Chapter M: PYGOPODES. Feet palmate or lobate. Tibiæ feathered, often (1)

with a long apophysis, always buried in common integument
nearly to the heel-joint, necessitating a more or less erect
posture of the body on land, where progression is difficult.
Hallux small, elevated or wanting; feet lobate or palmate. Bill
of indeterminate shape, wholly corneous, never lamellate or
serrate, nor with gular pouch. Nostrils not abortive. Wings
very short, reaching scarcely or not to the base, never to the
tip, of the short, sometimes rudimentary, tail. Palate
schizognathous. Carotid usually double, sometimes single (in
_Podiceps_ and _Mergulus_). Nature altricial or præcocial;
young ptilopædic. Highly natatorial.

N. SPHENISCI. With general characters of the last group, but
distinguished by unique ptilosis and wing-structure, etc.
Plumage without apteria, of singularly modified scale-like
feathers on most parts; no developed remiges. Wings unfit for
flight, insusceptible of perfect flexion or extension, very
short, with peculiarly flattened bones and stable
articulations. Skeleton non-pneumatic. Many bones, terete in
ordinary birds, here flattened. Metatarsal bone flattened
transversely, doubly fenestrate. Hallux elevated, lateral,
minute, free. No free pollex. Two anconal sesamoids; patella
from double centres; tibia without apophysis; a free tarsal
ossicle. Sternum with long lateral apophyses. Pelvic
connections unstable. Carotids double. Comprising only the
Penguins. Confined to the Southern Hemisphere.

Having thus presented and defined an arrangement of the higher groups into which recent Carinate birds are susceptible of division, I next proceed to the consideration of the North American Families of birds which the authors of the present work have provisionally adopted as suitable to the end they had in view. Professor Baird urges the caution that the scheme is intended merely for the convenient determination of the North American species, aware that in many instances diagnoses or antitheses of entire pertinence in such application would fail or be negatived by consideration of the exotic forms. The arrangement of the families here adopted is essentially that presented in 1858 in Professor Baird’s “Birds of North America,” modified somewhat in accordance with more recent views of Professor Sundevall and others. But before proceeding to the analysis of the families, I will introduce an artificial clew to the preceding higher groups as adopted, so far as they are represented by North American species.

ARTIFICIAL KEY TO THE FOREGOING HIGHER GROUPS,

_By means of which any North American bird may be readily referred to that group to which it is held to belong._

I. Toes 3; 2 in front, 1 behind (_Pici_) PICARIÆ.

II. Toes 3; all in front. Toes cleft or semipalmate LIMICOLÆ.
Toes palmate. Nostrils tubular LONGIPENNES.
Nostrils not tubular PYGOPODES.

III. Toes 4; 2 in front, 2 behind. Bill cered and hooked ITTACI.
Bill neither cered nor hooked. (_Cuculi_ or _Pici_) PICARIÆ.

IV. Toes 4; 3 in front, 1 behind.
1. Toes syndactyle (_Cuculi_) PICARIÆ.
2. Toes totipalmate (all four full-webbed) STEGANOPODES.
3. Toes palmate. Bill curved up LIMICOLÆ.
Bill not curved up; lamellate LAMELLIROSTRES.
not lamellate; hallux lobate PYGOPODES.
hallux not lobate LONGIPENNES.
4. Toes lobate. Tail rudimentary PYGOPODES.
Tail perfect. A horny frontal shield ALECTORIDES.
No horny frontal shield LIMICOLÆ.
5. Toes semipalmate; joined by evident movable basal web (A).
6. Toes cleft to the base, or there immovably coherent (B).

A. Hind toe elevated above the level of the rest.
Tibiæ naked below. Nostrils perforate ALECTORIDES.
Nostrils imperforate.
Tarsi reticulate. Head bald HERODIONES.
Head feathered LIMICOLÆ.
Tarsi scutellate in front LIMICOLÆ.
Tibiæ feathered below. Nostrils perforate RAPTORES.
Nostrils imperforate.
Gape reaching below eye. (_Cypseli_) PICARIÆ.
Gape not reaching below eye GALLINÆ.

AA. Hind toe inserted on the level of the rest.
Tibiæ naked below HERODIONES.
Tibiæ feathered below. Bill cered and hooked RAPTORES.
Bill not cered.
Nasal membrane soft and tumid COLUMBÆ.
Nasal scale hard and flat GALLINÆ.

B. Hind toe elevated above the level of the rest.
Gape reaching below eye (_Cypseli_) PICARIÆ.
Gape not below eye.
First primary emarginate or about equal to 2d LIMICOLÆ.
First primary not emarginate and much shorter than 2d ALECTORIDES.

BB. Hind toe inserted on the level of the rest.
Nostrils opening beneath soft swollen membrane COLUMBÆ.
Nostrils otherwise. Bill cered and hooked RAPTORES.
Bill otherwise.
Secondaries only six (_Cypseli_) PICARIÆ.
Secondaries more than six (_a_) PASSERES.
(_a_) Primaries 10; the 1st more than 2/3 as long as the longest.
(_Clamatores_) PASSERES.
Primaries 10; the 1st not 2/3 as long as the longest.
(_Oscines_) PASSERES.
Primaries 9. (_Oscines_) PASSERES.

Recurring now to consideration of the North American _Families_ of the foregoing higher groups, I take up the latter in the natural order in which they have been presented, giving under head of each such group an analysis of the North American families by which it is represented, reiterating the caution that the characters are drawn up only with reference to the North American genera, and are, consequently, not necessarily or always applicable upon wider considerations. These analyses are made as nearly natural as the state of the case permits, but I seize upon any obvious external characters which may be afforded, without regard to their morphological significance or taxonomic value.

ANALYSIS OF THE FAMILIES OF PASSERES.

A. Oscines. Musical apparatus highly developed. Back of tarsus undivided, or formed of a few scutella distinct from those lapping over the front. First primary wanting, spurious, or at most not over two thirds the length of the longest.

_a._ Each side of tarsus covered with a plate undivided in
most or all of its length, and meeting its fellow in a
sharp ridge behind.

_b._ Primaries only nine.

_c._ Bill triangular, depressed, about as wide at base as
long; the gape twice as long as the culmen, reaching to
about opposite the eyes; tomia straight or gently curved.
No obvious rictal bristles. Tarsi not longer than the
lateral toe and claw. Wings long and pointed, the first
primary equal to or longer than the second. Central
tail-feathers not half as long as the wing … _Hirundinidæ_.

_cc._ Bill variously conico-elongate or slender, or, if
depressed, with long rictal bristles; gape not nearly twice
as long as culmen; tomia straight or gently curved.
Nostrils not obviously nearer culmen than tomia. Tarsus
longer than lateral toe and claw.

Bill very slender, acute; culmen rather concave at base.
Longest secondary acuminate, nearly or quite equal to the
primaries in the closed wing. Hind claw little curved,
about twice as long as the middle claw. Hind toe and claw
longer than middle toe and claw … _Motacillidæ_.

