pale yellowish-brown, especially on the breast and throat. A stripe from the bill through, below, and behind the eye, with the wings, upper tail-coverts, bill and feet, black. Tail white, with an abrupt band of black (about .60 of an inch long) at the end, this color extending further up on the middle feather. Rest of upper parts ash-gray; quills and greater coverts slightly edged with whitish. Length, 6.00; wing, 3.45; tail, 2.50; tarsus, 1.05.

Autumnal males are tinged with rusty; the black markings brown. The female in spring is reddish-gray; lores and cheeks brown; the black markings generally brownish, and not well defined. Eggs pale light blue. Nest on ground.

HAB. An Old World species (Europe, Northern Africa, and Asia), abundant in Greenland, found probably as an autumnal migrant in Labrador, Canada, Nova Scotia, Bermuda, etc. Occurs also on Norton Sound, near Behring’s Straits. Very occasional in the Eastern States: Long Island.

This bird appears to be abundant in Norton Sound, from which region Mr. Dall has recently brought specimens in full spring plumage. These are decidedly smaller than birds from Labrador and Greenland, but not distinguishable, and seem to agree precisely with skins from Central Europe.

HABITS. The well-known Wheat-ear is entitled to a place in our fauna, not only as an accidental visitor, but also as an occasional resident. Dr. H. R. Storer, of Boston, found them breeding in Labrador in the summer of 1848, and procured specimens of the young birds which were fully identified by Dr. Samuel Cabot as belonging to this species. In the following year Andrew Downs, of Halifax, gave me the specimen described and figured by Mr. Cassin. This was secured late in the summer near Cape Harrison, Labrador, where it had evidently just reared its brood. In 1860 Mr. Elliott Coues obtained another specimen on the 25th of August, at Henley Harbor. It was in company with two others, and was in immature plumage. Its occurrence in considerable numbers on the coast of Labrador is further confirmed by a writer (“W. C.”) in “The Field,” for June 10, 1871, who states that when in that region during the months of May and June he saw a number of “White Ears,” the greater proportion of them being males. He inferred from this that they breed in that country, the apparent scarcity of females being due to their occupation in nesting. Mr. Lawrence has one in his cabinet from Long Island, and the Smithsonian Institution one from Quebec. Specimens have also been obtained in the Bermudas.

Holböll, in his paper on the fauna of Greenland, is of the opinion that the individuals of this species that occur there come from Europe, make their journey across the Atlantic without touching at Iceland, and arrive in South Greenland as early in the season as it does at the former place, the first of May. It reaches Godhaven a month later, at times when all is snowbound and the warmth has not yet released the insects on which it feeds. It is found as far north as the 73d parallel, and even beyond. In September it puts on its winter dress and departs.

Mr. Dall states that several large flocks of this species were seen at Nulato, May 23 and 24, 1868, and a number of specimens obtained. They were said to be abundant on the dry stony hill-tops, but were rare along the river.

The Wheat-ear is one of the most common birds of Europe, and is found, at different seasons, throughout that continent as well as in a large portion of Western Asia. It breeds throughout the British Islands as well as in the whole of Northern Europe and Asia.

Its food is principally worms and insects, the latter of which it takes upon the wing, in the manner of a fly-catcher. The male bird is said to sing prettily, but not loudly, warbling even when on the wing, and hovering over its nest or over its partner. In confinement its song is continued by night as well as by day.

The Wheat-ear begins to make its nest in April, usually concealing it in some deep recess beneath a huge stone, and often far beyond the reach of the arm. Sometimes it is placed in old walls, and is usually large and rudely constructed, made of dried bents, scraps of shreds, feathers, and rubbish collected about the huts, generally containing four pale blue eggs, uniform in color, and without spots, which measure .81 of an inch in length by .69 in breadth.

GENUS SIALIA, SWAINSON.

_Sialia_, SWAINSON, Zoöl. Jour. III, Sept. 1827, 173. (Type _Motacilla
sialis_, L.)

[Line drawing: _Sialia sialis._
1289]

GEN. CHAR. Bill short, stout, broader than high at the base, then compressed; slightly notched at tip. Rictus with short bristles. Tarsi not longer than the middle toe. Claws considerably curved. Wings much longer than the tail; the first primary spurious, not one fourth the longest. Tail moderate; slightly forked. Eggs plain blue. Nest in holes.

