Chapter IX: Part III: , European Nations; of which only 1 volume, Greeks, has (1)

been published.]

2. _Manuals_, or epitomes.

The Germans are entitled to the merit of having first produced
manuals of ancient history, all of them useful, some excellent, in
their kind: they are a result of the progress made in this science
at the universities.

# J. CHR. GATTERER, _Attempt at an Universal History of the World
to the discovery of America_. Gottingen, 1792. He who possesses
this, the last and ripest fruit of Gatterer's studies, may dispense
with the earlier manuals published by that author.

# CHR. DAN. BECK, _A Short Introduction to the Knowledge of the
Universal History of the World and of Nature_. Leipzic, 1798. The
first part connected with our subject extends to A. D. 843. This
volume is enriched with such a copious and critical account of
books relating to ancient history, that it may supply the place of
a particular work on the subject.

# J. A. REMER, _Manual of the more Ancient History, from the
creation of the world to the great migration_. Fourth edition.
Brunswick, 1832.

# J. M. SCHROECKH, _Manual of Universal History_. 1774: latest
edition, 1795.

# G. S. BREDOW, _Manual of Ancient History, with a sketch of the
chronology of the ancients_. Altona, 1799, 8vo. [Translated into
English. Lond. 1828, 12mo. In English we have:

_The Outlines of History_, in 1 vol. (forming part of Lardner's
Cabinet Cyclopaedia) by Mr. KEIGHTLY, author of a learned and
highly useful work on Grecian Mythology, is a convenient
abridgement. TYTLER'S _Elements of General History_, improved and
continued by Dr. NARES. Lond. 1825, best edition; owes its
reputation and success to the want of a better work on the
subject.]

3. _Helps._

Among the works subservient to the study of ancient history, the
first rank is justly due to the synchronistic tables.

# D. G. J. HUEBLER, _Synchronistic Tables of the History of
Nations_; arranged principally according to GATTERER'S _History of
the World_. In two numbers. Second edit. 1799 and 1804.

1. The object of POLITICAL HISTORY is to recount the destinies of nations, both in respect to their foreign relations and internal affairs. In regard to domestic concerns, one of its most important objects is the _history of governments_: in respect to external affairs, it comprises not only an account of the wars, but likewise of the friendly relations and intercourse with other states.

Observe here the difference between universal history, or general
history of the human race, and the history of nations; the latter
forms part of the former. Observe also the difference between
political history and that of civilization, or of man as a human
being: the latter is merely the history of man, as man, without
regard to political circumstances.

2. Universal political history is usually divided into three parts: _ancient history_, that of the _middle ages_, and _modern history_. The first extends to the fall of the Roman empire in the west, which took place towards the close of the fifth century of the christian era; the second extends to the discovery of America, and of a passage by sea to the East Indies, about the end of the fifteenth century; the third extends from the commencement of the sixteenth century to the present time.

The propriety of the above division is evinced by the nature of the
events which form these epochs. The student will easily perceive that
the division of history, into that before and after the birth of
Christ, is not judicious.

3. From the definition just given, it follows, that political history does not commence till after the first formation of states. Whatever is known, therefore, of the period previous to this, or may be gathered from traditions, respecting individuals or tribes, or their migrations, affinities, or discoveries, forms no part of political history, but must be referred to the general history of man.

It is well known that a great deal of information has been preserved
in the sacred writings concerning the early fortunes of the human
race. From these materials have been compiled what has been called
an _Historia Antediluviana_, sometimes considered as forming a
separate division of history. What has been said above will
satisfactorily account for the omission of this portion of history
in the present work; although none can deny the high importance of
such traditions in the investigation of the origin, dispersion, and
civilization of the human race.

4. The sources of history may be ranged under sources of two general heads; _oral traditions_, and _written documents_ of various kinds. The history of every nation usually commences with oral tradition, which remains the only source, until the art of writing becomes known, and in some degree adopted by the people.

5. Under the name of _traditional history_ or _mythology_, is comprehended all the general collection of oral traditions preserved by a nation; and some such traditional history or mythology is to be found among every people in the first stage of their existence as a community. This mythology, however, is by no means confined to events strictly historical, but embraces every branch of information which may appear to a nation in its infancy, of sufficient importance to be preserved and handed down to posterity.

Hence the mythology of a people is invariably composed of very
heterogeneous materials; it not only preserves the remembrance of
various kinds of historical facts, but likewise the pervading ideas
of the people with respect to the nature and worship of their
deities; as well as the notions they had formed from observations
and experience respecting astronomy, morals, the arts, etc. All
these are handed down in the form of historical narrative; because
man, as yet unpractised in abstract thinking, necessarily
represents every thing to his mind under the figure of some
physical object. It is just as useless, therefore, to attempt to
mould the mythology of any people into a consistent and connected
whole, or indeed into any scientific system whatsoever, as it is
difficult to draw a strict line between what belongs to mythology,
and what to pure history. It follows, therefore, that mythology
should be employed by the historian with great caution; and not
without judicious criticism, and an accurate knowledge of
antiquity.

These correct views of mythology,--the key to the whole of earlier
antiquity,--were first set forth and illustrated by Heyne, in his
commentaries upon Virgil and other poets, in his edition of
Apollodorus, and in various essays published in the Transactions of
the Gottingen Scientific Society. It is principally to the aid of
these that the Germans owe their superiority over other nations in
the science of antiquity.

6. The place of writing among such nations, is generally supplied, in a great measure, by poetry; which being in its origin nothing more than imagery expressed in figurative language, must spontaneously arise among men, as yet wont to represent every thing to their minds under the form of images. Hence the subject matter of the poetry of every nation, while in a state of rudeness, is and can be nothing else but its mythology; and the great variety in the materials of which this is composed very naturally gave rise, at the same early period, to various kinds of poetry; as the lyric, the didactic, the epic. The last of these, inasmuch as it contains the historic songs and the epopee, claims in a more especial manner the attention of the historian.

The mythi (or fables of which this mythology was composed) were in
later times frequently collected from the works of the poets, and
committed to writing by grammarians; such as Apollodorus and
others. This, however, can have had no effect on their original
character.

7. The second source of history, much more copious and important than the former, are the various kinds of written monuments. These may be arranged according to the order of time at which they were brought into use, into three classes; 1st. Inscriptions on public monuments, under which head are included the coins of later date; 2nd. Chronological records of events, under the form of annals and chronicles; 3rd. Real philosophical works on history.