Bill variously conico-elongate and acute; culmen not
concave at base. Longest secondary not acuminate, falling
far short of primaries in the closed wing. Hind claw well
curved, not nearly twice as long as middle claw; hind toe
and claw not longer than middle toe and claw. Gape ample;
tongue slightly bifid or brushy, if at all … _Sylvicolidæ_.

Bill lengthened, very acute, even decurved. Wings and
feet as in the last. Gape constricted; tongue generally
deeply bifid or brushy … _Cærebidæ_.

_ccc._ Bill more or less truly conic, usually short, thick;
commissure usually more or less evidently abruptly
angulated near the base, or with lobe or tooth further
forward. Nostrils obviously nearer culmen than tomia.
Tarsus longer than lateral toe and claw.[13]

Bill stout, tumid, convex in nearly all its outlines;
tomia not angulated, but with one or more lobes or nicks
in advance of the base. Nostrils placed very high. Other
characters much as in _Sylvicolidæ_. Colors chiefly red
and yellow. One genus of … _Tanagridæ_.

Bill truly conic, much shorter than head, usually with
the angulation evident; no lobe along middle of tomia,
but usually a notch at end. Nostrils placed very high.
Rictal bristles usually obvious … _Fringillidæ_.

Bill conic, but lengthened, little if any shorter than
head; the angulation of the tomia evident; no notch at
end. Nostrils high. No rictal bristles … _Icteridæ_.

_bb._ Primaries ten.

Otherwise with characters much as in _Icteridæ_ … _Sturnidæ_.

_d._ Nostrils concealed with antrorse bristly feathers
(except in _Psilorhinus_ and _Gymnokitta_).[14]

Base of bill sheathed with antrorse bristly feathers,
having lateral branches to their very ends; its tip
mostly notched. Basal joint of middle toe united only
half-way to the lateral. Sides of tarsus occupied by a
lateral groove, mostly filled in with small plates. First
primary more than half as long as second. Large,—over
seven inches … _Corvidæ_.

Base of bill with two tufts of bristly feathers, ending
in simple filaments without lateral branches, its tip
mostly unnotched. Basal joint of middle toe united nearly
all its length with the lateral. Sides of tarsus
ungrooved. First primary less than half as long as
second. Small,—under seven inches … _Paridæ_.[15]

_dd._ Nostrils exposed.

_e._ Tail scansorial, with rigid acute feathers. Whole
bill slender, compressed, acute, decurved, unnotched,
unbristled. Outer toe much longer than inner … _Certhiidæ_.

_ee._ Tail not scansorial, graduated. First primary not
less (generally more) than half as long as the second,
and inner toe united to the middle by at least one half
(usually more) of the length of its basal joint.

Tarsus with few obscure scutella. Rictal bristles
present. Bill stout, but not toothed nor hooked. Wing
excessively rounded (fifth, sixth, and seventh
primaries longest), much shorter than the long
graduated tail. Size small. Plumage brown, unbanded …
_Chamæadæ_.

Tarsus distinctly scutellate. Nostrils wholly
exposed, scaled. No rictal bristles, but loral
feathers with bristly points. Bill slender, not
notched nor hooked. Wings and tail moderately
rounded; neither very much shorter than the other.
Size small. Color brown, etc., the wings and tail
barred or undulated … _Troglodytidæ_.

Tarsus distinctly scutellate. Nostrils overhung (not
concealed) with bristly feathers. Rictal bristles
present, strong. Bill powerful, compressed, strongly
notched, toothed, and hooked. Wings and tail
moderate. Large. Colors black, white, and gray …
_Laniidæ_.

_eee._ Tail not scansorial. First primary less than
half as long as the second,[16] or about half as long,
in which case the inner toe is cleft nearly to its base
(_f_ and _ff_).

_f._ Basal joint of middle toe united some distance
with the inner, and for half or more of its length
with the outer toe.

Basal joint of middle toe shorter than that of
inner toe, and wholly adherent to both inner and
outer toes. Tarsus longer than middle toe and claw.
Gonys more than half the length of the lower jaw.
Bill stout, high, compressed; notched and abruptly
hooked at tip … _Vireonidæ_.

Basal joint of middle toe not shorter than that of
inner toe; united to the outer for about two
thirds, to the inner for about one half, its
length. Tarsus not longer than the middle toe and
claw. Gonys less than half the length of the under
jaw. Bill triangular, much depressed at base,
moderately notched, and hooked at tip[17] … _Ampelidæ_.

Basal joint of middle toe shorter than that of the
inner toe, united to the outer for about two
thirds, to the inner for about one half, its
length. Tarsus longer than middle toe and claw.
Gonys more than half the length of the under jaw.
Bill very weak and slender, little decurved or
notched at tip. Very small,—under six inches long.
(Tarsi booted in _Regulus_, distinctly scutellate
in _Polioptila_.) … _Sylviidæ_.

_ff._ Basal joint of middle toe quite free from the
inner, and not united with the outer more than
half-way.

Nostrils linear, low. No bristles or bristly points
whatever about the mouth. Wings short, rounded,
concavo-convex. Tail very short, nearly concealed
by its coverts. Tarsi booted … _Cinclidæ_.

Nostrils oval. Bristles or bristly points about the
mouth. Wings very long and pointed, reaching, when
folded, beyond the middle of the short, square, or
emarginate tail, and one and a half times or more
the length of the latter; tip formed by second,
third, and fourth quills; outer secondary reaching
only about two thirds way to end of longest
primary; spurious quill very short. Tarsi booted …
_Saxicolidæ_.

Nostrils oval. Bristles or bristly points about the
mouth. Wings moderate, not reaching, when folded,
beyond the middle of the tail, and not over one and
a third times as long as the latter; tip formed by
third to sixth quill; outer secondary reaching in
closed wing three fourths or more the length of the
longest primary. Spurious quill longer, sometimes
one half the second. Tarsi scutellate in _Miminæ_,
booted in _Turdinæ_ … _Turdidæ_.

_aa._ Outside of tarsus covered with two series of
scutella,—one lapping entirely around in front, the other
entirely around behind, and meeting at a groove on the inside;
hind edge blunt. First primary spurious or apparently wanting.
Hind claw much lengthened, scarcely curved. Nostrils with
antrorse bristly feathers. Bill conico-elongate … _Alaudidæ_.

B. Clamatores. Outside of tarsus covered with a series of plates variously arranged, lapping entirely around in front and behind, to meet at a groove on the inner side.

First primary lengthened, often longest, at least over two thirds as long as the longest. Bill broad at the base, much depressed, tapering to a fine point, which is abruptly decurved; culmen rounded or flattened; gonys flattened; commissure straight, or nearly so, to the tip. Nostrils small, circular, basal; overhung, but not concealed by bristles. Mouth capacious, with broad and deeply fissured rictus, beset with numerous long strong bristles. Feet small, weak. Tail of twelve feathers … _Tyrannidæ_.

ANALYSIS OF THE FAMILIES OF PICARIÆ.