The species of this genus are all well marked, and adult males are easily distinguishable. In all, blue forms a prominent feature. Three well-marked species are known, with a fourth less distinct. The females are duller in color than the males. The young are spotted and streaked with white.

Synopsis of Species.

COMMON CHARACTERS. Rich blue above, duller in the female. Beneath reddish or blue in the male, reddish or light drab in the female. Young with wings and tails only blue, the head and anterior parts of body with numerous whitish spots.

A. _Breast reddish, or chestnut._

1. S. sialis. No chestnut on the back; throat reddish;
abdomen and crissum white.

Blue of a rich dark purplish shade. Tail about 2.75. _Hab._
Eastern Province United States, Cuba, and Bermudas …
var. _sialis_.

Blue of a greenish shade. Tail about 3.20. _Hab._ East
Mexico and Guatemala … var. _azurea_.[26]

2. S. mexicana. Chestnut, in greater or less amount, on the
back; throat blue; abdomen and crissum blue. _Hab._ West and
South Middle Province United States, south to Jalapa,
Cordova, and Colima.

B. _Breast blue (light drab in ♀)._

3. S. arctica. Entirely rich greenish-blue; abdomen white.
_Hab._ Middle Province United States; Fort Franklin, British
America.

Sialia sialis, BAIRD.

EASTERN BLUEBIBD.

_Motacilla sialis_, LINN. S. N. 1758, 187 (based on CATESBY, I, pl.
xlvii). _Sialia sialis_, BAIRD, Birds N. Am. 1858, 222; Rev.
62.—BOARDMAN, Pr. Bost. Soc. 1862, 124 (Calais, Me.; very
rare).—DRESSER, Ibis, 1865, 465 (Texas, winter).—SAMUELS, B. N.
Eng., 175. _Sialia wilsoni_, SWAINSON, Zoöl. Jour. III, 1827,
173.—CAB. Jour. 1858, 120.—GUNDLACH, Cab. Jour. 1861, 324;
Repertorio, 1865, 230.—JONES, Nat. Bermuda, 1859, 28, 66
(resident in Bermuda). _Sylvia sialis_, LATH.; _Ampelis sialis_,
NUTT.; _Erythraca wilsoni_, SW.
Figures: VIEILLOT, Ois. Am. Sept. II, pl. ci, cii, ciii.—WILS. I,
pl. iii.—AUD. Orn. Biog. II, pl. cxiii.—IB. B. A. II, pl.
cxxxiv.—DOUGHTY, Cab. I, pl. xii.

SP. CHAR. Entire upper parts, including wings and tail, continuous and uniform azure-blue; the cheeks of a duller tint of the same. Beneath reddish-brown; the abdomen, anal region, and under tail-coverts white. Bill and feet black. Shafts of the quills and tail-feathers black. Female with the blue lighter, and tinged with brown on the head and back. Length, 6.75; wing, 4.00; tail, 2.90.

_Young._ Males of the year dull brown on head and back; and lesser coverts streaked, except on head, with white. Throat and fore part of breast streaked with white. Tertials edged with brown. Rest of coloration somewhat like adult.

HAB. Eastern United States; west to Fort Laramie, Milk River; north to Lake Winnipeg; resident in Bermuda; Cuba (rare), GUNDLACH.

A specimen from Guatemala (50,411 ♂, Van Patten) referrible to the var. _azurea_ is undistinguishable in color from North American examples; the wings and tail are longer, however, measuring respectively 4.20 and 3.00.

HABITS. The Bluebird is abundant throughout the eastern portion of North America, breeding in nearly every part, from Georgia and Louisiana to the Arctic regions, with only this exception, that near the seaboard its migrations do not extend so far to the north as in the interior. It is very rarely to be met with beyond the Penobscot, although Professor Verrill mentions it as very common in the western part of Maine. It is found throughout the year in the Bermudas, and occasionally in Cuba. The Selkirk Settlement is the most northern locality to which it has been traced. It is not known to occur farther west than the highlands west of the Mississippi.

Through all the Eastern States the Bluebird is one of the most familiar and welcome of the earliest visitors of spring, usually making its appearance as early as the first of March. In mild seasons they come in the latter part of February, long before there is any apparent relaxation of the severity of winter. In 1857, in consequence of the unusual mildness of the season, Bluebirds appeared in large numbers as early as the 15th of February, and remained apparently without suffering any inconvenience, although the weather subsequently became quite severe. In 1869 their first appearance was observed as early as the 28th of January, the earliest period of which I can find any record.