8. Inscriptions on public monuments erected to preserve the remembrance of certain events, though perhaps no more than a stone set upright, or even a bare rock, was used for that purpose, were undoubtedly the most ancient written memorials. These rude monuments became fashioned by art into columns, obelisks, and pyramids, as the taste of the nation became formed; and assumed that definite character which local circumstances and the natural features of the country led it to adopt, as architecture arose and attained to perfection among them. The very object, indeed, for which they were erected--the commemoration of remarkable events,--must have suggested the practice of inscribing upon them some particulars of the facts they were intended to perpetuate. Of this nature, no doubt, were the oldest monuments, and more particularly those of Egypt. Their use was much more general among nations of a later period, especially Greece and Rome, than among the moderns; yet of the great mass of inscriptions still extant, but few comparatively are of any importance as regards history.

The characters engraved on these monuments were either symbolical
(hieroglyphics; see below under Egypt,) or alphabetical. The
invention and transmission of alphabetical writing are commonly
ascribed to the Phoenicians; although, if we may judge by the shape
of the arrow-headed character, it was made, without communication
with them, in the interior of Asia.

The general collections of inscriptions are:

LUD. ANT. MURATORI, _Novus Thesaurus veterum Inscriptionum_.
Mediolani, 1739, sq. 4 vols. fol. Together with SEB. DONATI,
_Supplementa_. Luccae, 1764. JAN. GRUTERI, _Inscriptiones antiquae
totius orbis Romani, cura_ J. G. GRAEVII. Amstel. 1707, 2 vols. fol.

C. A. BOEKHIUS, _Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum, auctoritate et
impensis Academiae literarum Borussicae_, vol. 1. 1827, folio.

Among the separate monuments, the most important for ancient
history is the Parian or Oxford Inscription, _Marmora Oxoniensia,
Arundeliana_, edited by SELDEN, 1629; by PRIDEAUX, 1677. The best
edition is by RICH. CHANDLER, Oxf. 1763, fol. A useful and portable
edition has been published by FR. CH. WAGNER, _containing the Greek
text, with a German translation and notes_. Gottingen, 1790, 8vo.

9. Coins may likewise be regarded as a source of ancient history, as by the light they throw upon genealogy and chronology, the events known from other authorities may be better arranged and understood. The importance of coins, therefore, becomes most sensible in those portions of history where our information, in consequence of the loss of the works of the original historians, is reduced to a few insulated facts and fragments.

EZ. SPANHEMII, _Dissertatio de Usu et Praestantia Numismatum_.
Londini, 1707 et 1709, 2 vols. fol. The capital work, however, on
this subject, and which embraces the whole numismatic science of
antiquity is:

ECKHEL, _De Doctrina Nummorum Veterum_. Viennae, 1792-1798, 8 vols.
4to. And the epitome:

# ECKHEL, _Brief Elements of Ancient Numismatics_. Vienna, 1707,
8vo. Another very useful work is:

J. C. RASCHE, _Lexicon Universae Rei Nummariae Veterum_. 1785, sq. 5
vols. 8vo.

10. Chronicles or annals form the second great division of written historical monuments. These presuppose the invention of letters, and the use of materials for writing upon; consequently they are of a later date than mere inscriptions. They occur, nevertheless, in the earlier periods of nations; and from such annals, indited by public authority (state chronicles,) subsequent historians have generally drawn materials for their works. In many nations, and in nearly all the eastern ones, history has not even yet advanced beyond the composition of such chronicles.

11. The third great division of historical writings is formed of works composed on philosophical principles, which differ from mere annals by their containing not only a chronological narration of events, but also a development of their connection with one another, their causes and effects.

But few nations among the moderns, and we know of none among the
ancients, except the Greeks and Romans, that had any acquaintance
with this sort of history. A fact which may be attributed,--1st. To
the government; for the more completely the affairs of a nation are
under the control of arbitrary power and caprice, whether of one or
more individuals, so much the less apparent is a rational internal
connection of events. Hence philosophical history flourishes most
under free governments; and has not even a shadow of existence
under pure despotic constitutions. 2nd. To the degree of
civilization to which the nation may have attained: for the
observing and unravelling of the political connection of events
presupposes a considerable progress in philosophical culture.

12. Since all events are considered in reference to the time and place in which they occur, it follows that geography and chronology are indispensable as auxiliary sciences in the study of history, especially the ancient. These sciences, however, need not, for this purpose, be considered in their full extent and detail, but only so far as they are of use in determining and arranging events according to time and place. A fixed mode of computing time is therefore necessary in ancient history, as well as a continuous geographical description of the countries which were the theatres of the principal events.

13. No method of computing time was adopted generally in antiquity. Each nation, each state, had its own era: yet, in the explication of ancient history, there is an evident necessity that some common era should be fixed upon, by which a synchronistic view of the various events may be obtained. For this purpose, the years may be computed either from the creation of the world, or before and after Christ. The latter method has the advantage not only of greater certainty, but also of greater convenience.

Of the various modes of computing time, the best known are those of
the Greeks and the Romans; the former by olympiads, the latter by
years from the foundation of Rome. The era of the olympiads
commences at B. C. 776; that of the foundation of Rome commences at
B. C. 753, according to Varro; at B. C. 752, according to
Cato.--The era of the Seleucidae, in the Syrian empire, commences
with B. C. 312.--Various other eras, such as that of Nabonnassar,
commencing with B. C. 747, are founded on observations preserved by
Ptolemy, and made known by SCALIGER, in his _Doctrina Temporum_.

Chronology constitutes a distinct science: the best introduction to
which will be found in:

# J. C. GATTERER, _Epitome of Chronology_. Gottingen, 1777. A most
excellent criticism on the ancient eras has lately been
communicated to the public by:

# L. IDELER, _Historic Researches into the Astronomical
Observations of the Ancients_. Berlin, 1806.

# D. H. HEGEWISCH, _Introduction to Historical Chronology_; 1811. A
very useful and portable work.

[In English we have the laborious work of Dr. Hales:

HALES (WILLM.) _New Analysis of Chronology, explaining the History
and Antiquities of the primitive Nations of the World, etc._ Lond.
1809-12, 4 vols. 4to. New edition, corrected and improved, 1830, 4
vols. 8vo.

BLAIR'S _Chronology and History of the World, from the Creation to
the present Time_. Lond. 1803, folio.