Secondaries only six.

Bill tenuirostral, longer than head, nearly cylindrical. Gape
constricted. Tongue filiform, extensile, bi-tubular. Wings long
in terminal portion, abbreviated proximally, acute. Plumage
compact, of metallic sheen. Size smallest of all birds.
(Humming-Birds.) … _Trochilidæ._

Secondaries more than six.

Feet syndactyle by connation of outer and middle toes.

Outer toe much longer than the inner, united for half its
length with the middle, forming a broad sole. Tibiæ naked
below. Bill longer than head, straight, acute, with hard
cutting edges and ample rictus. Tongue rudimentary, fixed.
Wings pointed, much longer than the short square tail.
Tail-feathers twelve. Plumage compact, oily. (Kingfishers.) …
_Alcedinidæ._

Feet zygodactyle[18] by reversion of outer or fourth toe.

Not scansorial; tail of eight or ten long soft feathers. Bill
with decurved tip, not fitted for hammering; rictus ample.
Tongue not extensile nor vermiform nor barbed. Salivary
glands and hyoidean apparatus not peculiar. No nasal tufts of
feathers. Arboreal and terrestrial. (Cuckoos.) … _Cuculidæ._

Highly scansorial; tail of twelve rigid acuminate feathers,
whereof the outer pair are short and spurious, concealed
between bases of next two pairs. Bill stout, straight, with
the tip truncate or acute, not decurved,—an efficient chisel
for hammering and boring wood. Tongue vermiform,
extensile,[19] and barbed. Salivary glands large; hyoidean
apparatus peculiar. Nasal tufts usually present. Arboreal.
(Woodpeckers.) … _Picidæ._

Feet neither syndactyle nor zygodactyle.

Feet semipalmate, of normal ratio of phalanges. Anterior toes
connected at base by movable webbing. Hind toe very small,
elevated, semilateral. Middle toe produced, its large claw
pectinate. Bill fissirostral, with very small, triangular,
depressed horny part and immense rictus, reaching below the
eyes, furnished with bristles. Rather large. Plumage soft and
lax, much variegated … _Caprimulgidæ_.

Feet scarcely or not semipalmate, of frequently abnormal
ratio of phalanges (middle or outer toe, or both, with fewer
joints than usual among birds). Hallux very small, elevated,
frequently lateral or versatile. Middle toe not produced nor
its claw pectinate. Bill much as in the last, but rictus
unbristled. Small. Plumage compact, of few simple subdued
colors … _Cypselidæ_.

FAMILY OF PSITTACI.

To characters of _Psittaci_ add: Cere feathered, concealing the nostrils. Feet granular, rugose. Wings pointed. Tail cuneate. Plumage coarse and dry. Head feathered. Colors green, with yellow and blue … _Psittacidæ_.[20]

ANALYSIS OF FAMILIES OF RAPTORES.

Feet highly raptorial, with large, strong, sharp, curved, contractile claws, adapted for grasping. Hallux perfectly incumbent, lengthened (more than half as long as the fourth toe), with large claw. Front toes with slight basal webbing between outer or middle ones, or none; outer toe often reversible. Nostrils imperforate. Bill short, stout, not notably contracted in its continuity, with strongly hooked tip; tomia often once-twice toothed or lobed. Head feathered wholly or in greatest part. Lower larynx developed with one pair of muscles. Plumage with or without after-shafts. Cœca present, as a rule, if not always.

Physiognomy peculiar by reason of great lateral expansion and
lengthwise shortening of the cranium, causing the eyes to be
directed forward. Eyes surrounded by a disc of radiating
bristly feathers, in front closely appressed to and hiding the
base of the bill, elsewhere bounded by a rim of differently
formed feathers. Tomia never toothed or lobed. Nostrils usually
at the edge of the cere. Outer toe completely versatile,
shorter than the inner toe. Basal phalanx of middle toe not
longer than the second, and much shorter than the next. Legs
commonly feathered or bristly to or on the toes. Plumage
peculiarly soft and lax, without after-shafts; flight perfectly
noiseless. Cranial walls widely separated by intervention of
spongy diploë. Sternum commonly doubly notched. Chiefly
nocturnal … _Strigidæ_.

Physiognomy not peculiar in any lateral expansion of the
cranium; the eyes lateral in direction. No complete facial
disc; base of bill not hidden by appressed bristles. Nostrils
wholly in the cere. Outer toe rarely versatile, except
_Pandion_, etc.; not shorter than the inner. Basal phalanx of
middle toe longer than the second. Legs commonly naked and
scutellate or reticulate in some portion of their length; toes
always bare and scaly. Plumage compact, usually with
after-shafts; flight audible. Cranial walls with little diploë.
Sternum commonly single-notched or fenestrate, sometimes
entire. Diurnal … _Falconidæ_.

Feet scarcely raptorial, with lengthened, little curved or contractile, weak, short claws. Hallux elevated, shortened, not more than half as long as the fourth toe, with small claw. Front toes all webbed at base; middle toe lengthened; outer not reversible. Basal phalanx of middle toe longer than either of the succeeding. Nostrils perforate. Bill lengthened and comparatively weak, little hooked, contracted in its continuity; tomia not toothed or lobed. Head naked of feathers in greatest part; sparsely bristly. No lower larnyx developed. No cœca. After-shafts absent … _Cathartidæ_.

FAMILY OF COLUMBÆ.

With characters essentially as in _Columbæ_ (exclusive of those peculiar to _Diduncudidæ_ and _Dididæ_). Plumage without after-shafts; the feathers with thickened, spongy rhachis loosely inserted in the skin. Head small, completely feathered, excepting sometimes a circumorbital space. Tarsi naked or only feathered a little way above. Tail of twelve feathers, or lengthened, cuneate, and of fourteen. (Hallux not perfectly incumbent in _Starnænas_.) … _Columbidæ_.

ANALYSIS OF FAMILIES OF GALLINÆ.

Hind toe lengthened, insistent. Tail-feathers twelve. Sides of head and throat with naked spaces. Color greenish … _Cracidæ_.

Hind toe shortened, elevated. Tail-feathers usually fourteen or more. No green.

Large. Tarsi, toes, and nasal fossæ naked. Head bare of
feathers, sparsely bristly, with wattles and caruncles. A
pectoral tuft of bristly feathers. Tarsi usually spurred in
the male. Plumage iridescent … _Meleagrididæ_.

Medium. Tarsi wholly or in great part, sometimes also the toes,
and always the nasal fossæ, feathered. Head completely
feathered, excepting a definite papillate strip over the eye.
Tail-feathers sixteen or more. Sides of neck usually with
lengthened feathers, or a naked distensible area, or both. No
spurs. Plumage without iridescence … _Tetraonidæ_.

Small. Tarsi, toes, and nasal fossæ naked. Head completely
feathered. No peculiar feathers or tympanum on sides of neck.
No spurs. Plumage not iridescent … _Perdicidæ_.

ANALYSIS OF FAMILIES OF LIMICOLÆ.

