Chapter XIII: Part III: , European Nations; of which only 1 volume, Greeks, has (5)

In reference to the constitution: 1. The relation which had
hitherto existed between the Spartans as a dominant people, and the
Lacedaemonians as subjects, was preserved. 2. The two kings, from
the two ruling families, were likewise continued, as leaders in war
and first magistrates in peace. On the other hand, 3. to Lycurgus
is attributed the institution of a senate, ([Greek: gerousia],)
consisting of twenty-eight members, none of whom could be less than
sixty years old, who were to be chosen by the people for life, and
were to constitute the king's council in public affairs. 4. Whether
the college of the five Ephori annually chosen, was originally
instituted by Lycurgus, or at some later period, is a question
impossible to decide, but of little importance, since the great
power of this college, to which every thing was finally referred as
the highest tribunal of the state, was certainly assumed after the
time of Lycurgus. 5. Besides the above, there were likewise the
popular assemblies, convened according to the division into
[Greek: phylas] and [Greek: obas], at which none but Spartans could
assist: their privileges extended no further than to approve or
reject the measures proposed to them by the kings and the senate.

In the laws relating to private life, Lycurgus aimed at making the
Spartans a society of citizens, equal as far as possible with
respect to their property and mode of life, and each deeply
impressed with the conviction that he was the property of his
country, to which he was bound to yield an unconditional obedience.
Hence, 1. The new division of land, 9000 portions to the Spartans,
and 30,000 to the Lacedaemonians; permission being given to dispose
of those portions by entail or gift, but not by sale. 2. The
removal as far as possible of every species of luxury, particularly
by means of the daily public tables ([Greek: syssitia]) of all the
citizens, according to their divisions, in which the commons were
settled by law. 3. The complete organization of domestic society in
relation both to husband and wife, parents and children, which was
so framed as to further, even at the cost of morality, the grand
political object, the production of vigorous and healthy citizens.
4. Hence, finally, the condition of the slaves, comprehended under
the general name of helots, who, although they may be regarded
nearly as serfs, were likewise the property of the state, which had
the right of claiming their services in war.--Easy, however, as it
is to enumerate thus generally the principal heads of the Spartan
constitution, the want of sufficient documents renders it difficult
and oftentimes impossible to answer a crowd of questions, which
present themselves on our penetrating more deeply into the subject.
Still, however, its long duration, (nearly four hundred years,)
without any observable change, is more remarkable even than the
constitution itself. More remarkable, inasmuch as the Spartans soon
after this time appear as conquerors. Indeed, it could no longer be
expected that any durable peace should exist in Greece, while the
centre of the country was occupied by a military commonwealth,
whose citizens must have been, by the restlessness common to man,
impelled to war, since all the occupations of household life and of
agriculture were left to the care of slaves.

Besides the works mentioned above, p. 119.

HEYNE, _De Spartanorum republica Judicium_; inserted in _Commentat.
Soc. Gotting._ vol. ix. Intended to correct the partial opinions of
DE PAUW.

10. Soon after the time of Lycurgus commenced the war of the Spartans with their neighbours, the Argives, the Arcadians, but more particularly the Messenians. The wars with these last appear to have originated in an old grudge on the part of the Dorian tribe, proceeding from the unequal division of lands at the occupation of Peloponnesus: it is nevertheless evident, that the quarrel between the two nations was mainly fostered by the ambition of the Spartan kings, who wrought upon a superstitious multitude by oracular responses and interpretations.

Unimportant wars with Tegea and Argos; and disputes with Messene,
783-745.

First Messenian war, 742-722, terminated by the capture of the
frontier fortress Ithome, after the voluntary death of the
Messenian king, Aristodemus.--The Messenians become tributary to
the Spartans, and are obliged to give up one half of the revenues
of their lands.--Occurrences during this war: 1. Institution,
according to some authorities, of the college of Ephori as
vicegerents of the kings in their absence, and arbitrators in the
quarrels which might arise between the kings and the senate. 2. The
power of the people so far limited as to restrain the popular
assemblies from making alterations in the resolutions proposed to
them by the senate or the kings, and confining them merely to a
vote of approval or rejection. 3. Insurrection of the Parthenii and
Helots becomes the motive for sending out colonies; a measure to
which Sparta had more than once resorted for the purpose of
maintaining domestic tranquillity.

Second Messenian war, 682-668, waged by the Messenians under the
command of their hero Aristomenes, by the Spartans under that of
Tyrtaeus, who fanned the flame of war until the contest was
terminated by the capture of the strong town Ira. The Messenian
territory is divided among the conquerors, and the conquered
inhabitants become, like the helots, agricultural slaves.

11. Although the territory of the Spartans was greatly increased by these Messenian wars, the nation seems to have been a long time before it recovered from the struggle, and to have raised itself by slow steps to the first rank among the Dorian states, extending its boundaries at the expense of the Argives and Arcadians.

Wars with Tegea for the most part unsuccessful; and with Argos, for
the possession of Thyrea and the island of Cythera; by the accession
of which the Spartan territory received an important augmentation,
about 550.

12. These wars within Peloponnesus were not of such a nature as to give rise to any remarkable changes in the Spartan constitution, and for a long time the nation refused to take any share in foreign affairs. But no sooner did king Cleomenes, who in the end procured the deposition of his colleague, Demaratus, interfere in the affairs of the Athenians, than the seeds of strife were sown between these two republics. The Persian war next ensued, in which Sparta was obliged to bear a part, although Cleomenes had refused to participate in the insurrection of Aristagoras: that struggle, together with the idea of supremacy in Greece which now took its rise, introduced a series of political relations before unknown.