And for the brilliant period of Greece and Rome the satisfactory
volumes:

H. F. CLYNTON'S _Fasti Hellenici. The civil and literary Chronology
of Greece, from the fifty-fifth to the hundred and twenty-fourth
Olympiad_. Second edition, with additions. Oxford, 1827, 4to. And
the continuation of the same work to the death of Augustus, Oxford,
1830, 4to. In this valuable work, much light is also thrown upon
the chronology of the times anterior to the period with which the
first volume is principally occupied.]

14. In ancient geography there is much care required to distinguish the fabulous from the true. With regard to true geography, as an auxiliary science to history, all that can be expected is some general information respecting the nature and peculiarities of the countries, respecting their political divisions, and finally, respecting the principal cities:--Long lists of the names of places would be quite superfluous.

Fabulous geography constitutes a part of the mythology of every
nation, and differs in each, because the ideas formed by every
early nation respecting the form and nature of the earth are
peculiar to itself. True geography gradually comes to light as
civilization increases, and discovery widens its
horizon.--Necessity of treating it historically, on account of the
manifold changes to which the division and the face of the
countries of the ancient world have been at various periods
subjected.

CHRISTOPH. CELLARII _Notitia Orbis Antiqui_. Lips. 1701-1706, 2
vols. 4to. _cum observat._ J. C. SCHWARZII. Lips. 1771, et iterum
1773. This work was for a long time the only, and is still an
indispensable, treatise on ancient geography.

# H. MANNERT, _Geography of the Greeks and Romans_. Nuremberg,
1788-1802. This work, now completed in 15 volumes, may be justly
designated classical, from the historical and critical learning
which the author has everywhere displayed. Vol. I, contains Spain;
II, Gallia et Britain; III, Germania, Rhaetia, Noricum; IV, The
Northern parts of the World, from the Wessel to China; V, India and
the Persian Empire to the Euphrates, 2 parts; VI, Asia Minor, 3
parts; VII, Thrace, Illyria, Macedonia, Thessaly, Epirus; VIII,
Northern Greece, Peloponnesus, and the Archipelago; IX, Italy and
Sicily, Sardinia, etc. 2 parts; X, Africa, 2 parts.

# F. A. UKERT, _Geography of the Greeks and Romans, from the
earliest periods to the time of Ptolemy_: first part, first
division, contains the historical, the second contains the
mathematical sections. Weimar, 1816; with maps.

GOSSELIN, _Geographie des Grecs analysee_. Paris, 1790, 4to. A
development of the system of mathematical geography among the
Greeks. Partly continued in

GOSSELIN, _Recherches sur la Geographie des Anciens_. Paris, an.
vi. vol. 1-4.

J. RENNEL, _Geographical System of Herodotus_. Lond. 1800, 4to.

[Reprinted in 2 vols. 8vo. Lond. 1830, revised. Here, too, for the
benefit of the English reader may be mentioned:

RENNEL'S _Treatise on the Comparative Geography of Western Asia,
with an atlas_. London, 1831, 2 vols. 8vo.; published since the
author's death. And the learned and valuable volumes of Dr. CRAMER,
principal of New Inn Hall, and public orator of the University of
Oxford; they are,

_Geographical and Historical Description of Ancient Greece, with a
map, and plan of Athens._ Oxford, 1826, 3 vols. 8vo.

_Geographical and Historical Description of Ancient Italy, with a
map._ Oxford, 1826, 2 vols. 8vo.

_Geographical and Historical Description of Asia Minor, with a
map._ Oxford, 1832, 2 vols. 8vo.

The maps which accompany these works approach very nearly to
perfection.

As useful compendiums, there are:

_An Introduction to Ancient Geography, with copious indexes of
Ancient and Modern Names_, by PETER ED. LAURENT, teacher in the
Royal Naval Academy at Portsmouth. Oxford, 1813, 8vo.

_A Compendium of Ancient and Modern Geography, for the use of Eton
School; illustrating the most interesting points in History,
Poetry, and Fable; preceded by an Introduction to the study of
Astronomy, and containing plans of Athens, Rome, Syracuse, and
numerous diagrams explanatory of the motions of the heavenly
bodies_, by AARON ARROWSMITH, Hydrographer to the King, 1 vol.
8vo., with or without a copious index. London, 1830.

BUTLER'S (Dr. SAM.) _Sketch of Ancient and Modern Geography_.
Seventh edition, 8vo. Also his _Atlas of Ancient Geography_,
consisting of twenty-one coloured maps, with a complete accentuated
index. 8vo.]

We are indebted to d'Anville for the best charts of ancient
geography: _Atlas Orbis antiqui_, twelve leaves, fol.

[The Eton Comparative Atlas of Ancient and Modern Geography, with
the index, published in several sizes; and the Maps published by
the Society for the Promotion of Useful Knowledge, are very useful
and correct.]

15. Ancient history may be treated either ethnographically, that is, according to separate nations and states; or synchronistically, that is, according to certain general epochs. Each of these methods has its advantages and its disadvantages. The two, however, may be combined, and formed into one system; and as this seems the most convenient, it has been adopted in the present work, which is accordingly divided as follows:

FIRST BOOK.--History of the ancient Asiatic and African states and kingdoms anterior to Cyrus, or to the rise of the Persian monarchy, about the year B. C. 560: comprising little more than insulated fragments.

SECOND BOOK.--History of the Persian monarchy, from B. C. 560 to 330.

THIRD BOOK.--History of the Grecian states, both in Greece and other parts, to the time of Alexander, B. C. 336.

FOURTH BOOK.--History of the Macedonian monarchy, and of the kingdoms which arose out of its division, until they merged into the Roman empire.

FIFTH BOOK.--History of the Roman state, both as a commonwealth and a monarchy, until the fall of the western empire, A. D. 476.

* * * * *

MANUAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY.

* * * * *

THE FIRST BOOK.

HISTORICAL FRAGMENTS OF THE EARLIER ASIATIC AND AFRICAN KINGDOMS AND
STATES, PREVIOUS TO CYRUS, OR THE RISE OF THE PERSIAN MONARCHY.

I.--ASIATIC NATIONS.

_General Preliminary Remarks on the Geography of Asia._

See the Introduction to Heeren's Researches into the Politics and
Commerce of the Nations of Antiquity, prefixed to vol. 1 of the
African Nations. Oxford, 1831.