Toes not lobate. Tarsi not notably compressed.

Legs extremely long; the tarsus equalling or exceeding the
tail, and feet either four-toed and palmate (_Recurvirostra_),
or three-toed and semipalmate (_Himantopus_); with the bill
much longer than the head, very slender, acute, and curved
upward … _Recurvirostridæ_.

Legs moderate, stout. Tarsus shorter than tail. Bill hard, more
or less contracted at base, with short nasal fossa, gonydeal
angle, and ascending gonys, the tip either compressed and
truncate or depressed and acute. Feet three-toed and with basal
webbing (_Hæmatopus_), or four-toed and cleft (_Strepsilas_) …
_Hæmatopodidæ_.

Legs moderate. Tarsus shorter than tail, reticulate. Hind toe
wanting (except in _Squatarola_, where very small, and in
_Aphriza_). Bill short, straight,—not exceeding the head
(generally shorter),—shaped like a pigeon’s, with short,
broad, soft nasal fossæ separated by a constriction from the
enlarged, obtuse, horny terminal part. Head large, globose,
contracting suddenly to the bill. Neck short … _Charadriidæ_.

Legs moderate. Tarsus shorter than tail, scutellate. Hind toe
present. Bill long,—equalling, or oftener exceeding,
frequently several times longer than, the head; softish and
membranous to the very tip, without constriction in its
continuity; straight or variously curved … _Scolopacidæ_.

Toes lobate. Tarsi notably compressed.

General characters of _Scolopacidæ_. Body depressed; the under
plumage thickened, duck-like. Habits natatorial … _Phalaropodidæ_.

ANALYSIS OF FAMILIES OF HERODIONES.

Hallux lengthened, perfectly incumbent, with large claw. Tarsi scutellate. Middle claw pectinate. Bill perfectly straight, tapering, acute. Loral region definitely naked, continuous with covering of the bill. Head narrow, elongate, tapering … _Ardeidæ_.

Hallux somewhat reduced, less perfectly incumbent. Tarsi commonly reticulate. Middle claw not pectinate. Lores, gular space and usually more of the head, naked. Bill variously curved or with expanded tip. (Genera _Tantalus_, _Ibis_, _Mycteria_, and _Platalea_.) … _Tantalidæ._

ANALYSIS OF FAMILIES OF ALECTORIDES.

Of great stature, with extremely long neck and legs. Part or all of the head bare. Toes much shorter than the tarsi; with basal webbing, but without lobation; hallux very short, highly elevated. Bill equalling or exceeding the head, compressed, perfectly straight, contracted about the middle, with enlarged acute terminal portion; nasal fossæ wide and deep, with large perforate nostrils … _Gruidæ_.

Size moderate and small; neck and legs comparatively short. Head completely feathered, excepting, in the Coots and Gallinules, a broad horny frontal plate. Toes equalling or exceeding the tarsi, simple or lobate. Bill not constricted in the middle, rather shorter than the head, straight and quite stout; or much longer, regularly slender and decurved, with long nasal fossæ. Nostrils incompletely or not perforate … _Rallidæ_.

ANALYSIS OF FAMILIES OF LAMELLIROSTRES.

Of great stature, with extraordinarily lengthened neck and legs. Bill of unique shape, bent abruptly down from the middle. Tibiæ naked below. Hind toe minute or absent. Wings rounded. Red the chief color … _Phœnicopteridæ_.

Of moderate size; the neck short, or, when lengthened, not accompanied by co-ordinately lengthened legs, these being always shorter than the wing. Bill straight. Tibiæ feathered below. Hind toe present; well developed and functional, though short … _Anatidæ_.

ANALYSIS OF FAMILIES OF STEGANOPODES.

Bill rather longer than head, cleft to eyes, very stout at base, tapering to the decurved, but not hooked, tip. Nostrils abortive. Gular sac moderate, naked. Wings rather long, pointed. Tail long, stiff, cuneate, twelve to fourteen feathered. Feet nearly beneath centre of equilibrium. General configuration goose-like … _Sulidæ_.

Bill several times longer than head, slender but strong, depressed, perfectly straight, with small distinct hooked nail at end. Nostrils very small. Gular sac enormous. Mandibular rami meeting only at tip. Wings extremely long, with upward of forty remiges. Tail short, rounded, of twenty or more feathers. Legs beneath centre of equilibrium, extremely short and stout … _Pelicanidæ_.

Bill about as long as head, stout, straight, scarcely tapering, strongly hooked. Nostrils abortive. Gular sac moderate, but evident; mostly naked. Wings short. Tail large, fan-shaped, scansorial, of twelve to fourteen broad stiff feathers, exposed to the base. Legs inserted far behind centre of equilibrium … _Graculidæ_.

Bill rather longer than head, slender, perfectly straight, tapering to an acute tip. Gular sac small. Nostrils minute. Wings and tail, and general configuration, as in the last … _Plotidæ_.

Bill much longer than head, straight, stout, strongly hooked. Nostrils very small. Gular sac well developed. Wings exceedingly long, strong, and pointed. Tail exceedingly long, deeply forked. Feet extraordinarily short; tarsi partly feathered … _Tachypetidæ_.

Bill about as long as head, straight, stout, tapering to an acute tip. Nostrils small. Gular sac rudimentary, feathered. Wings moderate, pointed. Tail short, but with two central feathers extraordinarily prolonged and filamentous. Feet small, beneath centre of equilibrium … _Phæthontidæ_.

ANALYSIS OF FAMILIES OF LONGIPENNES.

Nostrils not tubular, lateral, perforate. Bill with continuous covering, or only broken by a sort of cere, hooked or straight to the end. Hallux small and elevated, but always present … _Laridæ_.

Nostrils tubular, disjoined and lateral, or oftenest superior and united in one double-barrelled tube. Covering of bill in several pieces; bill always hooked. Hallux minute, rudimentary, or absent … _Procellariidæ_.

ANALYSIS OF FAMILIES OF PYGOPODES.

Feet four-toed, palmate. Hallux lobate, connected at base with base of inner toe. Tail perfect. Head closely and completely feathered. Nostrils with a depending lobe or flap. Bill straight, compressed, acute … _Colymbidæ_.

Feet four-toed, lobate. Hallux lobate, free. Tail rudimentary. Head with a naked loral strip and bristly or variously lengthened feathers. Nostrils simple. Bill straight or decurved at end, compressed, acute … _Podicipidæ_.

Feet three-toed, palmate. Hallux absent. Tail perfect. Head closely feathered or variously crested. Nostrils simple. Bill of indeterminate shape … _Alcidæ_.

NORTH AMERICAN BIRDS.

FAMILY TURDIDÆ.—THE THRUSHES.