13. The history of Athens during this period is rendered important rather by domestic revolutions, which gradually tended to convert the state into a republic, than by external aggrandizement. The situation and peculiarities of Attica, which rendered it less exposed than other parts of Greece to the attacks and forays of wandering hordes, favoured the gradual and tranquil growth of national prosperity; the traces of which are incontestable, though it would be difficult for the most profound research to point out the whole course of its progress so perspicuously as the historian might wish.

The history of Athens, of course, constitutes a main part of the
works mentioned above, p. 119. Besides which:

W. YOUNG, _The history of Athens politically and philosophically
considered_. London, 1796. 4to. Argumentation rather than history.

CORSINI, _Fasti Attici_. Florent. 1747. 4 vols. 4to. A most careful
chronological essay.

1. Period of kingly government down to 1068. The history of Athens
as a state begins properly with Theseus, who succeeded his father
Aegeus, about B. C. 1300. Although certain institutions, such as
that of the areopagus, the division of the people into nobles,
([Greek: eupatridai],) husbandmen, ([Greek: georgoi],) and
mechanics: ([Greek: demiourgoi;]) a division which recals to our
memory the Egyptian institution of castes, are perhaps of an
earlier date, and may be ascribed to the colony of Cecrops. Theseus
was, however, in some measure the founder of the state, since,
instead of the four districts, ([Greek: demoi],) hitherto
independent of one another, he constituted the city of Athens as
the only seat of government. Among his successors the attention of
the student is directed to Mnestheus, who fell before Troy; and the
last king, Codrus, who by a voluntary sacrifice of his life rescued
Attica from the inroads of the Dorians, 1068.

2. Period of archons for life, taken from the family of Codrus,
thirteen of whom ruled; 1068-752. The first was Medon, the last,
Alcmaeon. These archons succeeded, like the kings, by inheritance,
but were accountable for their administration, ([Greek:
hypeuthynoi].)--At the commencement of this period occur the
migrations of the Ionians from Attica to Asia Minor, 1044. See
below.

3. Period of the decennial archons, seven of whom succeeded between
752-682. These likewise were taken from the family of Codrus. This
period is devoid of any remarkable occurrences.

4. Period extending to Solon, 682-594. that of nine archons yearly
chosen, but so arranged that the prerogatives of the former kings,
and the preceding archons, were divided among the three first of
the nine. With respect to this, as well as to the other changes
above mentioned, we know little of the causes which produced them,
or of the manner in which they were brought about. Rise of an
oppressive aristocracy, (like that of the patricians at Rome,
immediately after the expulsion of the kings,) both the archons and
the members of the areopagus being elected only from noble
families. First attempt at legislation by Draco, 622, which appears
only to have consisted in a criminal code, rendered unavailing by
its severity.--The insurrection of Cylon, 598, in consequence of
the manner in which it was quelled, turned out most injurious to
the aristocratical party, inasmuch as the nobles drew upon
themselves the pollution of blood, which, even after the
purification of Epimenides, 593, was long used as a pretext for
commotion. The political factions of the Pediaei, of the Diacrii,
and of the Parhali, produced an anarchy at Athens, during which the
neighbouring Megarians took possession of the island of Salamis; a
conquest which, however, was subsequently wrested from them by
Solon.

14. From this state of anarchy Athens was rescued by Solon; a man to whom not only Athens, but the whole human race, are deeply indebted. He was chosen archon, and at the same time commissioned to remodel the constitution of Athens: and the successful manner in which he executed this task, laid the foundation of the happiness of his native country.

_Review of the prominent features in Solon's legislation._ Its main
object was to abolish the oppressive aristocracy, without however
introducing a pure democracy. 1. Provisional laws: abolition of the
statutes of Draco, those against murder excepted: law enacted for
the relief of debtors, ([Greek: seisachtheia], novae tabulae,) not so
much by cancelling the debts as by diminishing their amount by a
rise in the value of money; and likewise by ensuring the personal
liberty of the debtor. 2. Fundamental laws, both in reference to
the constitution and in reference to private life and private
rights.--Constitution of the state. (_a_) Organization of the
people by means of divisions: according to property into four
classes; the Pentacosimedimni, or those who had a yearly income of
500 medimni; the Equites, ([Greek: hippeis],) who had 400; the
Zeugitae, who had 300; and the Thetes, (capite censi,) whose yearly
revenue did not amount to so much.--The ancient divisions according
to heads, into wards, ([Greek: phylai],) of which there were four,
and according to residence into demi, (hundreds,) of which a
hundred and seventy are enumerated, were preserved. (_b_) None but
citizens of the three first classes could fill all the offices of
state; but all were admitted to the popular assemblies, and had a
right of voting in the courts of judicature. (_c_) The nine archons
annually chosen, who acted as supreme magistrates, although not
permitted to assume military office at the same time, remained at
the head of the state; the first bearing the name of [Greek:
eponumos], the second of [Greek: basileus], the third of [Greek:
polemarchos], the remaining six that of [Greek: thesmothetai].
Combined with the archons was (_d_) The council, ([Greek: boule],)
which consisted of a body of four hundred persons annually taken
from the three first classes of citizens; (a hundred from each
ward;) these were chosen by lot, but were obliged to submit to a
rigid examination ([Greek: dokimasia]) before they entered upon
office. The archons were obliged to consult the four hundred on
every occurrence; and nothing could be carried down to the commons
until it had been previously debated in this council. (_e_) To the
people, consisting of the whole four classes, was reserved the
right in its assemblies ([Greek: ekklesiai]) of confirming the
laws, of electing the magistrates, of debating all public affairs
referred to them by the council, and likewise the public
distribution of justice. (_f_) The areopagus was, according to
Solon's plan, to be the main buttress of the constitution; that
tribunal had hitherto been a mere tool in the hands of the
aristocracy. It was composed of retired archons, and remained not
only the supreme tribunal in capital cases, but likewise was
charged with the superintendence of morals, with the censorship
upon the conduct of the archons who went out of office, and had the
prerogative of amending or rescinding the measures that had been
approved of by the commons. The power of this court, which might
easily have become equal to the college of Ephori at Sparta, might
at first have been supposed too extensive, had not experience shown
the fatal consequences of the reduction of that power by Pericles.
This alloy of aristocracy and democracy certainly gives proof of a
deep insight into the nature of republican constitutions; but Solon
is not less entitled to praise for his endeavours to place the helm
of government in the hands only of the most enlightened and prudent
citizens. It must likewise be observed, that the code for private
life given by Solon exhibits the genius of a man who regarded
polity as subordinate to morals, and not, like Lycurgus, morals as
subordinate to polity.