1. Asia is the largest and the most favourably situated of the great divisions of the globe. Its superficial contents are 11,200,000 square geogr. miles; while those of Africa do not exceed 4,780,000; and those of Europe are not more than 2,560,000. As to situation, it comprises the greatest portion of the northern temperate zone.

Compare it, in this point of view, with the other quarters of the
globe, especially Africa.--Advantages over the latter, in
consequence of the convenience of its indented shores--of its
surrounding fruitful islands--of its deep gulfs and large
streams--the few sandy deserts in its interior.

2. Natural features, and consequent division of the land, according to the course of the larger mountain chains and of the principal rivers.

Two great mountain chains run from west to east; in the north, the
Altai, (nameless in antiquity): in the south, Taurus.--Branches of
both: the Caucasus, between the Black and Caspian seas: Imaus
extending along the golden desert (desert of Cobi): the Paropamisus,
on the north of India: the Ural (nameless in antiquity).--Of the
rivers remarkable in ancient history, there are four flowing from
north to south, namely, the Euphrates and Tigris, which fall into the
Persian gulf; the Indus and Ganges, which fall into the Indian sea:
two which run from east to west, and discharged their waters into the
Caspian sea, (but now into the sea of Aral,) namely, the Oxus (or
Jihon) and the Jaxartes (or Sirr).

3. This quarter of the globe is accordingly divided into Northern Asia, comprising the regions north of Altai; Central Asia, or the countries between the Altai and Taurus; and Southern Asia, or the lands south of Taurus.

4. Northern Asia, between the 76th and 50th parallels of north latitude, (Asiatic Russia and Siberia,) was almost, though not entirely, unknown in antiquity.--Some obscure hints, though partly true, respecting it, are found in Herodotus, the father of history.

5. Central Asia, the regions extending between the 50th and 40th degrees of north latitude, Scythia and Sarmatia Asiatica, (Great Tartary and Mongol;) for the most part a boundless, barren table land, devoid of arable fields or forests; and consequently a mere country of pasture.--The inhabitants pastors, (nomads,) without cities or fixed abodes; recognizing no other political association than patriarchal government.

Peculiar mode of life and character of nomad nations; powerful
influence which they have exercised, as conquerors, on political
history.--Whether we have a right to expect that the civilization of
the human race will for ever continue to advance, when we consider
that perhaps one half of it has from time immemorial remained, and
from its physical situation must for ever remain, in a nomad state.

6. Southern Asia, or the regions from the 40th degree of N. lat. to about the equator.--Its natural features altogether different from those of central Asia. The great advantages of these regions compared with all other parts of the earth, in possessing a soil and climate highly favourable for agriculture; and an abundance of various costly productions. To these circumstances may be attributed, 1st. The adoption of fixed habitations and political associations in these countries, from the earliest times. 2ndly. Their becoming the principal seat of trade, from the infancy of civilization to the discovery of America.

Reflections upon the rise of political associations.--Whether,
according to the general opinion, they were produced solely by
agriculture and the possession of land; or, whether religion, by
which I mean the common worship of one divinity as the national god,
(communia sacra,) was not the main bond which united the earliest
states of antiquity?--How shall we account for the very remarkable
fact, that in the earliest civil societies in the world, the
priesthood is generally found to be a ruling caste.--Reflections on
early trade, particularly that of the east, before it was changed, by
the discovery of America and the new passage to India, from a land
trade to a sea trade.--Observations upon ancient commercial routes
across Asia.--The banks of the large rivers destined by nature to
become the seats of commerce for the interior; on the Oxus, Bactra
and Maracanda, (Samarcand;) on the Euphrates and Tigris,
Babylon.--The sea shores on the western coast of Asia Minor and
Phoenicia, pointed out also by nature as places of commerce;--line
of Grecian and Phoenician factories.

7. Division of southern Asia. 1st. South-western Asia, from the Mediterranean to the Indus; 2nd. South-eastern Asia, from the Indus to the eastern ocean.

A. South-western Asia is again subdivided into the countries--1st. on this side the Euphrates--2ndly. between the Euphrates and Tigris--3rdly. between the Tigris and the Indus.

1. _Countries on this side the Euphrates._

(_a_) The peninsula of Asia Minor (Natolia). Principal rivers: the Halys and Sangarius. Countries: three towards the west, Mysia, Lydia, Caria. Along the shore, the Greek seaports of Phocaea, Ephesus, Miletus, Smyrna, Halicarnassus, etc. Inland, the cities of Sardes in Lydia, of Pergamus in Mysia.

Three towards the south, Lycia, Pamphylia, and Cilicia, with its capital Tarsus.

Three towards the north, Bithynia, Paphlagonia, Pontus; with the Greek ports of Heraclea, Amisus, and Sinope. Two inland, Phrygia, together with Galatia and the capital cities of Gordium and Celaenae; Cappadocia, with the city of Mazaca.

(_b_) Islands along the coast of Asia Minor: Lesbos, with the city of Mitylene; Chios, Samos, Cos, Rhodes, with cities of the same name.

(_c_) Syria, together with Phoenicia and Palestine. 1st. Syria, properly so called. Cities: Damascus, Emessa, Heliopolis, (Baalbec). In the desert, Palmyra. 2nd. Phoenicia, a mountainous tract, extending along the shore. Mountains: Libanus and Antilibanus. Cities: Tyre, on an island opposite the ancient Tyre, which was situate upon the mainland; Sidon, Byblus, Berytus, Tripolis, Aradus. 3rd. Palestine. Mountains: Carmel, Tabor. River: Jordan, which discharges its waters into the Dead sea. Division of Palestine; first, according to the twelve tribes; afterwards into the provinces, of Judaea, capital Jerusalem: of Samaria; cities, Samaria, Sichem: and of Galilee.

(_d_) Peninsula of Arabia, abounding in vast sandy deserts, and almost entirely occupied by nomad tribes. Its southern and eastern coasts render it, nevertheless, a most important seat of trade. In the north, Arabia Petraea, so called from the town of Petra. Inland, Arabia Deserta. In the south, Arabia Felix; rich, both in natural productions, being the native land of almost every kind of perfume, particularly frankincense; and also as being the ancient staple for the merchandise of India. Cities: Mariaba, Aden, etc. In the east, the trading town of Gerra, and the islands near the shore, Tylos and Aradus, (Bahrein,) both likewise marts for Arabian and Indian wares, particularly cinnamon from Taprobane (Ceylon).

