Chapter XIV: Part III: , European Nations; of which only 1 volume, Greeks, has (6)

1. The Aeolian colonies. Their original foundation dates about 1124:
they appear to have been a consequence of the Dorian migration,
having been established during that great movement in Greece. The
Pelopidae, who had been driven out of Peloponnesus, Orestes, his son
Penthilus, his grandson Archelaus, and his great grandson Grais,
successively headed the emigrants, who proceeded slowly by land,
divided, it appears, into several companies, with which some
Boeotians and others gradually coalesced. In Asia they occupied the
coasts of Mysia and Caria; a strip of land which from thence
derived the appellation of Aeolis. They moreover possessed the
islands of Lesbos, Tenedos, and the Hecatonnesi. On the main land,
in the quarter named from them Aeolis, they erected twelve cities,
the most eminent of which were Cyme and Smyrna; the latter,
however, afterwards fell into the hands of the Ionians. But their
chief settlements were on the island of Lesbos; here they inhabited
five cities, at the head of which, and likewise of all their other
colonies, stood Mitylene. They had likewise spread inland as far as
mount Ida. All these towns were independent of one another, and
possessed their own peculiar forms of government: our information,
however, respecting these constitutions extends no further than to
enable us to ascertain that they were subject to many disorders,
which it was often attempted to quell by nominating rulers of
unlimited power, under the title of Aesymnetae. These were elected
sometimes for a stipulated period, at others for life; the most
celebrated of the number was Pittacus of Mitylene, who flourished
about 600, and was the contemporary of Sappho and Alcaeus. The
Aeolians maintained their independence till the time of Cyrus, with
the exception of Smyrna, which as early as 600, was captured and
destroyed by the Lydians, and not rebuilt till four hundred years
afterwards, when it was restored by Antigonus, and entered upon its
flourishing period. The cities of the main land were compelled to
acknowledge the supremacy of the Persian conqueror; but not the
islands. The Aeolian cities were not leagued together by any
permanent bond; it was only in peculiar cases that they debated in
common. Mitylene, which they all regarded as their capital, was
the only one of their colonies that became rich by trade, and
formidable by its naval power. Yet in 470 it was tributary to
Athens; having seceded in 428, at the time of the Peloponnesian
war, it was recaptured and almost levelled to the earth by the
Athenians.

2. The Ionian colonies. These were, no doubt, founded at a later
period than those of the Aeolians; like them, however, they were a
consequence of the Dorian migration. The Ionians, driven out of
Peloponnesus by the Achaeans, had withdrawn to Athens, from whence,
sixty years afterwards, that is to say about 1044, they proceeded
by sea to Asia, headed by Neleus and others of the sons of Codrus.
They were joined, however, by some Thebans, Phocians, Euboean
Abantes, and various other Greeks. In Asia they settled on the
southern coast of Lydia and the northern shore of Caria; which,
together with the islands of Samos and Chios, took from them the
name of Ionia. Here they built twelve cities on the main land;
namely, reckoning from north to south, Phocaea, Erythrae, Clazomene,
Teos, Lebedus, Colophon, Ephesus, Priene, Myus, Miletus, and in the
islands, Samos and Chios. They possessed in common one sanctuary,
the Panionium temple of Neptune, built on the headland of Mycale.
Here they celebrated their festivals, and assembled to deliberate
upon matters affecting the general interest, although it must still
be remembered that each city was in itself independent. This
independence was maintained until the time of the Lydian dynasty of
the Mermnadae, and that of Cyrus, under whose reign they were
compelled to submit to the Persian yoke. Still, under the Persian
rule, they for the most part preserved their own form of
government, and were subject only so much as they had to pay
tribute. Nevertheless they seized every opportunity of delivering
themselves from this species of thraldom; and hence their history
in the following period is closely interwoven with that of Greece.
The political constitution was, no doubt, at an early period
republican in all; but these colonies likewise were oppressed by
continual factions, and frequently by tyrants. Among the towns
situate on the continent, the most remarkable were Miletus,
Ephesus, and Phocaea. Miletus was the principal seat of trade. It
had been founded by the Carians before the arrival of the Ionians;
but was by the latter raised to opulence and power. The most
flourishing period of its existence was between 700-500: in the
latter year it was implicated in the insurrection of Aristagoras
against the Persians, in consequence of which it was destroyed in
496. From that time Miletus never recovered its ancient splendour.
Nevertheless, in the days of her prosperity Miletus was, next to
Tyre and Carthage, the first emporium of the world. Her sea trade
was chiefly carried on in the Euxine, and the Palus Maeotis, whose
shores, on all sides, were occupied by her colonies, amounting,
according to some authorities, to more than a hundred. By means of
these settlements she monopolized the whole of the northern trade
in pulse, dry fish, slaves, and furs. Her land trade was carried on
by the great _military_ road, constructed by the Persians, far into
the interior of Asia. Four harbours admitted her vessels; and her
naval power was so great, that she had been known, more than once,
to fit out, unaided, fleets of from eighty to a hundred
sail.--Phocaea. The flourishing period of this establishment was
contemporary with that of Miletus; but ended at the rise of the
Persian dominion, 540, when the Phocaeans, rather than submit to the
Persian yoke, chose to forsake the city of their fathers and
migrate to Corsica, although one half of the inhabitants repented
of their resolution and returned. Phocaea had the most extensive
trade by sea of all the Grecian cities; they were to the west what
the Milesians were to the north. Their navigation extended as far
as Gades; and they not only visited the coasts of Italy, Gaul, and
Corsica, but even founded colonies in these countries; as for
instance, Aleria in Corsica, Elea in Italy, and, above all,
Massilea, (Marseilles,) on the coast of Gaul.--Ephesus. This city
was likewise originally founded by the Carians, but subsequently
occupied by the Ionians. Its independence was maintained until the
time of Croesus, who annexed it to his other conquests about 560.
The constitution was aristocratic; the government being in the
hands of a senate, ([Greek: gerousia],) combined with the
magistrates, ([Greek: epikletoi]): and the family which had once
possessed the throne preserved certain prerogatives. Ephesus was
not so important in a commercial point of view as Phocaea and
Miletus; but was much celebrated for its temple of Diana, which in
355 was fired by Erostratus, and afterwards rebuilt with more
sumptuous splendour. The flourishing period of Ephesus appears to
have commenced at this time, long after that of Miletus and Phocaea
had terminated; for both in the Macedonian and Roman ages Ephesus
was regarded as the first city of Asia Minor.--Of the cities on
the islands, Samos was the most important, for its trade, and for
its naval power. The period of its splendour was under the reign of
the tyrant Polycrates, 540-523, whose sway extended over the sea
and islets of the neighbourhood. Syloson, brother to the tyrant,
having by the assistance of the Persians, 517, obtained possession
of Samos, the island was almost depopulated. Soon afterwards Samos
became dependent upon the Athenians, who in 440 introduced a
democratic form of government, and made it the rendezvous for her
troops and fleets during the war with Sparta.--Chios was scarcely
inferior to Samos, either in power or wealth. It submitted to the
Persian yoke with the rest of the Ionian colonies; but was so
powerful, that in 500, at the insurrection of Aristagoras,
ninety-eight sail of the combined fleet belonged to Chios. After
the defeat of Xerxes, 469, it entered into the Athenian league,
from which it endeavoured to secede in the Peloponnesian war, 412.
The naval power of the Chians was still considerable; and those
islanders had the high honour of not suffering prosperity to
inflate them with overweening ambition.