SAM. PETITUS, _De Legibus Atticis_, 1635. fol. The best compilation
and illustration of the fragments remaining of the Attic law.

CHR. BUNSEN, _De jure Atheniensium hereditario, ex Isaeo caeterisque
oratoribus Graecis ducto_, Goett. 1812. The law of inheritance was a
principal feature in Solon's legislation; the explanation of it
requires a profound acquaintance with the constitution, so far as
it was connected with government by clans or families.

An explanation of the Athenian constitution will be likewise found
in the above-mentioned works of Tittmann, Kruse, and Wachsmuth.

15. The legislation of Solon, like all other state reforms, was not followed by the total extinction of party spirit. It was natural that the commons, now free, should wish to try their strength with the aristocratical party, and that, after the defeat of the latter, Pisistratus, who headed the commons, should grasp the rudder of the state without, therefore, necessarily abrogating the constitution of Solon. Modern history has proved with sufficient evidence, that the frame-work of a republic may easily subsist under the rule of an usurper. And would that no republics might fall into the hands of a worse tyrant than Pisistratus!

First exaltation of Pisistratus, 561, procured by his obtaining a
body guard; flight of the Alcmaeonidae under Megacles. Pisistratus
expelled, 560. Second exaltation of Pisistratus procured by his
matrimonial connection with the family of Megacles, 556-552.--His
second expulsion by Megacles, 552-538.--His third exaltation;
obtains the power by force of arms, and preserves it to the day of
his death, 538-528. Flight of the Alcmaeonidae into Macedonia, where
they attach the malcontents to their party. Pisistratus is
succeeded by his sons Hipparchus and Hippias, who rule conjointly
until 514, when the elder is murdered by Harmodius and Aristogiton.
The exiled Alcmaeonidae, having bribed the Delphian oracle, gain over
the Spartans to their interest: backed by a Spartan army, they
take possession of Athens in 510; Hippias is deposed, and flies
over to the Persians.

16. This return of the Alcmaeonidae was followed by a change in the constitution of Solon. Clisthenes, the son of Megacles, with a view of quenching party spirit by a new combination of the citizens, increased the number of wards to ten, and that of the members of the council to five hundred.--But the Athenians had to purchase the continuance of their freedom by a struggle with Sparta, who, united with the Boeotians and Chalcidians, and aided by Aegina, sought to reestablish monarchy in Attica; first in the person of Isagoras, the rival of Clisthenes, and afterwards in that of the exiled Hippias. But the glorious success of the republic in this first struggle in the cause of liberty, gave an additional impulse to the national spirit. Impelled by that spirit, Athens suffered herself to be induced to share in the war of freedom carried on by the Asiatic Greeks under Aristagoras; and the audacity which led to the firing of Sardis, drew upon Attica the vengeance of the Persians, without which, doubtless, neither Athens or Greece would ever have risen to that degree of eminence which they ultimately attained.

17. Of the history of the other states of Greece we have at best but few data, and even these in most instances are very scanty. Towards the end of this period Sparta and Athens had, undoubtedly, exalted themselves above the rest, and were recognized, one as the first among the Dorian, the latter as the first among the Ionian states; yet did Sparta more than once meet with rivals in Messene, Argos, and Tegea: while Athens had to contend with Megara and Aegina. Sparta and Athens had, nevertheless, not only the best constitutions, but possessed also a more extended territory than any other of the great cities.

_Principal data for the history of the smaller states._

I. _Within the Peloponnesus._

_a._ Arcadia. The Arcadian traditions enumerate a line of kings or
hereditary princes, said to have ruled over the whole of Arcadia;
the line commences with Arcas and his son Lycaon, whose successors
kept possession of the supreme power, and shared more or less in
the ancient feuds of the Hellenic princes. Upon the conquest of
Peloponnesus by the Dorians, Arcadia was the only land that did not
suffer by the irruption: an advantage for which it was probably
indebted more to its mountains, than to the skill of Cypselus its
king. The successors of that prince took a part in the wars between
the Messenians and Spartans, siding with the former: but in the
second Messenian war, the last Arcadian king, Aristocrates II.
having betrayed his allies, was in consequence stoned to death by
his subjects, and the regal dignity was abolished in 668. Arcadia
now became divided into as many small states as it contained cities
with their respective districts; among these Tegea and Mantinea
were the chief, and probably held the others in a certain state of
control, without, however, depriving them wholly of their
independence. As might have been expected in a pastoral nation, the
constitution was democratical. In Mantinea there were wardens of
the people, ([Greek: demiourgoi],) and a senate, ([Greek: boule].)
The wars of separate cities are frequently mentioned, but no
general confederation united them.