In the Middle States, with every mild winter’s day, the Bluebirds come out from their retreats, and again disappear on the return of severer weather. Later in the season, or early in March, they return and make a permanent stay.

When well treated, as the Bluebirds almost universally are, they return year after year to the same box, coming always in pairs. The marked attentions of the male bird are very striking, and have been noticed by all our writers. He is very jealous of a rival, driving off every intruder of his own species who ventures upon the domain he calls his own. Occasionally the pair suffer great annoyance from vexatious interferences with their domestic arrangements by the house wren, who unceremoniously enters their homestead, despoils it of its carefully selected materials, and departs. At other times the wren will take possession of the premises and barricade the entrance, making the return of its rightful owners impossible.

The song of the Bluebirds is a low warble, soft and agreeable, repeated with great constancy and earnestness, and prolonged until quite late in the season. Just before their departure, late in October, the sprightliness of their song nearly ceases, and only a few plaintive notes are heard instead.

The food of the Bluebird consists principally of the smaller coleopterous insects, also of the larvæ of the smaller lepidoptera. In the early spring they are very busy turning over the dry leaves, examining the trunks and branches of trees, or ransacking posts and fences for the hiding-places of their prey. In the fall their food partakes more of a vegetable character.

The Bluebird selects as a suitable place for its nest a hollow in the decayed trunk of a tree, or boxes prepared for its use. Their early arrival enables them to select their own site. The nest is loosely constructed of soft materials, such as fine grasses, sedges, leaves, hair, feathers, etc. These are rarely so well woven together as to bear removal. The eggs are usually five and sometimes six in number. There are usually three broods in a season. Before the first brood are able to provide for themselves, the female repairs her nest and commences incubation for a second family. The young birds are, however, by no means left to shift for themselves. The male bird now shows himself as devoted a parent as in the earlier spring he had proved himself an attentive mate. He watches over the brood even after the second family appears and claims his attention. We often find him dividing his cares in the latter part of the season with two broods, and at the same time supplying his mate with food, and occasionally taking her place on the nest.

The eggs of the Bluebird are of a uniform pale blue, measuring about .81 of an inch in length by .62 in breadth.

In Guatemala is found a local race differing in its lighter under colors and in the greenish tinting of its blue (_S. azurea_). The _S. sialis_ is also found in the more open districts of the elevated regions where it is numerous. It is there known as “_El azulejo_.”

Sialia mexicana, SWAINS.

CALIFORNIA BLUEBIRD.

_Sialia mexicana_, SW. F. B. Am. II, 1831, 202.—SCLATER, P. Z. S.
1856, 293 (Cordova): 1857, 126 (California); 1859, 362
(Xalapa).—IB. Catal. 1861, 11, no. 66.—BAIRD, Birds N. Am. 1858,
223; Review, 63.—COOPER & SUCKLEY, P. R. R. XII, II, 1859,
173.—COOPER, Birds Cal. 1, 28. _Sialia occidentalis_, TOWNS.,
AUD.; _Sialia cæruleocollis_, VIGORS.
Figures: AUD. B. A. II, pl. cxxxv.—IB. Orn. Biog. V, pl. cccxciii.—
VIGORS, Zoöl. Beechey’s, Voy. 1839, pl. iii.

SP. CHAR. Bill slender. Head and neck all round, and upper parts generally bright azure blue. Interscapular regions, sides and fore part of the breast, and sides of the belly, dark reddish-brown. Rest of under parts (with tail-coverts) pale bluish, tinged with gray about the anal region. Female duller above; the back brownish; the blue of the throat replaced by ashy-brown, with a shade of blue. Length, 6.50; wing, 4.25; tail, 2.90.

_Young._ Tail and wing as in adult; head, neck, back, and breast, dull brown; each feather, except on the crown, streaked centrally with white.

HAB. Western United States, from the Rocky Mountains to Pacific. Not noticed on the Missouri plains, Central British America, or at Cape St. Lucas. Found at Xalapa and Cordova, Mex., SCLATER. Popocatapetl (Alpine region), SUMICHRAST.