2. _Countries between the Euphrates and Tigris._

(_a_) Mesopotamia; in the interior a sterile table land, entirely occupied by nomad hordes. Cities on the Euphrates: Thapsacus, Circesium, Cunaxa; in the north, Zoba or Nisibis.

(_b_) Armenia, north of the foregoing. Very mountainous; for a long time without cities, but at last it had Tigranocerta. Rivers: the Cyrus and Araxes, falling into the Caspian; and the Phasis, falling into the Black sea.

(_c_) Babylonia, the southern part of Mesopotamia, from which it was separated by the Median wall. A level plain, remarkable for the richness of its soil; formerly, by its high cultivation, its canals and lakes, and the erection of dams, the most fruitful, and, from its situation, the most opulent staple of inner Asia. Cities: Babylon on the Euphrates, Borsippa.

Whether the account given by Herodotus, as an eyewitness, of the size
and splendour of Babylon is not exaggerated?--Manner in which the
great Asiatic cities arose out of the royal encampments of the nomad
conquerors.

3. _Countries between the Tigris and the Indus._

(_a_) Assyria, or the province of Adiabene; a table land. Cities: Nineveh, (Ninus,) Arbela.

The name of Assyria is also frequently taken by the Greeks in a wider
acceptation, as comprising both Mesopotamia and Babylonia; it is
sometimes even confounded with Syria.

(_b_) Susiana, a fruitful district, with the city Susa on the river Choaspes, or Eulaeus (Ulai), one of the residences of the Persian monarchs.

(_c_) Persis, rugged and mountainous towards the north; level and fruitful in the centre; sandy towards the south. Rivers: the Cyrus and Araxes. Cities: Persepolis or Pasargada, the national palace and cemetery of the kings of Persia.

The name of Persis was, in ancient as well as in modern geography,
taken in a more extensive sense, as comprising all the countries
between the Tigris and Indus, with the exception of Assyria.
In this sense, it contains three countries towards the
south--Persis, properly so called; Carmania, Gedrosia: three
central countries--Media, Aria, Arachosia: and three countries
towards the north--Parthia and Hyrcania, Bactria, Sogdiana.

(_d_) Carmania, an extensive country, for the most part desert, ranging along the Persian gulf and Indian sea. Cities: Carmana, Harmozia.

(_e_) Gedrosia, tract of land running along the coast between Carmania and India, and washed by the Indian sea. A mere sandy desert; towards the north, mountainous. Town, Pura.

(_f_) Media, above Persis; an extensive and very fruitful country; mountainous towards the north. Rivers: Araxes, Cyrus, and Mardus. Cities: Ecbatana, Rages. The northern district was likewise known by the name of Atropatene (Azerbeijan), or Lesser Media.

(_g_) Aria, a smooth table land, with a lake and river, Arius: and one city, Aria or Artacoana.

(_h_) Arachosia; a rich and fertile country on the frontiers of India; bounded towards the north by the Paropamisus chain. Cities: Arachotus and Prophthasia. The neighbouring highlands, occupied by a numerous population, (now Cabul and Kandahar,) are often regarded, in consequence of their being subject to the Persian dominion, as forming part of Persia. They are known by the name of Paropamisus.

(_i_) Parthia and Hyrcania, rugged mountainous districts to the north of Media; but abounding in magnificent and fertile vales. Before and during the predominance of Persia, but little known and little valued; and without cities. It was at a considerably later period that the inhabitants of Parthia became a dominant nation.

(_k_) Bactria, the country on the south bank of the Oxus; rich in natural productions, and one of the most ancient marts of Asia. River: Oxus. Cities: Bactra and Zariaspa.

Bactria lies on the frontier of India, Little Thibet, Bukharia, (the
north India of Herodotus and Ctesias,) and the desert of Cobi,
(Herodotus's golden desert): the road to China runs through this
country. Nature, by the geographical situation in which she has
placed Bactria, seems to have destined it to be the great emporium
for the wares of south-eastern Asia; and in proportion as we
penetrate into early history, we become convinced that Bactria, like
Babylon, must have been one of the earliest seats of international
commerce, and consequently, if not the birthplace, one of the cradles
of infant civilization.

(_l_) Sogdiana, the territory between the upper Oxus and upper Jaxartes, the latter dividing it from central Asia. (A part of Great Bukharia.) Its peculiarities and advantages similar to those of the neighbouring Bactria. Capital: Maracanda (Samarcand).

B. South-eastern Asia, or Asia beyond the Indus, offers nothing remarkable for history till a later period. See Book v, Period iv.

_General Preliminary Observations upon the History and Constitution of the great Asiatic Empires._

1. Asia contained in ancient times, as it does at present, empires of immense extent, differing materially both in this respect and in their constitution from the civilized nations of Europe. Changes were frequent; but the form of government continued nearly always the same. Some deeply rooted and active principles therefore must have been in constant operation, to have given so repeatedly, in these various revolutions, the same organization to the kingdoms of Asia.

2. The great revolutions of Asia, with the exception of that caused by Alexander, were effected by the numerous and powerful nomad races which inhabited a large portion of that continent. Pressed by necessity or circumstances, they forsook their own seats, founded new kingdoms, and carried war and conquest into the fruitful and cultivated lands of southern Asia, until, enervated by luxury, the consequence of the change in their mode of life, they were in their turn, and in a similar manner, subjugated.

3. This origin, common to all Asiatic kingdoms, accounts for their immense extent, their rapid establishment, and their generally brief duration.

4. The internal organization must, for the same reasons, have been nearly alike in all; and the constant reappearance of despotism is accounted for, partly by the rights of conquest, partly by the vast extent of the subdued countries, which obliged the rulers to have recourse to satrap-government.

5. To this, it must moreover be added, that among all the considerable nations of inner Asia, the paternal government of every household was corrupted by polygamy: where that custom exists, a good political constitution is impossible; fathers being converted into domestic despots, are ready to pay the same abject obedience to their sovereign that they exact from their family and dependants in their domestic economy.