# See A. VON BREITENBAUCH, _History of Arcadia_, 1791.

_b._ Argos. Even previously to the Dorian migration, the country of
Argolis was parcelled out into several small kingdoms, such as
those of Argos, Mycenae, and Tiryns. In Argos, the oldest Grecian
state next to Sicyon, ruled the forefathers of Perseus, who
exchanged the kingdom of his ancestors for Tiryns: here his
successors continued to reign till the time of Hercules, whose
sons, expelled by Eurystheus, sought an asylum among the
Dorians.--In Mycenae, said to have been built by Perseus, the throne
was occupied by the family of Pelops: and at the period of the
Trojan war, this little state, to which Corinth and Sicyon then
belonged, was the most powerful in Greece, and governed by
Agamemnon. The migration into this country by Pelops from Asia
Minor, must have been attended with important consequences, since
it has given a name to the whole peninsula: the object of Pelops,
as we may infer from the riches he brought with him, was probably
to establish a trading settlement.--At the Dorian conquest Argos
fell to the share of Temenus, the Achaeans were expelled, and the
country was peopled by Dorians. As early as the reign of Cisus, son
of Temenus, the royal power was so limited, that the successors of
that prince hardly preserved any thing but the mere name: about 984
the regal dignity was wholly abrogated, and its place supplied by a
republican constitution, concerning the domestic organization of
which we know nothing more than that at Argos the government was in
the hands of a senate, ([Greek: boule],) of a college of eighty
citizens, ([Greek: hoi ogdoekonta],) and of magistrates, who bore
the name of [Greek: artynoi]: in Epidaurus, however, there was a
body of one hundred and eighty citizens who chose from among
themselves the senate, the members of which were called [Greek:
artynoi]. As in the other states of Greece so in Argolis, there
were as many independent states as there were cities; in the north
Argos, Mycenae, and Tiryns; in the south Epidaurus and Troezen. The
two last preserved their independence; but Mycenae was destroyed by
the Argives in 425, and the inhabitants of Tiryns were forcibly
transplanted to Argos. The district of Argos, therefore, comprised
the northern portion of the country called Argolis; but not the
southern portion, which belonged to the towns situated therein.

_c._ Corinth. In this place, previous to the time of the Dorian
migration, the house of Sisyphus held the royal power; and even at
that early period Corinth is extolled by Homer for its wealth. The
Dorians drove out the original inhabitants; and Aletes, belonging
to the race of Hercules, became king about 1089; the posterity of
that prince held the sceptre down to the fifth generation. After
the death of the last king, Telessus, 777, the family of the
Bacchiadae, likewise a branch of the family of Hercules, took
possession of the government and introduced an oligarchy, electing
annually from among themselves a Prytane. At last, in 657, Cypselus
got the upper hand; he was succeeded, 627, by his son Periander;
both father and son were equally conspicuous for their avarice and
cruelty. Periander (_d._ 587) was succeeded by his nephew
Psammetichus, who reigned till 584, when the Corinthians asserted
their freedom. With regard to the internal organization of the
republic, little more is known than that there were at Corinth
assemblies of the commons and a senate, ([Greek: gerousia]): the
government appears to have been the aristocracy of a trading state;
for even the Bacchiadae, at least some of them, were merchants.--The
Corinthian commerce consisted chiefly in the exchange of Asiatic
and Italian goods, and therefore was mostly carried on by sea: for
such a trade the city of Corinth offered many advantages,
particularly if we consider the state of navigation in those times;
but the sea trade of Corinth, however profitable to the citizens,
and even to the state, in consequence of the customs, cannot be
considered as very extensive.--The colonies of Corinth in the west
were principally Corcyra, Epidamnus, Leucas, Syracuse; in the east
Potidaea: these colonies would fain have asserted a sort of
independence, but never succeeded for any length of time in so
doing.

From the possession of these colonies, and from the necessity of
protecting the trader from pirates, Corinth grew to be a naval
power; she invented triremes, and at the early date of 664 gave
battle to the Corcyraeans at sea. On the other hand, her wars by
land were generally waged with the assistance of foreign
subsidiaries; and from the facility with which she was enabled to
pay her mercenary troops, she was the more ready to interfere in
the domestic wars of Greece.

_d._ Sicyon. Tradition represents this state, together with Argos,
as the most ancient in Greece; the catalogues of early kings and
princes, who are said to have reigned at this place, make it
probable that in early antiquity some settlements of priests were
made in this quarter. In the times previous to the migration of the
Dorians, Sicyon was first inhabited by the Ionians; at the Trojan
war, however, it made part of Agamemnon's kingdom. At the Dorian
irruption, Phalces, son of Temenus, took possession of Sicyon,
which then became a Dorian city. After the abrogation of the
kingship, the date of which is not precisely known, the
constitution assumed the form of an uncurbed democracy, which, as
usual, paved the way for the usurpation of one individual.
Orthagoras and his posterity, the last and most celebrated of whom
was Clisthenes, ruled over Sicyon during a whole century; 700-600.
After the restoration of her freedom, Sicyon frequently suffered
from revolutions; and the period of her highest splendour was
during the latter days of Greece, when she became a member of the
Achaean league.

_e._ Achaia. During the spread of the Hellenes, this country, which
till then had borne the name of Aegialus, was taken possession of by
Ion, who had been expelled from Athens, and his tribe, who from
their leader took the name of Ionians: the country remained in the
hands of the Ionians until the Dorian migration, when the Achaeans,
driven out of Argos and Laconia, pressed into the northern parts of
Peloponnesus under Tisamenus, son of Orestes: they settled in the
land of the Ionians, and the power of the chieftain descended to
his posterity, until the tyranny of the last sovereign of that
race, Gyges, (of date undetermined,) produced the abolition of
monarchy. Achaia thereupon was parcelled into twelve small
republics, or so many cities with their respective districts, each
of which comprised seven or eight cantons. All these republics had
democratic constitutions, and were mutually united by a league,
founded on the most perfect equality, and which nothing but the
policy of the Macedonian kings could dissolve; and even this
dissolution gave rise to the _Achaean_ league, of such high
importance in subsequent times. The Achaeans lived in peace and
happiness, inasmuch as they had not the vanity, before the
Peloponnesian war, to interfere in the affairs of foreign states:
their constitutions were so renowned, that they were adopted by
several other Grecian cities.