The _Turdidæ_, with the _Saxicolidæ_ and _Cinclidæ_, form a group closely related, by common characters, and appreciably different from the other _Oscines_ with slender bills and specially insectivorous habits, having, like them, ten primaries (the first much shorter than the second, but nearly always appreciable), and the nostrils uncovered. The great family of _Sylvicolidæ_, with similar characters of the bill, never present more than nine primaries. The most striking of these common characters is seen in the deeply cleft toes, of which the outer is united by the basal joint alone to the middle toe, while the inner is separated almost to the very base of its first joint.[21] The frontal feathers extend, with rare exceptions, to the very nostrils. The bill is elongated and subulate, moderately slender, and usually notched at tip; the culmen moderately curved from the base, and the mouth well provided with bristles, except in a few cases. Usually the scutellæ covering the front and sides of the tarsus are fused into one continuous plate, or else scarcely appreciable, except on the inner edge only; in the Mocking Thrushes they are, however, distinctly marked. The lateral toes are nearly equal, the outer rather the longer. With these as some of the principal characteristics, they may be distinguished from each other as follows:—

NOTE.—In the present work the length of the tail is measured from the coccyx, inside of the skin, and not, as usually the case, from the base of the quills at their insertion. The wings are measured from the carpal joint, with dividers.

A. Nostrils oval. Loral and frontal feathers with bristly points, or interspersed with bristles; rictus with longer or shorter bristles.

Saxicolidæ. Wings very long and much pointed, reaching beyond the
middle of the short square or emarginated tail, and one and a half
times or more the length of the latter. The spurious primary very
short, the second quill longer than the fourth. In the closed wing
the outer secondary reaches only about two thirds the length of
longest primary.

Turdidæ. Wings moderate, more rounded, not reaching beyond middle of
the often rounded tail, and not more than one and a third the
latter, usually more nearly equal. Spurious primary sometimes half
the length of second quill; the second quill shorter than the
fourth. In the closed wing the outer secondary reaches three fourths
or more the length of longest primary.

B. Nostrils linear, in lower edge of nasal membrane. Loral and frontal feathers soft and downy, and no bristles or bristly points whatever about the mouth.

Cinclidæ. Body very short and broad. Wings short, rounded, and
concave.

The American _Sylviidæ_ are in some respects very closely related to the _Saxicolidæ_, but may be distinguished by their much smaller size, more slender and depressed bill, more strongly bristled rictus, etc.; on which account they are more strictly “fly-catchers,” taking their prey in great part on the wing.

Of the three families, the _Turdidæ_ contain a great variety of forms, and exhibit widely different characters, rendering it exceedingly difficult to arrange them in any systematic or regular sequence, or to accurately define their boundaries. In the _Birds of North America_, the Mocking Thrushes were placed among the Wrens, on account of the distinct tarsal scutellæ, and other characters. We are now, however, inclined to believe, with Dr. Sclater, that their place is with the recognized _Turdidæ_; and, among other reasons, on the ground of their more deeply cleft toes, and greater extension forward of frontal feathers. The following synopsis of the North American forms will serve the purpose of determining the genera, even if these are not arranged or combined in a strictly natural manner.

A. Turdinæ.—Tarsus covered anteriorly with a continuous plate without scales.

Wings decidedly longer than the tail, which is nearly even.
Bill considerably shorter than the head.

First quill usually not one fourth the second. Wings pointed.
Tarsus hardly the length of head, but yet longer than middle
toe; outstretched toes falling short of tip of tail … _Turdus_.

B. Miminæ.—Tarsi scutellate anteriorly; scales seven.

Wings decidedly longer than the tail, which is nearly even.
Tarsus as long as the head.

Bill decidedly shorter than the head, scarcely notched; wings
pointed; first quill less than half the second, third and
fourth longest. Claws not peculiar. Bristles prominent.
Tarsus considerably longer than middle toe and claw …
_Oreoscoptes_.

Wings decidedly shorter than the tail, which is considerably
graduated; first quill half or more than half the second.

Bill notched at tip, shorter than head; straight.

Scutellæ very distinct; gonys straight, or even declining
at tip.… _Mimus._

Scutellæ more or less obsolete; gonys convex, ascending at
tip.… _Galeoscoptes._

Bill not notched at tip, lengthened; sometimes much decurved.…
_Harporhynchus._

NOTE.—In the Review of American Birds, I., May, 1866, 409, I have advanced the suggestion that the N. American genus _Myiadestes_, usually placed under the _Ampelidæ_, really belongs under _Turdidæ_ in a group _Myiadestinæ_. The relationships are certainly very close, as is shown by the characters given below.

COMMON CHARACTERS.—Tarsi without regular transverse scutellæ, except at lower end. Wings acute, pointed, as long as or longer than tail, which is but slightly graduated. First primary rarely half second, which exceeds the secondaries. Base of quills buffy yellow, as are inner edges. Tail spotted or varied at the end. Young birds with many light spots. Very melodious singers.

Myiadestinæ. Bill short, much depressed; mouth deeply cleft; width at base about equal to the distance from nostril to tip, or greater; commissure more than twice distance from nostrils to tip of bill, and nearly two and a half times length of gonys. Legs weak; tarsi rather longer than middle toe and claw. Tail feathers tapering slightly from base to near tip, giving a slightly cuneate appearance to the tail.

Turdinæ. Bill stouter, more lengthened; narrow at base and more compressed; width at base less than distance from nostril to tip; commissure not more than twice distance from nostrils to tip of bill, and about twice length of gonys. Tarsi stouter, longer than middle toe and claw. Tail feathers widening slightly from base to near tip, giving a parallel-sided or slightly fan-shaped appearance to the tail.

The _Miminæ_ differ, as already mentioned, in the scutellate tarsi: more rounded wings, etc.—S. F. B.

SUBFAMILY TURDINÆ.

There are several American genera of _Turdinæ_ not found north of Mexico as yet, although it is not impossible that one of these (_Catharus_) may hereafter be detected within the limits of the United States. The species of _Catharus_ resemble the North American wood-thrushes (_Hylocichla_); but the spurious or first primary quill is longer (from one half to one third the second quill), the wings are rounded, not pointed, the tarsus is longer than the head, and the outstretched toes extend beyond the tail. The species to be looked for are _C. melpomene_ and _occidentalis_.[22]

The North American species of _Turdinæ_, while retained under the single genus _Turdus_, yet constitute several distinct groups, which we may call subgenera.

GENUS TURDUS, LINNÆUS.

_Turdus_, LINNÆUS, Syst. Nat., ed. 10, 1758, 168. (Type, _Turdus
viscivorus_ of Europe.)—BAIRD, Rev. Am. Birds.

GEN. CHAR. Bill conical, subulate, shorter than the head; the tip gently decurved and notched (except in _Hesperocichla_); the rictus with moderate bristles; the wings rather long and pointed, with small first primary (less than one fourth the second); wings considerably longer than the tail, which is firm, nearly even, with broad feathers. Tarsi variable, seldom as long as the skull, the scutellæ fused into a continuous plate, only in rare individual instances showing indications of the lines of separation.