To avoid confusion, it will be necessary to define the terms
despotism and despotic government. In theory, we must admit THREE
essentially different kinds of government. 1st. The _despotic_, in
which the members of the state are not secured in the possession of
their rights as men, (personal freedom and security of property,)
nor of their rights as citizens, (active participation in the
legislative power). Such a constitution exists only by force, and
can never be lawful. 2nd. The _autocratic_, in which the members of
the state are in full possession of their rights as men, but not of
their rights as citizens. This government, therefore, arises from
the union of the legislative and executive powers in the person of
the ruler. In form, it is either monarchical or aristocratical (a
pure monarchy, or a pure aristocracy). This kind of government is
most likely to be established by usurpation; it may, nevertheless,
be acquired by succession, or even adopted by common consent: it may
therefore be lawful. 3rd. The _republican_, in which the members of
the state are in possession of their rights, both as men and as
citizens. This government necessarily presupposes a separation of
the legislative and executive powers; and with regard to its form,
may be either monarchical or aristocratical, (a moderate monarchy,
or a moderate aristocracy).--How far can a pure democracy be called
a government, and comprised under any of the foregoing
heads?--Explanation of the despotism in the Asiatic kingdoms, and
the attempts made to limit it by religion and religious
institutions.

6. General features in the gradual internal development of all empires formed by nomad conquerors. (_a_) At first the mere occupation of rich territories, and levying of tribute. (_b_) Hence the constitutions already established among the conquered or tributary nations generally suffered to remain. (_c_) Gradual progress towards the adoption of a fixed abode and the building of cities, together with the assumption of the customs and civilization of the conquered. (_d_) Division into provinces, and, as a necessary consequence, the establishment of satrap-government. (_e_) Insurrections of the satraps, and the internal ruin of the state prepared thereby. (_f_) The influence of the seraglio on the government has the same effect, for its unavoidable consequences are--effeminacy and indolence in the rulers. (_g_) Hence the dissolution of the empire, or its total annihilation by some violent attack from without.

_Fragments of the History of the ancient Asiatic Kingdoms previous to Cyrus._

Sources, and their critical examination: 1. Jewish writings,
particularly the books of Kings, Chroniclers, and the Prophets;
together with the Mosaic records. 2. Greek writers, Herodotus,
Ctesias, and Diodorus: later chroniclers, Syncellus, Eusebius,
Ptolemy. 3. Native writer, Berosus. Futility of all endeavours to
arrange into one work the accounts of authors so entirely different
by birth and the times in which they flourished: a task attempted by
the French writers, SEVIN, FRERET, and DEBROSSE, in their papers
contained in the Mem. de l'Acad. des Inscript.

VOLNEY, _Recherches nouvelles sur l'Histoire ancienne_. 1808-1814:
very important and authentic, so far as regards the system of
Herodotus's chronology.

I. _Assyrian monarchy._

1. With the Greeks, Assyrian is generally a common name applied to the ruling nations about the Euphrates and Tigris before the time of Cyrus. With the Jews, on the contrary, it signifies a distinct nation of conquerors, and the founders of an empire. Hence a necessary discrepancy between the Grecian and Hebrew statements.

2. Assyrian history, according to Grecian authorities, particularly Ctesias and Diodorus, is nothing more than mere traditions of ancient heroes and heroines, who at some early period founded a large kingdom in the countries about the Euphrates and Tigris; traditions without any chronological data, and in the style of the east. Ninus--Semiramis--Ninyas--Sardanapalus.

According to Herodotus, an Assyrian empire of 520 years' duration,
1237-717. Lists of Assyrian kings in the chronicles of Syncellus
and Eusebius.

3. Assyrian history, according to Jewish authorities. Chronological history of an Assyrian empire between B. C. 800 and 700.--Seat of the nation in Assyria, properly so called.--Capital: Nineveh on the Tigris.--Extension of their dominion as far as Syria and Phoenicia.

Line of Assyrian kings: 1. Pul, about 773. Invasion of Syria.
2. Tiglath-Pileser, about 740. He overthrows the kingdom of Damascus.
3. Shalmaneser, about 720. He destroys the kingdom of Samaria.
Transplantation of the inhabitants into inner Asia. 4. Sennacherib,
about 714. Mighty expedition against Egypt, frustrated by a
pestilence. 5. Esarhaddon.

_Contemporary_: Jews, the divided kingdoms of Israel and
Judah.--Greeks, decennial archons at Athens.--Romans, rise
of the state and the two first kings.

II. _Median monarchy._

1. The name of Medes is undoubtedly often used by the Greeks to designate one nation; it is, however, frequently made use of as a common appellation of the ruling nations in eastern Asia, from the Tigris to the Indus, (or Persia, in the more extensive sense of that word,) before Cyrus.--With the Jews: nothing more than general hints of the Medes as a conquering nation.

2. Although the statements of the Grecian writers, as well as of the Zendavesta, sufficiently prove that long before the rise of the Persian power mighty kingdoms existed in these regions; and particularly in the eastern part, or Bactria; yet we have no consistent or chronological history of these states: nothing but a few fragments, probably of dynasties which ruled in Media, properly so called, immediately previous to the Persians.

_a._ _Herodotus's History of the Medes._ Herodotus's Medes are
unquestionably the inhabitants of Media, properly so called.
Division into six tribes: among these, that of the Magi.--Ruling
nation after the overthrow of the Assyrians.--Capital of their
empire, Ecbatana.--Boundaries: west, the Tigris and Halys; east,
unknown.--Internal organization: graduated subjection of the
various nations to one another, according to their distance from
the seat of empire; rigid despotism; and imposition of tribute.
Line of kings between B. C. 717-560. Deioces, 53 _y._ the founder
of Ecbatana, _d._ 657.--Phraortes, 22 _y._ down to 635. He conquers
Persia. Cyaxares I. 40 _y._ down to 595. He establishes military
discipline among the Medes. Wages war with the Lydians, the
Assyrians.--Irruption of the Scythians and Cimmerians, 625.--He
takes Nineveh, 597. Astyages, 38 _y._ down to 560, when he was
dethroned by Cyrus. According to Xenophon, Astyages was followed by
another Median prince, Cyaxares II. _b. Ctesias's History of the
Medes_, deduced from Persian archives, and contained in Diodorus.
Probably a different dynasty in eastern Asia. Line of kings,
between B. C. 800 and 560. Arbaces, conqueror of the Assyrians, 18
_y._ Mandaucus, 50 _y._ Sosarmes, 30 _y._ Artias, 50 _y._ Arbanes,
22 _y._ Artaeus, 40 _y._ and Artynes, 22 _y._ Sanguinary wars with
the nomad races of the east, the Sacae, and Cadusii. Artibarnas, 14
_y._ Astyages, the last king.