_f._ Elis. The inhabitants in earlier times bore the name of
Epeans, which, like that of Eleans, was traced to one of their
ancient kings. The names of their most ancient hereditary princes,
Endymion, Epeus, Eleus, Augias, are celebrated by the poets. It
appears that this country was divided into several small kingdoms,
since, at the period of the Trojan war it contained four, to which
however must be added Pylus in Triphylia, a territory usually
reckoned as belonging to Elis. At the epoch of the Dorian migration
the Aetolians, who had accompanied the Dorians, headed by their
chieftain Oxylus, settled in Elis; but permitted the ancient
inhabitants to remain in the country. Among the successors of
Oxylus was Iphitus the contemporary of Lycurgus, and celebrated as
the restorer of the Olympian games, to the celebration of which
Elis was indebted for the tranquil splendour that distinguished her
from this time: her territory being regarded as sacred, although
she had occasional disputes with her neighbours, the Arcadians, for
precedence at the games. After the abolition of the royal power
supreme magistrates were chosen, to whose office was added the
charge of superintending the games: (Hellanodicae). These
magistrates were at first two; they were afterwards increased to
ten, one from each tribe, although their number frequently changed
with that of the tribes themselves. There must likewise have been a
senate, consisting of ninety persons, who held their places for
life, since Aristotle makes mention of that branch of the Elean
constitution. The city of Elis was first built in 477, before which
time the Eleans resided in several small hamlets.

II. _Central Greece, or Hellas._

_a._ Megaris. Until the epoch of the Dorian migration, this state
generally formed part of the domain of the Attic kings; or at
least was governed by princes of that house. Immediately previous
to that event, the Megarians, after the assassination of their
last sovereign, Hyperion, placed the government in the hands of
magistrates elected for stated periods. At the time of the Dorian
irruption, under the reign of Codrus, Megara was occupied by
Dorians, more especially those of Corinth, who consequently
reckoned the city among their colonies, and during the sway of the
Bacchiadae endeavoured to keep it in a state of dependency; a
circumstance which gave rise to several wars. Nevertheless Megara
supported her rank as a separate state, both in those and many
subsequent wars among the Greeks, in which she took a share both
by sea and land. About the year 600, Theagenes, step-father of the
Athenian Cylon, had possessed himself of the supreme power: after
the expulsion of that tyrant, the republican constitution was once
more restored, but soon after merged into the lowest species of
democracy. Megara, however, even at the period of the Persian war,
in which it took a glorious share, appears to have recovered the
character of a well-ordered state, although we have no information
respecting its internal organization.

_b._ Boeotia. History mentions several very early races in
Boeotia, such as the Aones, Hyantes, etc.; with these were mingled
Phoenician emigrants, who had come into the country under the
guidance of Cadmus. The stock of Cadmus became the ruling family,
and remained so for a long time: the history of his descendants,
who were kings of Thebes, and comprised under their dominion the
greatest part of Boeotia, constitutes a main branch of Grecian
mythology: among them were Oedipus, Laius, Eteocles, and
Polynices. After the capture of Thebes by the Epigoni, 1215, the
Boeotians were expelled by Thracian hordes, and settled at Arne in
Thessaly; at the time of the Dorian migration they returned to the
land of their forefathers, and mingled with the Aeolians of those
quarters. Not long after, upon the death of Xuthus, royalty was
abolished, 1126. Boeotia was now divided into as many small states
as it contained cities; of these, next to Thebes, the most eminent
were the towns of Plataeae, Thespiae, Tanagra, and Chaeronea, each
of which had its own separate district and peculiar form of
government; but all those constitutions appear to have been
commuted into oligarchies about the time of the Persian war. Such
had been the case even with Thebes, although she had received as a
legislator, Philolaus from Corinth; but the code given by this
individual cannot have been attended with the desired effect, as
the government was continually fluctuating between a licentious
democracy and an overbearing oligarchy. The Boeotian cities were,
however, mutually united by a league, at the head of which stood
Thebes, who gradually converted her right of precedence into a
right of power, although her ambitious attempts were resisted to
the last extremity by the separate cities, and by Plataeae in
particular: hence sprung many wars. The general affairs were
decided upon in four assemblies, ([Greek: boulai],) held in the
four districts into which Boeotia was divided; these assemblies in
conjunction elected eleven Boeotarchs, who stood at the head of
the federation as supreme magistrates and field marshals. The
great extent and population of their territory might have enabled
the Boeotians to act the first part on the theatre of Greece, had
they not been impeded by their pernicious form of government, by
the envy felt against Thebes, and by the want of union which
naturally ensued. Yet in subsequent times the example of
Epaminondas and Pelopidas gave proof that the genius of two men
was sufficient to surmount all these obstacles.

_c._ Phocis was originally ruled by kings descended, it is said,
from Phocus, the leader of a colony from Corinth. The sovereign
power was abolished about the time of the Dorian migration; but
the form of the republican constitution which succeeded remains
undetermined; and of the undertakings of the Phocians previous to
the Persian invasion, we know nothing more than that they waged
war with the Thessalians, and were successful. As history never
mentions the Phocians but in the aggregate, the whole territory
must have formed but one independent state. To that state,
however, the city of Delphi, which had its own constitution, did
not belong: the city of Crissa with its fertile district, and the
harbour of Cirrha, constituted a separate state, which became
opulent by practising extortions upon the pilgrims to Delphi: this
state lasted till 600, when, in consequence of the insults of the
Crissaeans to the Delphian oracle, a war was proclaimed against
them by the Amphictyons, which ended in 590 with the rasing of
Crissa; the land of which was thenceforward added to the sacred
glebe of Delphi.