As in the others, the colors of this species are much duller in fall and winter. No. 53,319, ♂ (Carson City, Nevada, Feb. 21) differs from others in the following respects: there is hardly any chestnut on the back, there being only just a tinge along each side of the interscapular region; that on the breast is interrupted in the middle, and thrown into a patch on each side of the breast, thus connecting the blue of the throat and abdomen; the blue of the throat is unusually deep.

HABITS. This Bluebird belongs to western North America, its proper domain being between the Rocky Mountains and Pacific, from Mexico to Washington Territory. Mr. Nuttall first met with this species among the small rocky prairies of the Columbia. He speaks of its habits as exactly similar to those of the common Bluebird. The male is equally tuneful throughout the breeding-season, and his song is also very similar. Like the common species he is very devoted to his mate, alternately feeding and caressing her and entertaining her with his song. This is a little more varied, tender, and sweet than that of the Eastern species, and differs in its expressions.

Nuttall describes this as an exceedingly shy bird, so much so that he found it very difficult to obtain a sight of it. This he attributes to the great abundance of birds of prey. Afterwards, in the vicinity of the village of Santa Barbara, Mr. Nuttall again saw them in considerable numbers, when they were tame and familiar.

Dr. Cooper states that these Bluebirds seem to prefer the knot-holes of the oaks to the boxes provided for them. He does not confirm Mr. Nuttall’s description of its song, which he regards as neither so loud nor so sweet as that of the Eastern species. He describes it as a curious performance, sounding as if two birds were singing at once and in different keys.

Many of this species remain in Washington Territory during the winter, where Dr. Cooper met with them in December. They associated in flocks, frequented roadsides and fences, and fed upon insects and berries.

Dr. Gambel found this species throughout the Rocky Mountains, and always in company with the _Sialia arctica_, being by far the more abundant species.

Dr. Kennerly mentions finding this species very abundant during his march up the Rio Grande. Through the months of November, December, and January they were always to be seen in large flocks near small streams.

The Western Bluebird constructs a nest usually of very loose materials, consisting chiefly of fine dry grasses. These are not woven into an elaborate nest, but are simply used to line the hollows in which the eggs are deposited. Near San Francisco Mr. Hepburn found a pair making use of the nest of the _Hirundo lunifrons_. On another occasion the Bluebirds had not only taken possession of the nest of this swallow, but actually covered up two fresh eggs with a lining of dry grasses, and laid her own above them.

The eggs, usually four in number, are of uniform pale blue of a slightly deeper shade than that of the _S. sialis_. They measure .87 of an inch in length by .69 in breadth.

Dr. Cooper’s subsequent observations of this species in California enabled him to add to his account of it in his report on the birds of that State. He found it abundant in all the wooded districts, except high in the mountains, and thinks they reside through the summer even in the hot valley of the Rio Grande, where he found them preparing a nest in February. On the coast they are numerous as far north as the 49th parallel. He found a nest under the porch of a dwelling-house at Santa Barbara, showing that, like our Eastern species, they only need a little encouragement to become half domesticated. They raise two broods in a season, the first being hatched early in April.

At Santa Cruz he found them even more confiding than the Eastern species, building their nests even in the noisiest streets. One brood came every day during the grape season, at about noon, to pick up grape-skins thrown out by his door, and was delightfully tame, sitting fearlessly within a few feet of the open window.

In regard to their song Mr. Ridgway states that he did not hear, even during the pairing season, any note approaching in sweetness, or indeed similar to, the joyous spring warble which justly renders our Eastern Bluebird (_S. sialis_) so universal a favorite.

The two Western species of _Sialia_, though associating during the winter in the region along the eastern base of the Sierra Nevada, are seldom seen together during the breeding-season; the _S. arctica_ returning to the higher portions of the thinly wooded desert mountains, while the _S. mexicana_ remains in the lower districts, either among the cottonwoods of the river valleys or among the pines around the foot-hills of the Sierra.

Sialia arctica, SWAINS.

ROCKY MOUNTAIN BLUEBIRD.

_Erythraca (Sialia) arctica_, SWAINS. F. B. A. II, 1831, 209,
pl. xxxix. _Sialia arctica_, NUTTALL, Man. II, 1832, 573.—BAIRD,
Birds N. Am. 1858, 224; Rev. 64.—SCLATER, Catal. 1861, 11, no.
67.—DRESSER, Ibis, 1865, 478. (Texas, winter, very
abundant.)—COOPER, Birds Cal. 1, 29. _Sialia macroptera_, BAIRD,
Stansbury’s Rept. 1852, 314 (larger race with longer wings).