_Contemporary_: Jews, kingdom of Judah alone.--Greeks, yearly
archons, Draco, Solon.--Romans, kings from Tullus Hostilius to
Servius Tullius.

III. _Babylonian monarchy._

Periods: 1st. Previous to the Chaldaean conquest, which occurred about 630. 2nd. From the Chaldaean conquest to the Persian, 630-538.

1. Babylon was not only spoken of in the most remote antiquity, but is mentioned in the Jewish traditions as the earliest scene of political treaties, and as the most ancient seat of intercourse for the nations of Asia. Traditions concerning Nimrod--and the erection of the tower of Babel.--Comparison of those traditions with the Babylonian mythology in Berosus.--Scanty historical notices of this period in the later Jewish writers; and probable subjection of Babylon to the Assyrian empire.

2. In the second period, 630-538, the Babylonians were the ruling nation of western Asia.--The Chaldaeans take possession of Babylon, there establish themselves, and ultimately extend their empire, by conquest, to the Mediterranean.

Origin of the Chaldaeans: whether that name was applied to a
distinct nation, or to the northern nomads in general?--Line of
Chaldaean kings. In the enumeration of these rulers, as given by
Ptolemy, this line begins with Nabonassar, and the era bearing the
name of that sovereign, which commences in the year B. C. 747:
(probably because, under the reign of that prince, the adoption of
the Egyptian solar year first introduced among the Chaldaeans an
exact method of reckoning time). Neither Nabonassar himself, nor
his twelve immediate successors, are remarkable in history: the
six last alone deserve notice. 1. Nabopolassar, 627-604.
Settlement in Babylon; and complete establishment of the
Chaldaeo-Babylonian dominion, by his victory over Pharaoh-Nechoh,
near Circesium, in 604. 2. Nebuchadnezzar, 604-561. Brilliant
period of the Chaldaeo-Babylonian empire. He conquers Phoenicia and
Old Tyre about 586: Jerusalem in 587; probable irruptions into
Egypt. Construction of immense buildings and canals in and about
Babylon. Rapid decline of the empire after his death, under--3.
Evil-Merodach, 561-559. 4. Neriglissar, (probably the contemporary
of Herodotus's Nitocris;)--555. Labosoarchad murdered, after a few
months' reign. Nabonadius, (Herodotus's Labynetus; and probably
the Chaldaean Belshazzar;) 555-538. attacked and conquered by
Cyrus. Sack of Babylon by the Persians, 538.

See the section concerning the Babylonians in A. H. L. HEEREN'S
_Historical Researches_, vol. i, part. 2.

_Contemporary_: Jews, last sovereigns of the kingdom of
Judah.--Greeks, Solon, Pisistratus.--Romans, Tarquinius Priscus
and Servius Tullius.

IV. _States and kingdoms in Asia Minor._

The number and variety of the inhabitants of this peninsula, was probably the reason why they never became united into one empire. The most important nations among them, were the Carians in the west; the Phrygians in the centre, reaching as far as the Halys; the Syro-Cappadocians beyond the Halys; and the Thracians in Bithynia. Nevertheless we find here but three kingdoms deserving notice--the Trojan, the Phrygian, and the Lydian.

1. The Trojan empire comprised western Mysia: its history consists of mere traditions contained in poets, with very uncertain chronological data.

Kings: Teucer, about 1400.--Dardanus--Erichthonius--Tros
(Troja)--Ilus (Ilium)--Laomedon--Priam. The destruction of Troy,
after a ten years' war, occurred, it is probable, B. C. 1190.

_Contemporary_: Jews, time of the Judges: before the foundation of
Rome, 450 years.

2. The Phrygian empire.--Almost all the kings were named Midas and Gordius; their succession cannot be accurately determined. After the death of the last, called Midas V., Phrygia became a province of the Lydian empire, about 560.

3. The Lydian empire.--The Lydians (Maeonians) were a branch of the Carian tribe. According to Herodotus, three dynasties ruled in Lydia; the Atyadae down to 1232; the Heraclidae down to 727; and the Mermnadae down to 557: the two first are almost wholly fabulous, and the proper history of Lydia may be said to commence with the last dynasty.

Kings: Gyges, down to 689. From this period followed almost
uninterrupted wars with the Greek settlements on the seacoast.
Gyges takes Colophon. Ardys down to 640. He takes Priene. Under
his reign, an irruption of the Cimmerians. Sadyattes down to 628.
Alyattes down to 571. Expulsion of the Cimmerians. Capture of
Smyrna. Croesus down to 557. He takes Ephesus, and subjugates Asia
Minor as far as the Halys. Under his reign, the first rise of a
Lydian empire, which however is overthrown by Cyrus. Asia Minor
becomes a province of the Persian empire.

_Contemporary_ with which, in Asia, were the Medic and Babylonian
empires.--Among the Jews, the last period of the kingdom of
Judah.--Among the Greeks, the yearly archons at Athens.--With the
Romans, the kings.

V. _Phoenicia._

The Phoenicians may be regarded as one of the most remarkable nations of Asia during this period; yet we have no complete, or even connected history of this people. But though a few scattered fragments are all we possess, we may from these trace out a general outline.

The peculiar sources of Phoenician history.--How far Sanchoniathon
deserves to be mentioned here?--Hebrew writers, particularly
Ezekiel; Greek writers; Josephus--Eusebius, etc. and the fragments
which he has preserved of Menander of Ephesus, and Dius,
historians of Tyre.

MIGNOT, _Memoires sur les Pheniciens_; inserted in _Mem. de
l'Acad. des Inscript._ t. xxxiv-xlii. A series of twenty-four
papers.

The section concerning the Phoenicians in A. H. L. HEEREN'S
_Researches on the Politics, etc._

1. Observations on the internal state of Phoenicia. It did not constitute one state, or, at least, one single empire; but consisted of several, and their territories. Alliances, however, were naturally formed between them, and hence a kind of supremacy of the more powerful, particularly of Tyre.

2. But though Tyre stood at the head, and claimed a certain degree of superiority, each separate state still possessed its own particular government. In all of them we meet with kings, who appear to have possessed but a limited authority, as we always find magistrates associated with them in power. Among a mercantile and colonizing people, it was impossible that absolute despotism should endure for any length of time. Of the separate states, Tyre is the only one of which we possess a series of kings; and even that series is not complete.