_d._ Locris. Although we learn from early history that the
Locrians also had their kings,--among whom Ajax, the son of
Oileus, is renowned in the Trojan war,--and that they likewise in
subsequent times adopted a republican form of government; yet the
date of that revolution, and the manner in which it was brought
about, are not known. The three tribes of Locrians remained
politically distinct. The Locri Ozolae, west of Phocis, possessed
the most extensive territory; each city of which stood
independent, though Amphissa is mentioned as the capital. The
country of the Locri Opuntii, eastward, consisted of the district
appertaining to the city of Opus; of their domestic organization,
as well as that of their neighbours, the Locri Epicnemidii, we
know nothing.

_e._ Aetolia. The Aetolians remained the most rude and uncivilized
of all the Hellenic races; they were little more than a band of
freebooters, and carried on their predatory excursions both by sea
and land. Renowned as are the names of their earliest heroes,
Aetolus, Peneus, Meleager, Diomede, the nation has no place in the
history of the flourishing times of Greece. Nor did they acquire
any celebrity until the Macedo-Roman period, when the various
insignificant tribes of which they were composed gathered
themselves together and chose one common leader, for the purpose
of carrying on a war with the Achaeans. The earlier period of
their history seems, however, to afford no previous example of
such an union; their political constitution in those times is
wholly unknown.

_f._ Acarnania. This country derived its name from Acarnan, son of
Alcmaeon, both of whom are adduced as its earliest kings. In the
Trojan age it appears beyond a doubt, that some part at least of
this country was subject to the governors of the island of Ithaca.
When and how a republican government was introduced among the
Acarnanians, and what were the peculiarities of that government we
know not. All that can be distinguished through the veil of time
is, that here likewise the different cities, the most important of
which was Stratus, had each its own form of government. Those
cities upon particular emergencies were wont to combine; and out
of that practice in later times, during the Macedonian period,
grew up a permanent confederation. The city and district of Argos
Amphilochicum constituted a separate state, which endured a long
time, and flourished greatly; it derived its name from
Amphilochus, the founder. The inhabitants, however, being driven
out by the Ambracians, whom they had themselves called in, sought
assistance at the hands of the Acarnanians, who with the help of
Athens, replaced the exiles in possession of their city, which
thenceforward was inhabited in common by Amphilochians and
Acarnanians, and was almost constantly engaged in war with
Ambracia.

III. _Northern Greece._

_a._ The importance of Thessaly in the earliest history of Greece,
may be gathered from the principal data enumerated above for the
history of the Pelasgi and the Hellenes. From this country it was
that the Hellenes proceeded and spread over Greece; and here
likewise they maintained their original seat. In the Trojan age
Thessaly contained ten small kingdoms, governed by hereditary
princes, several of whom, such as Achilles and Philoctetes, were
among the most renowned heroes of the time. In the period
subsequent to the Trojan war and the Dorian migration, Thessaly
must have experienced political revolutions similar to those of
the other Grecian countries; but neither the time nor the manner
in which those revolutions occurred can be ascertained. All that
can be deduced from the subsequent history is, that if the
Thessalian cities ever did recover their political freedom, they
were unable to maintain it; for in the two most eminent cities,
Pherae and Larissa, with whose history that of the whole country is
closely connected, the supreme power had fallen into the hands of
arbitrary individuals, who appear to have kept possession of it
almost without interruption. Even before the breaking out of the
Persian war, Larissa was under the rule of the Aleuadae; a family
who claimed descent from Hercules, and are specially denominated
by Herodotus kings of the Thessalians. They preserved their power
until the Macedonian period.--In Pherae there arose about the year
380, a tyrant, by the name of Jason, who extended his dominion not
only over Thessaly, but likewise over several of the neighbouring
barbarous tribes. The sceptre of Jason passed rapidly and
successively into the hands of his three brothers, Polydorus,
Polyphron, and Alexander. The last was first driven out of Larissa
by the Aleuadae, assisted by the Macedonians; was afterwards
worsted in war by Pelopidas; and finally, at the instigation of
his wife Thebe, was murdered, 356, by her brothers, Lycophron and
Tisiphonus. The two murderers then assumed the supreme power, but
were, in compliance with the request of the Aleuadae, deposed by
Philip of Macedon.--Some other such tyrants are met with at
intervals in the rest of the Thessalian cities, such as
_Pharsalus_, etc.

_b._ Epirus. This country was occupied by several tribes, partly
Greek and partly barbarian. The most powerful of these was that of
the Molossi, who were governed by kings of the house of the
Aeacidae, descendants of Pyrrhus, the son of Achilles. This Greek
family was the only one that held the kingly power for a
permanency; it must be observed, however, that previous to the
Macedonian period, those sovereigns were by no means lords of the
whole of Epirus; for the other non-Hellenic races, such as the
Thesprotii, Orestii, etc. had their own separate kings. Moreover
the Corinthian colony of Ambracia constituted a distinct state,
generally governed as a republic, although sometimes subject to
the rule of tyrants. But, in consequence of an alliance framed
with the Macedonian kings, the whole of Epirus, and even Ambracia
itself, was placed under the sceptre of the Molossian kings; and
some of those princes, Pyrrhus II. more especially, rose to be
mighty conquerors. See below.