The genus _Turdus_ is very cosmopolitan, occurring nearly throughout the globe, excepting in _Australia_, and embraces species of highest perfection as singers. In the large number of species known there are many variations in external form, but the transition from one to the other is so gradual as to render it very difficult to separate them into different genera. The sections of the group we adopt are the following:—

_Sexes similar._

Hylocichla. Smallest species. Bill short, broad at base; much depressed. Tarsi long and slender, longer than middle toe and claw, by the additional length of the claw; outstretched legs reaching nearly to tip of tail. Body slender. Color: above olivaceous or reddish, beneath whitish; breast spotted; throat without spots.

Turdus. Bill stouter and higher. Tarsi stout and short, scarcely longer than middle toe and claw. Body stout, generally whitish beneath and spotted. (Second quill longer than fifth?)

Planesticus. Similar to preceding. (Second quill shorter than fifth?) Beneath mostly uni-colored; unstreaked except the throat, which is whitish with dark streaks.

_Sexes dissimilar._

Merula. Similar to _Turdus_. Male usually more or less black, especially on the head; females brownish, often with streaked throats. Bill distinctly notched.

Hesperocichla. Similar to _Turdus_. Male reddish beneath, with a black collar. Bill without notch.

SUBGENUS HYLOCICHLA, BAIRD.

_Hylocichla_, BAIRD (s. g.), Rev. Am. Birds, 1864, 12. (Type, _Turdus
mustelinus_.)

[Line drawing: _Turdus mustelinus._
1570]

The essential characters of _Hylocichla_ have already been given. The subgenus includes the small North American species, with _Turdus mustelinus_, Gm., at the head as type, which are closely connected on the one side with _Catharus_, by their lengthened tarsi, and with _Turdus_ by the shape of the wing. The bills are shorter, more depressed, and broader at base than in typical _Turdus_, so much so that the species have frequently been described under _Muscicapa_.

It is not at all improbable that naturalists may ultimately conclude to consider the group as of generic rank.

In this group there appears to be five well-marked forms or “species.” They are, _mustelinus_, Gm., _pallasi_, Caban., _fuscescens_, Steph., _swainsoni_, Caban., and _aliciæ_, Baird. The first-named is totally unlike the rest, which are more closely related in appearance.

In studying carefully a very large series of specimens of all the species, the following facts become evident:—

1. In autumn and winter the “olive” color of the plumage assumes a browner cast than at other seasons; this variation, however, is the same in all the species (and varieties), so that in autumn and winter the several species differ from each other as much as they do in spring and summer.

Of these five species, two only (_pallasi_ and _swainsoni_) inhabit the whole breadth of the continent; and they, in the three Faunal Provinces over which they extend, are modified into “races” or “varieties” characteristic of each region. The first of these species, as the _pallasi_ var. _pallasi_, extends westward to the Rocky Mountains, and migrates in winter into the South; specimens are very much browner in the winter than in spring; but in the Rocky Mountain region is a larger, grayer race, the var. _auduboni_. This, in its migrations, extends along the central mountain region through Mexico to Guatemala; specimens from the northern and southern extremes of this range are identical in all the specific characters; but the southern specimens, being in the fall and winter dress, are browner in color than northern ones (spring birds); an autumnal example from Cantonment Burgwyn, N. M., is as brown as any Central American specimen. Along the Pacific Province, from Kodiak to Western Mexico, and occasionally straggling eastward toward the Rocky Mountain system, there is the var. _nanus_, a race _smaller_ than the var. _pallasi_, and with much the same colors as var. _auduboni_, though the rufous of the tail is deeper than in either of the other forms. In this race, as in the others, there is no difference in size between specimens from north and south extremes of its distribution, because the breeding-place is in the North, all Southern specimens being winter sojourners from their Northern birthplace.

The _T. swainsoni_ is found in abundance westward to the western limit of the Rocky Mountain system; in the latter region specimens at all seasons have the olive of a clearer, more greenish shade than in any Eastern examples; this clearer tint is analogous with that of the Rocky Mountain form of _pallasi_ (_auduboni_). In precisely the same region inhabited by the _pallasi_ var. _nanus_ the _swainsoni_ also has a representative form,—the var. _ustulatus_. This resembles in pattern the var. _swainsoni_, but the olive above is decidedly more rufescent,—much as in Rocky Mountain specimens of _T. fuscescens_; the spots on jugulum and breast are also narrower, as well as hardly darker in color than the back; and the tail is longer than in Rocky Mountain _swainsoni_, in which latter it is longer than in Eastern examples. The remaining species—_mustelinus_, _fuscescens_, and _aliciæ_—extend no farther west than the Rocky Mountains; the first and last only toward their eastern base, while the second breeds abundantly as far as the eastern limit of the Great Basin.

The _T. fuscescens_, from the Rocky Mountains, is considerably darker in color above, while the specks on the throat and jugular are sparser or more obsolete than in Eastern birds.

In _T. mustelinus_, the only two Western specimens in the collection (Mount Carroll, Ills., and Fort Pierre) have the rump of a clearer grayish than specimens from the Atlantic Coast; in all other respects, however, they appear to be identical. Some Mexican specimens, being in winter plumage, have the breast more buffy than Northern (spring or summer) examples, and the rufous of the head, etc. is somewhat brighter.

In _aliciæ_, no difference is observed between Eastern and Western birds; the reason is, probably, that the breeding-ground of all is in one province, though their migrations may extend over two. There is, however, a marked difference between the spring and autumn plumage; the clear grayish of the former being replaced, in the latter, by a snuffy brown, or sepia tint,—this especially noticeable on wings and tail.

1. Turdus mustelinus, _Gm._ Penn., 1570.
2. “ ustulatus, _Nutt._ Oregon, 2040.
3. “ aliciæ, _Baird_. Illinois, 10084.
4. “ swainsoni, _Cab._ Penn., 981.
5. “ fuscescens, _Steph._ D. C., 28231.
6. “ pallasii, _Cab._ Penn., 2146.
7. “ nanus, _Aud._ Cala., 17997.
8. “ auduboni, _Baird_. Rocky Mts., 10886.]

The following synopsis is intended to show the characters of the different species and varieties.

1. _Spots beneath rounded, covering breast and sides._

A. Rufous brown above, becoming much brighter toward the bill, and more olivaceous on the tail. Beneath white; whole breast with rounded spots. Nest on tree; eggs pale blue.

1. T. mustelinus. Beneath nearly pure white, with rounded
blackish spots over the whole breast, sides, and upper part
of abdomen; wing, 4.25; tail, 3.05; culmen, .80; tarsus,
1.26. _Hab._ Eastern Province United States, south to
Guatemala and Honduras. Cuba and Bermuda of West Indies.

2. _Spots beneath triangular, on breast only._

B. Entirely uniform in color above,—olivaceous, varying to reddish or greenish with the species. Beneath whitish, with a wash of brownish across the breast and along sides. Spots triangular, and confined to the breast. Nest on trees or bushes; eggs blue spotted with brownish; except in _T. fuscescens_, which nests on the ground, and lays plain blue eggs.