This line of kings, which we derive from Menander through
Josephus, commences with Abical, the contemporary of David, about
B. C. 1050. The most remarkable among them are: Hiram, the
successor of Abical;--Ethbaal I. about 920;--Pygmalion, Dido's
brother, about 900;--Ethbaal II. in whose reign Tyre was sacked by
Nebuchadnezzar, 586.--Foundation of New Tyre--republican
constitution under suffetes: tributary kings under the Persian
rule;--conquest of New Tyre by Alexander, 332. The flourishing
period of Phoenicia in general, and of Tyre in particular, falls
therefore between 1000-332.

_Contemporary_ in inner Asia: monarchies of the Assyrians, Medes,
and the Babylonians. Jews: period of the kings after David.
Greeks: from Homer to Solon. Romans: period of their kings in the
last two centuries.

3. During this period the Phoenicians spread themselves by the establishment of colonies; some of which, particularly Carthage, became as powerful as the mother states.

General ideas concerning colonization.--1. Colonies are absolutely
necessary to every seafaring and commercial people, whenever
their trade extends to distant countries. 2. They have likewise
been established for the purpose of providing for the excessive
increase of the poor. 3. And they have sometimes arisen from
political commotion, when the malcontents, either from free will,
or force, have forsaken their country, and sought new settlements
in distant regions.

4. Geographical sketch of the Phoenician colonies. They possessed, at a very early period, most of the islands of the Archipelago; from which, however, they were subsequently expelled by the Greeks. The principal countries in which they had settlements were the south of Spain (Tartessus, Gades, Carteia); the north coast of Africa, west of the Lesser Syrtis (Utica, Carthage, Adrumetum); and the north-western coast of Sicily (Panormus, Lilybaeum). It is likewise highly probable that they formed settlements towards the east in the Persian gulf, on the islands of Tylos and Aradus (Bahrein).

5. This sketch of the Phoenician colonies will give us some idea of the extent of their sea trade and navigation; which, however, extended much farther than their colonies. Among them, as among other nations, commerce took its rise in piracy; even as late as the time of Homer, the Phoenicians appear to have been freebooters. The principal objects of their commerce were (_a_) the settlements in north Africa and Spain; the latter more particularly, on account of its rich silver mines. (_b_) Beyond the Pillars of Hercules, the west-coast of Africa; Britain and the Scilly islands, for the purpose of procuring tin, and, very probably, amber. (_c_) From Elath and Ezion-Gebar, ports situate at the northern extremity of the Arabian gulph, they undertook, in connection with the Jews, voyages to Ophir, that is to say, to the rich lands of the south, particularly Arabia Felix and Ethiopia. (_d_) From the Persian gulf, they extended their commerce to the western peninsula of India and the island of Ceylon. Finally, (_e_) they made several extensive voyages of discovery, among which, the most remarkable was the circumnavigation of Africa.

6. Of no less importance was the land trade, mostly carried on by caravans. The principal branches of it were: (_a_) The Arabian caravan trade for spices and incense, imported from Arabia Felix, Gerra, and the Persian gulf. (_b_) The trade through Palmyra with Babylon, which opened them an indirect communication by way of Persia, with lesser Bukharia and little Thibet, probably even with China itself. (_c_) The trade with Armenia and the neighbouring countries in slaves, horses, copper utensils, etc.

7. To all this must be added their own manufactures, particularly their stuffs and dyes; (the purple, made of the juice of a marine shellfish;) their manufactures of glass and toys, which, in their commerce with uncivilized nations, generally carried on by barter, were turned to good account. Many other important discoveries, among which the invention of letters holds the first rank, are attributed to the Phoenicians.

VI. _Syrians._

1. The inhabitants of Syria dwelt in cities as early as B. C. 2000, when Abraham wandered over their country. This country did not form one single state, but consisted of several cities, each of which had its separate territory, and its chief or king; of these cities, Damascus, Hamath, etc. are mentioned in the most remote antiquity.

2. The Syrians were, however, often subjected by foreign conquerors; and their country was certainly, at least in the time of David, a Jewish province. It shook off the yoke, however, in the time of Solomon; when Rezon, who had formerly been a slave, obtained possession of Damascus.

3. After this, there arose the kingdom of Damascus, which comprised the greatest portion of Syria, the kings in the other cities becoming tributary to Damascus. The boundaries of the empire, too, were extended, and particularly at the expense of the divided kingdoms of Judah and Israel.

The kings, whose names are taken from the books of Chronicles,
were: Rezon, about 980. Benhadad I. about 900. Hazael, about 850.
Benhadad II. about 830. Rezin. Under this last, the kingdom of
Damascus was overthrown by the Assyrian conqueror Tiglath-Pileser,
about 740.

_Contemporary_ in Inner Asia: Assyrian kingdom. Jews: kingdoms
of Israel and Judah. Greeks: settlement of the Asiatic
colonies.--Lycurgus.

VII. _Jews._

The history of the Jewish people, begins with Abraham the father of their race; that of the Jewish state does not commence till after the conquest of Palestine. It is divided into three periods. I. History of the Jews, as a nomad horde, from Abraham till their settlement in Palestine, B. C. 2000-1500. II. History of the Jewish state as a federative republic under the high priests and judges, from B. C. 1500-1100. III. History of the Jewish state under a monarchical government, from B. C. 1100-600, first in one kingdom,--975; afterwards as two separate kingdoms, Israel and Judah, until the downfall of the latter, 588.

Sources of the Jewish history.--Their annals:--Books of Judges,
Samuel, Chronicles, Kings. How those books were composed, and
whether their authors may be considered as contemporary with the
events they relate? How far the Hebrew poets, the prophets in
particular, may be considered as historical authority?--JOSEPHUS,
as an antiquarian in his _Archaeologia_, and as a contemporary
historian in his _Historia Belli Romani_.

Unfortunately there is not at present any satisfactory treatise on
the Jewish history previous to the Babylonian captivity; nor one
written in an impartial spirit, without credulity or scepticism.
The work of BERRUYER, _Histoire du Peuple de Dieu, depuis son
origine jusqu'a la Naissance de J. C._ Paris, 1742, 10 vols. 8vo.;
and the continuation, _depuis la Naissance de J. C._ 10 vols.; and
others of the same kind do not answer this description. RELANDI
_Antiquit. Sacr. Heb._ The writings of J. D. MICHAELIS, particularly
his # Remarks on the Translation of the Old Testament, and his
# _Mosaic Law_; together with # HERDER, _On the Spirit of Hebrew
Poesy_, furnish many excellent materials.