IV. _Grecian Islands._

Both the islands off the coast of Greece, and those of the
Archipelago, all underwent the same political revolutions as
occurred in the states on the main land. But those events did not
take place till after the more ancient non-Hellenic inhabitants,
such as the Phoenicians, Carians, etc. had been driven out, and
the land had been taken possession of by the Hellenes. In the more
extensive islands, which contained several cities, there generally
arose as many small republics as there were towns, and those
little states were wont to enter into mutual alliances. The
smaller islands, containing but one city, formed each one small
independent state, the territory of which comprised the whole
island. The respective independence of these islands ceased to
exist at the period of the Trojan war; for after the Athenians had
by their success placed themselves at the head of confederate
Greece, and possessed themselves of the sovereignty of the sea,
these smaller states, although called confederates, were treated
little better than subjects, except that their political
constitutions were not changed.--Among the islands of the Grecian
coast, the most remarkable in history are the following:

_a._ Corcyra, a colony of Corinth, important for its naval power
and trade, in which it rivalled the mother state itself: a rivalry
which occasioned many feuds and wars, and was even one of the
principal motives that led to the Peloponnesian war. About the
time this struggle began Corcyra had attained the height of her
power, being able, without foreign aid, to man a fleet of 120
galleys. The constitution appears, as at Corinth, to have been
aristocratic, or oligarchical: but after the Persian war a
democratic faction arose, which produced the most violent internal
commotions, and ended in the total ruin of Corcyra.

_b._ Aegina. This small island was, after the Dorian migration,
occupied by colonists from Epidaurus; it however soon shook off
the yoke of the mother city, and rapidly grew by commerce and
navigation, to be one of the first Grecian states. Aegina was for a
long time the rival of Athens; over whom her naval power enabled
her to maintain a superiority until the time of the Persian war.
Humbled, however, by Themistocles, 485, she could no longer
support herself against the preponderating influence of Athens;
and although subsequently she made another stand for independence,
458, the consequences were but an increase of oppression. Neither
must it be forgotten, that Aegina suffered much, even before the
Persian war, from internal broils, caused by the bitterness of
party spirit engendered between the aristocratic and democratic
factions.

C. O. MUELLER, _Aegineticorum liber_, 1817. This treatise contains
not only the political history, but likewise that of trade and
arts.

_c._ Euboea. The different cities of this island, Chalcis and
Eretria in particular, had each its separate domestic
constitution: in the two towns above mentioned the constitution
was aristocratic, since the government was in the hands of the
opulent, (Hippobatae;) nevertheless we hear of tyrants in Chalcis.
After the Persian war Euboea became dependent upon Athens, which
drew from that island a portion of her supplies and provisions.
The oppression of the Athenians stirred up the minds of the
Euboeans to rebellion, and the islanders were in the sequel ever
ready to throw up their allegiance when a suitable opportunity
presented itself; such an opportunity was seized in 446, when the
island was recovered by Pericles; and the attempt was renewed in
the Peloponnesian war.

_d._ The Cyclades were first colonized by Crete, during the reign
of Minos. The Carian race had in earlier times spread over these
islands, but were gradually driven out by Hellenic invaders,
belonging principally to the Ionian and Dorian families. The most
important was Delos, chief seat of the Ionians. Sheltered under
the protection of Apollo, this place became the centre of an
extensive trade, and during the Persian war, 479, was selected for
the treasury of Greece. Next was Paros, famed for its marble, and
for the stand it made against Miltiades, 489, although it
afterwards shared the fate of the other islands, and passed under
the dominion of the Athenians. We know little of the constitution
of the other smaller islands; each of them contained one city of
the same name as the island which constituted its territory.

_e._ Crete. The inhabitants of Crete were not pure Hellenes, but
of alloyed origin, such as Curetes, Pelasgi, etc. mingled with
whom were Hellenes, of the Dorian and Aeolian stock. In the earlier
periods, Crete had her kings, the most celebrated of whom were
Minos, about 1300, probably first sovereign of the whole island;
his brother Rhadamanthus, Idomeneus, Meriones, who followed
Idomeneus to the Trojan war, and succeeded him upon the throne:
the last king Etearchus, about 800, after whose death a republican
form of government was introduced. Under these kings Crete was
powerful on sea: to Minos is ascribed the honour of having by his
fleets purged the Aegaean of pirates, occupied the islands, and
ensured security to the mariner. To him likewise is attributed the
Cretan legislation, the model, it is said, of that given to Sparta
by Lycurgus. But the uncertainty as to what does and what does not
belong to Minos, is in this case even greater than in that of
Lycurgus; many of the laws referred to Minos are probably nothing
more than ancient Dorian institutions. The insular situation which
in some measure ensured Crete from foreign inroads, and the
proximity of Egypt and Phoenicia must indubitably have contributed
to expand the germ of political civilization. The abolition of the
kingly office seems to have been the effect of internal
commotions, to which Crete continued to be frequently exposed,
even under a republican form of government. Those commotions
originated in the jealousy between the two largest cities, Gortina
and Cnossus, which, when united, ruled the rest; but when at war,
shook the whole island, until the city of Cydonia, passing over to
one of the sides, gave a turn to the balance. The laws instituted
by Minos respecting private life were enforced in all the cities
of the island; but declined at an earlier period than in the
country. Each city had its own constitution; each possessed it
senate, ([Greek: gerousia],) at the head of which were ten
censors, ([Greek: kosmoi],) chosen from certain families: these
cosmi were not only prime magistrates, but likewise invested with
the command in war, not often, it is true, waged by the Cretans
against other nations, but, for that reason, more frequently with
one another; a circumstance which must have necessarily
contributed to corrupt, not only their constitution, but likewise
their national character.

MEURSII _Creta, Rhodus, Cyprus_, 1675, 4to. Very laborious
compilations. New light, however, has been thrown upon the subject
by the inscriptions published in

CHISHULL'S _Antiq. Asiaticae_; 1728, folio. A work which has been
made use of by

ST. CROIX, _Des anciens gouvernemens_, etc. (See above, p. 131.)
The principal work upon Crete.