_a. No conspicuous light orbital ring._

2. T. fuscescens. Yellowish-rufous or olive-fulvous above; a
strong wash of pale fulvous across the throat and jugulum,
where are very indistinct cuneate spots of same shade as the
back. Wing, 4.10; tail, 3.00; culmen, .70; tarsus, 1.15.
_Hab._ Eastern Province of North America. North to Nova
Scotia and Fort Garry. West to Great Salt Lake. South (in
winter) to Panama and Brazil. Cuba.

3. T. aliciæ. Grayish clove-brown above; breast almost white,
with broad, blackish spots; whole side of head uniform
grayish. Wing, 4.20; tail, 3.20; culmen, .77; tarsus, 1.15.
_Hab._ Eastern Province North America from shore of Arctic
Ocean, Fort Yukon, and Kodiak to Costa Rica. West to Missouri
River. Cuba.

_b. A conspicuous orbital ring of buff._

4. T. swainsoni.

Greenish-olive above, breast and sides of head strongly
tinged with buff. Spots on breast broad, distinct, nearly
black. Length, 7.00; wing, 3.90; tail, 2.90; culmen, .65;
tarsus, 1.10. _Hab._ Eastern and Middle Provinces of North
America. North to Slave Lake, south to Ecuador, west to
East Humboldt Mountains … var. _swainsoni_.

Brownish-olive above, somewhat more rufescent on wing;
breast and head strongly washed with dilute rufous. Spots
on breast narrow, scarcely darker than back. Wing, 3.85;
tail, 3.00; culmen, .70; tarsus, 1.10. _Hab._ Pacific
Province of United States. Guatemala … var. _ustulatus_.

C. Above olivaceous, becoming abruptly more reddish on upper tail-coverts and tail. Spots as in _swainsoni_, but larger and less transverse,—more sharply defined. An orbital ring of pale buff. Nest on ground; eggs blue, probably unspotted.

5. T. pallasi.

Olivaceous of upper parts like _ustulatus_. Reddish of
upper tail-coverts invading lower part of rump; no marked
difference in tint between the tail and its upper coverts.
Flanks and tibiæ yellowish olive-brown; a faint tinge of
buff across the breast. Eggs plain. Wing, 3.80; tail, 3.00;
culmen, .70; tarsus, 1.20. _Hab._ Eastern Province of
United States (only?) … var. _pallasi_.

Olivaceous of upper parts like _swainsoni_. Reddish of tail
not invading the rump, and the tail decidedly more
castaneous than the upper coverts. Beneath almost pure
white; scarcely any buff tinge on breast; flanks and tibiæ
grayish or plumbeous olive. Size smaller than _swainsoni_;
bill depressed. Wing, 3.50; tail, 2.60; culmen, .60;
tarsus, 1.15. _Hab._ Western Province of North America,
from Kodiak to Cape St. Lucas. East to East Humboldt
Mountains … var. _nanus_.

Olivaceous above, like preceding; the upper tail-coverts
scarcely different from the back. Tail yellowish-rufous.
Beneath like _nanus_. Size larger than _swainsoni_. Wing,
4.20; tail, 3.35; culmen, .80; tarsus, 1.30. _Hab._ Rocky
Mountains. From Fort Bridger, south (in winter) to Southern
Mexico … var. _auduboni_.

Turdus mustelinus, GMELIN.

THE WOOD THRUSH.

_Turdus mustelinus_, GMELIN, Syst. Nat. I, 1788, 817.—AUDUBON, Orn.
Biog. I, 1832, 372, pl. 73.—IB. Birds Am. III, 1841, 24, pl.
144.—D’ORB. La Sagra’s Cuba Ois. 1840, 49.—BAIRD, Birds N. Am.
1858, 212.—IB. Rev. Am. Birds, 1864, 13.—SCLATER, P. Z. S. 1856,
294, and 1859, 325.—JONES, Nat. in Bermuda, 26.—GUNDLACH,
Repertorio, 1865, 228.—MAYNARD.—SAMUELS, 146. _Turdus melodus_,
WILS. Am. Orn. I, 1808, 35, pl. ii. _Turdus densus_, BONAP.
Comptes Rendus, XXVIII, 1853, 2.—IB. Notes Delattre, 1854, 26
(Tabasco).
Additional figures: VIEILLOT, Ois. Am. Sept. II, pl. lxii.—WILSON,
Am. Orn. I, pl. ii.

SP. CHAR. Above clear cinnamon-brown, on the top of the head becoming more rufous, on the rump and tail olivaceous. The under parts are clear white, sometimes tinged with buff on the breast or anteriorly, and thickly marked beneath, except on the chin and throat and about the vent and tail-coverts, with sub-triangular, sharply defined spots of blackish. The sides of the head are dark brown, streaked with white, and there is also a maxillary series of streaks on each side of the throat, the central portion of which sometimes has indications of small spots. Length, 8.10 inches; wing, 4.25; tail, 3.05; tarsus, 1.26. Young bird similar to adult, but with rusty yellow triangular spots in the ends of the wing coverts.

HAB. U. S. east of Missouri plains, south to Guatemala. Bermuda (not rare). Cuba, LA SAGRA; GUNDLACH. Honduras, MOORE. Cordova, SCL. Orizaba (winter), SUMICHR.

HABITS. The Wood Thrush, without being anywhere a very abundant species, is common throughout nearly every portion of the United States between the Mississippi River and the Atlantic. It breeds in every portion of the same extended area, at least as far as Georgia on the south and Massachusetts on the north. Beyond the last-named State, it rarely, if ever, breeds on the coast. In the interior it has a higher range, nesting around Hamilton, C. W. So far as I am aware it is unknown, or very rare, in the States of Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine.

It makes its appearance early in April in the Middle States, but in New England not until four or five weeks later, appearing about the 10th of May. Their migrations in fall are more irregular, being apparently determined by the abundance of their food. At times they depart as early as the first of September, but sometimes not until the last of October. It winters in Central America, where it is quite abundant at that season.

The favorite localities of the Wood Thrush are the borders of dense thickets, or low damp hollows shaded by large trees. Yet its habits are by no means so retiring, or its nature so timid, as these places of resort would lead us to infer. A small grove in Roxbury, now a part of Boston, in close proximity to a dwelling-house, was for many years the favorite resort of these birds, where several pairs nested and reared their young, rarely even leaving their nests, which were mostly in low bushes, wholly unmindful of the curious children who were their frequent visitors. The same fearless familiarity was observed at Mount Auburn, then first used as a public cemetery. But in the latter instance the nest was always placed high up on a branch of some spreading tree, often in conspicuous places, but out of reach. Mr. J. A. Allen refers to several similar instances where the Wood Thrush did not show itself to be such a recluse as many describe it. In one case a pair built their nest within the limits of a thickly peopled village, where there were but few trees, and a scanty undergrowth. In another a Wood Thrush lived for several successive summers among the elms and maples of Court Square in the city of Springfield, Mass., undisturbed by the passers by or the walkers beneath, or the noise and rattle of the vehicles on the contiguous streets.