SP. CHAR. Greenish azure-blue above and below, brightest above; the belly and under tail-coverts white; the latter tinged with blue at the ends. Female showing blue only on the rump, wings, and tail; a white ring round the eye; the lores and sometimes a narrow front whitish; elsewhere replaced by brown. Length, 6.25; wing, 4.36; tail, 3.00. (1875.)

_Young._ Male birds are streaked with white, as in _S. sialis_, on the characteristic ground of the adult.

HAB. Central table-lands of North America, east to mouth of Yellowstone. One individual collected at Fort Franklin, Great Bear Lake. Not common on the Pacific slope; the only specimens received coming from Simiahmoo, Fort Crook, and San Diego. Not recorded as found in Mexico. W. Arizona, COUES.

As already stated, the blue of this species is greener, more smalt-like than in _sialis_. The females are distinguished from those of the other species by the greener blue, entire absence of rufous, and longer wings.

In autumn and winter the blue of the male is much soiled by amber-brown edges to the feathers, this most conspicuous on the breast, where the blue is sometimes almost concealed; the plumage of the female, too, at this season is different from that of spring, the anterior lower parts being soft isabella-color, much less grayish than in spring.

HABITS. This Bluebird belongs chiefly to the Central fauna, and occupies a place in the Eastern only by its appearance on its borders. It was first procured by Sir John Richardson, at Fort Franklin, in July, 1825. It is abundant throughout the central table-lands of North America, between the Pacific and the mouth of the Yellowstone, from Great Bear Lake to the lower portions of California. In the latter State it is not common.

Mr. Nuttall met with this species in the early part of June, northwest of Laramie Fork. The female uttered a low complaint when her nest was approached. This was constructed in a hole in a clay cliff. Another was found in the trunk of a decayed cedar. In one of these the young were already hatched. The nest was composed of dried grasses, but in very insignificant quantity. Mr. Nuttall found them much more shy than the common species, and describes them as feeding in very nearly the same manner. He afterwards found a nest of the same species in a cliff of the Sandy River, a branch of the Colorado. Both parents were feeding their brood. The female was very uneasy at his approach, chirping, and at intervals uttering a plaintive cry. He states that the male bird has a more plaintive and monotonous song than that of the common Bluebird, and that it has the same warbling tone and manner. He afterwards observed the same species in the winter, at Fort Vancouver, associating with the Western Bluebird.

Dr. Woodhouse found the Arctic Bluebird quite common in the vicinity of Santa Fé, in New Mexico, where they breed about the houses in boxes put up for them by the inhabitants for the purpose.

Mr. Townsend found this species in the vicinity of the Platte River, near the Black Hills, and also on the banks of the Columbia. They confined themselves to the fences in the neighborhood of settlements, occasionally lighting upon the ground and scratching for minute insects. He describes their song as a delightful warble. Its notes resemble those of the common Bluebird, but are so different as to be easily recognized; they are equally sweet and clear, but have much less power.

Neither Dr. Gambel nor Dr. Heermann found this species in California excepting during the winter, and were of the opinion that none remain there to breed.

Dr. Kennerly observed them at different points among the Rocky Mountains, where they frequented the vicinity of his camp early in the morning, at some times in pairs and at others in flocks of four or five.

Mr. J. K. Lord states that he found this Bluebird very abundant between the Cascades and the Rocky Mountains, where they arrive in June and leave in September. After nesting they assembled in large flocks, and fed on the open plains.

The eggs are of a very light blue, paler than those of the other species. They measure .89 of an inch in length by .66 in breadth.

Mr. Ridgway states that he found the Rocky Mountain Bluebird nesting in Virginia City in June. Its nests were built about the old buildings, and occasionally in the unused excavations about the mines. At Austin he also found it common in July, in similar localities. On the East Humboldt Mountains it was very numerous, especially on the more elevated portions, where it nested among the rocks and, though more rarely, in the deserted excavations of woodpeckers in the stunted piñon and cedar trees. He describes it as generally very shy and difficult to obtain, seldom permitting a very near approach. In its habits it is much less arboreal than either _S. mexicana_ or _S. sialis_, always preferring the open mountain portions in the higher ranges of the Great Basin.