# C. HOECK, Crete. An attempt to explain the mythology, history,
etc. of this island, 1823.

_f._ Cyprus. This island, like Crete, was inhabited by a race of
mixed origin, who, even in the time of Herodotus, traced their
descent from Phoenicians, Africans, (Ethiopians,) from Greeks out
of Arcadia, Attica, and the island of Salamis; of which last the
city of Salamis, founded by Teucer about 1160, was a colony. There
can be no doubt, that in earlier times the Phoenicians were for a
long period the dominant race in the island; since in the
flourishing days of Tyre the Cyprians rebelled against their
oppressors, at the same time that Psalmanezer led an expedition
against the former city, about 720: moreover, even in the present
day, Phoenician monuments are still found in the island. From that
time to the Persian period, there appears to have been a close
connection between this island and the Phoenicians, although the
Cyprians preserved their independence. Several smaller kingdoms
afterwards arose in various cities of the island; the number of
which in subsequent times amounted to nine, and under Amasis,
about 550, were tributary to the Egyptians; and under Cambyses,
525, to the Persians: notwithstanding this species of subjection,
the various states preserved their own kings. During the Persian
dominion, the Cyprians more than once joined in the insurrections
against the Persians; more particularly the kings of Salamis, now
become the most powerful. So early as the year 500, Onesilus
joined the Ionian rebels, but was defeated. In the wars which
afterwards ensued between the Persians and Greeks, Cyprus was
frequently attacked by the combined Grecian fleets; as in 470 by
Pausanias, and during the reign of Evagoras I. 449, by Cimon, who
died at the siege of Citium; yet the Persians were not driven out,
but appear to have kept their footing even after the peace of 449.
Among the subsequent kings of Salamis was Evagoras II. (400-390,)
who was master of the greatest portion of the island; but as in
the peace of Antalcidas Cyprus was ceded to the Persians, he was
obliged to wage a hot war against them, in which he lost every
thing but Salamis. Finally, the Cyprians, in 356, took a part in
the insurrection of the Phoenicians and Egyptians: thereupon the
Persians sent an army against them, under the command of a younger
Evagoras, (who had been banished by his uncle Protagoras,) and
under that of the Athenian Phocion Salamis was besieged, but
matters were made up by a negotiation. The nine small kingdoms of
the island continued to exist till the time of Alexander, whom
they voluntarily joined during the siege of Tyre, 332, and
thenceforward Cyprus constituted a part of the Macedonian
monarchy.

2. _History of the Grecian Colonies._

To assist the student in obtaining a general view of the events
connected with the Greek colonies, the history of them will be
here carried on through the subsequent period.

RAOUL ROCHETTE, _Histoire critique de l'etablissement des Colonies
Grecques_, Paris, 1815, 4 vols. The most comprehensive treatise on
the subject: it comprises the earlier Pelasgian and the later
Macedonian colonies, as well as those of the Hellenes. There is
much erudition displayed in this work, but sufficient attention is
not paid to the value of the authorities made use of.

# D. H. HEGEWISCH, _Geographic and Historic Documents relative to
the Colonies of the Greeks_, Altona, 1808, 8vo. A brief review of
the subject.

ST. CROIX, _De l'etat et du sort des Colonies des anciens
peuples_, Paris, 1786. A series of valuable and important
enquiries.

1. No nation of antiquity ever founded so many colonies as the Greeks: these colonies became so important in various respects, that an acquaintance with them is indispensably requisite towards understanding the more early history of the world. Not only is the history of the civilization of the mother country and that of early trade intimately connected with these settlements, but some of them grew to such power as to have the greatest influence on political history.

2. The Grecian colonies, to which the following observations apply, are those founded by the Hellenes in the time which elapsed between the Dorian migration and the Macedonian period. It appears certain that before the date of that migration some Pelasgian, and perhaps even some Hellenic settlers passed over into Italy. The history of these colonies however is not only involved in obscurity, but it is besides known that they ceased after a time to be Greek. The later settlements of the Macedonians were of a quite different nature from those of the Hellenes, to which we now allude.

3. The Hellenic race spread alike to the east and to the west of Greece, their settlements, however, were confined to the shores of the Mediterranean and Black sea. The countries in which their principal colonies were established, were Asia Minor and Thrace in the east; the coasts of Lower Italy and Sicily in the west. Nevertheless particular settlements were to be found scattered here and there on the shores of most other countries.

4. The Grecian colonies had their origin either in political motives, being generally made in accordance with the express command or advice of an oracle, (for the propagation of the religion of the parent state was always connected therewith,) or, in commercial speculations; the former was the case, almost without exception, with the settlements made by the mother country herself; the latter, with those which had branched out of such colonies as had already exalted themselves by their commerce. In fact, almost all the Grecian colonies applied more or less to trade, even when that was not the sole object of their foundation.

5. The connection existing between the colonies and the mother cities was generally determined by the same causes that led to their foundation. In those cases where a city had been founded by malcontent or banished emigrants, all dependence on the mother country was naturally out of the question; and even in the colonies established for the purposes of trade, that dependence was but feeble and brief; the mother cities failing in power, if not in will, to enforce it. The very independence of so many colonies, made (almost without exception) in countries preeminently favoured by nature in productions and climate, and so situated as to oblige the inhabitants to navigation and commerce, must have given a great impulse to the civilization of the Hellenic race, and may be regarded as the main cause of its rapid progress and wide extension; wider indeed than that of any other nation of the ancient world. What a variety of political ideas must have been formed among a people whose settlements, more than a hundred in number, had each its own peculiar form of government.

6. Of the Greek colonies, the most ancient, and in many respects the most important, were those along the western coast of Asia Minor, extending from the Hellespont to the boundary of Cilicia. Here, ever since the Trojan war, which first made these countries generally known, Hellenes of the three great families, Aeolians, Ionians, and Dorians had planted settlements. These were the most important for trade; and here likewise in the native country of Homer, the father of Grecian civilization, of Alcaeus, and of Sappho, poesy, both epic and lyric, expanded her first and fairest blossoms; and hence too, the mother country herself received the first impulse of moral and cultivated taste.