The song of this thrush is one of its most remarkable and pleasing characteristics. No lover of sweet sounds can have failed to notice it, and, having once known its source, no one can fail to recognize it when heard again. The melody is one of great sweetness and power, and consists of several parts, the last note of which resembles the tinkling of a small bell, and seems to leave the conclusion suspended. Each part of its song seems sweeter and richer than the preceding.

The nest is usually built on the horizontal branch of a small forest-tree, six or eight feet from the ground, and, less frequently, in the fork of a bush. The diameter is about 5 inches, and the depth 3¾, with a cavity averaging 3 inches across by 2¼ in depth. They are firm, compact structures, chiefly composed of decayed deciduous leaves, closely impacted together, and apparently thus combined when in a moistened condition, and afterward dried into a firmness and strength like that of parchment. These are intermingled with, and strengthened by, a few dry twigs, and the whole is lined with fine roots and a few fine dry grasses. Occasionally, instead of the solid frame of impacted leaves, we find one of solidified mud.

The eggs of the Wood Thrush, usually four in number, sometimes five, are of a uniform deep-blue tint, with but a slight admixture of yellow, which imparts a greenish tinge. Their average measurements are 1.00 by .75 inch.

Turdus fuscescens, STEPHENS.

TAWNY THRUSH; WILSON’S THRUSH.

_Turdus mustelinus_, WILSON, Amer. Ornithology, V, 1812, 98, pl. 43
(not of GMELIN).
_Turdus fuscescens_, STEPHENS, Shaw’s Gen. Zoöl. Birds, X, I, 1817,
182. CAB. Jour. 1855, 470 (Cuba).—BAIRD, Birds N. Am. 1858,
214.—IB. Rev. Am. B. 1864, 17.—GUNDI. Repertorio, 1865, 228
(Cuba, not rare). PELZELN, Orn. Bras. II, 1868, 92. (San Vicente,
Brazil, December.)—SAMUELS, 150.—SCLATER, P. Z. S. 1859,
326.—IB. Catal. Am. Birds, 1861, 2, No. 10. _Turdus silens_,
VIEILL. Encyclop. Méth. II, 1823, 647 (based on _T. mustelinus_,
WILS.). _Turdus wilsonii_, BON. Obs. Wils. 1825, No. 73. _Turdus
minor_, D’ORB. La Sagra’s Cuba, Ois. 1840, 47, pl. v (Cuba).

SP. CHAR. Above, and on sides of head and neck, nearly uniform light reddish-brown, with a faint tendency to orange on the crown and tail. Beneath, white; the fore part of the breast and throat (paler on the chin) tinged with pale brownish-yellow, in decided contrast to the white of the belly. The sides of the throat and the fore part of the breast, as colored, are marked with small triangular spots of light brownish, nearly like the back, but not well defined. There are a few obsolete blotches on the sides of the breast (in the white) of pale olivaceous; the sides of the body tinged with the same. Tibiæ white. The lower mandible is brownish only at the tip. The lores are ash-colored, the orbital region grayish. Length, 7.50; wing, 4.25; tail, 3.20; tarsus; 1.20.

HAB. Eastern North America, Halifax to Fort Bridger, and north to Fort Garry. Cuba, Panama, and Brazil (winter). Orizaba (winter), SUMICHRAST.

HABITS. This species is one of the common birds of New England, and is probably abundant in certain localities throughout all the country east of the Rocky Mountains, as far to the north as the 50th parallel, and possibly as far as the wooded country extends. Mr. Maynard did not meet with it in Northern New Hampshire. Mr. Wm. G. Winton obtained its nest and eggs at Halifax, N. S.; Mr. Boardman found them also on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and at St. Stephen’s, N. B.; Mr. Couper at Quebec; Mr. Krieghoff at Three Rivers, Canada; Donald Gunn at Selkirk and Red River; and Mr. Kumlien and Dr. Hoy in Wisconsin. Mr. McIlwraith also gives it as common at Hamilton, West Canada. It breeds as far south as Pennsylvania, and as far to the west as Utah, and occurs, in the breeding season, throughout Maine, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Canada.

Mr. Ridgway found this thrush very abundant among the thickets in the valleys of the Provo, Weber, and Bear rivers, in Utah, and very characteristic of those portions of the country.

It arrives in Massachusetts early in May, usually with the first blossoms of the pear, ranging from the 5th to the 20th. It is strictly of woodland habits, found almost entirely among clumps of trees, and obtaining its food from among their branches, or on the ground among the fallen leaves. It moves south from the 10th to the 25th of September, rarely remaining till the first week in October.

It is timid, distrustful, and retiring; delighting in shady ravines, the edges of thick close woods, and occasionally the more retired parts of gardens; where, if unmolested, it will frequent the same locality year after year.

The song of this thrush is quaint, but not unmusical; variable in its character, changing from a prolonged and monotonous whistle to quick and almost shrill notes at the close. Their melody is not unfrequently prolonged until quite late in the evening, and, in consequence, in some portions of Massachusetts these birds are distinguished with the name of Nightingale,—a distinction due rather to the season than to the high quality of their song. Yet Mr. Ridgway regards it, as heard by himself in Utah, as superior in some respects to that of all others of the genus, though far surpassed in mellow richness of voice and depth of metallic tone by that of the Wood Thrush (_T. mustelinus_). To his ear there was a solemn harmony and a beautiful expression which combined to make the song of this surpass that of all the other American Wood Thrushes. The beauty of their notes appeared in his ears “really inspiring; their song consisting of an inexpressibly delicate metallic utterance of the syllables _ta-weel´ ah, ta-weel´ ah, twil´ ah, twil´ ah_, accompanied by a fine trill which renders it truly seductive.” The last two notes are said to be uttered in a soft and subdued undertone, producing thereby, in effect, an echo of the others.

The nest is always placed near the ground, generally raised from it by a thick bed of dry leaves or sticks; sometimes among bushes, but never in the fork of a bush or tree, or if so, in very rare and exceptional cases. When incubation has commenced, the female is reluctant to leave her nest. If driven off she utters no complaint, but remains close at hand and returns at the first opportunity.

They construct their nest early in May, and the young are hatched in the latter part of that month, or the first of June. They raise two broods in the season. The nest, even more loosely put together than that of the Ground Swamp Robin (_T. pallasi_), is often with difficulty kept complete. It is about 3 inches in height, 4½ in diameter, with a cavity 1½ inches deep and 3 in width, and composed of dry bark, dead leaves, stems, and woody fibres, intermingled with grasses, caricas, sedges, etc., and lined with soft skeleton leaves. A nest from Wisconsin was composed entirely of a coarse species of _Sparganeum_; the dead stalks and leaves of which were interwoven with a very striking effect.

The eggs, usually four, sometimes five in number, are of a uniform green color, with a slight tinge of blue, and average .94 by .66 of an inch in diameter.

Turdus aliciæ, BAIRD.

GRAY-CHEEKED THRUSH; ALICE’S THRUSH.