F. G. RAMBACH, _De Mileto ejusque coloniis_, 1790, 4to.

3. The Dorian colonies. These were situated in Asia Minor, upon the
southern coast of Caria, and in the islands of Cos and Rhodes, but
were all planted at a later period than the Ionian colonies, and,
no doubt, were the result of successive migrations. The Dorians
appear to have gradually spread beyond Peloponnesus, over the
islands of the Archipelago to the Asiatic coast: in Rhodes they
erected the cities of Ialyssus, Camirus, and Lindus; in Cos a city
of the same name; on the main land two cities, Halicarnassus and
Cnidus. These six ancient colonies had, like the Ionians, one
common sanctuary, the temple of Apollo Triopius, where they
celebrated their festivals and held their deliberative assemblies.
Halicarnassus, however, was afterwards excluded from the
confederation. They remained independent until the Persian period,
although the constitutions of the separate cities were subject to
violent revolutions; thus at Cnidus the oligarchy was converted
into a democracy; Halicarnassus was likewise generally subject to
the Carian sovereigns, among whom Mausolus and Artemisia are names
familiar to all.--The three cities in Rhodes appear never to have
grown to any importance; that of Rhodes, not built till after the
irruption of Xerxes into Greece, 480, soon eclipsed the others: its
flourishing period began after the death of Alexander. At no
period of early history could the Dorian colonies, or those of the
Aeolians, compete in wealth and commerce with the Ionians.

7. The shores of the Propontis, the Black sea, and the Palus Maeotis, were likewise covered with Grecian settlements. Nearly all these were colonies of the city of Miletus alone, and were, without exception, all of them the marts of a prosperous trade. Although the date of each cannot be precisely defined, they must have arisen between the eighth and sixth centuries before the Christian era. They were not only sovereigns of the Black sea, but likewise extended their trade over the whole of southern Russia, and eastward to the regions beyond the Caspian sea; that is, to great Bukharia.

On the Propontis stood Lampsacus (adjoining the Hellespont) and
Cyzicus, on an island connected with the continent by means of
bridges. The latter town certainly was one of the most beautiful
and flourishing cities of Asia; but this did not occur until the
Roman age, and was in consequence of the fostering protection of
the Romans.--Opposite to Cyzicus, on the Thracian coast, was
Perinthus, subsequently called Heraclea; at the mouth of the
Thracian Bosporus stood Byzantium, over against which was
Chalcedon. The prosperity of all these towns affords sufficient
proof of the skill with which sites were chosen for the
establishment of colonies.

HEYNE, _Antiquities Byzantina: Commentationes duae_, 1809. The first
of which contains the fragments of the earlier history of
Byzantium.

The colonies of the Black sea were: on the southern coast of
Bithynia, Heraclea, in the territory of the Maryandini. This place
preserved its republican constitution amid frequent broils and
revolutions, brought about by the oligarchic and democratic
factions, until about B. C. 370, when the democrats having gained
the upper hand, a path was opened to Clearchus, who became tyrant,
and abrogated the senate, ([Greek: boule?]) the family of the
tyrant continued for a long time in possession of power, after he
himself had been murdered by two disciples of Plato.--In
Paphlagonia was Sinope, the most powerful of all the Grecian
settlements on the Black sea, of which it long held the
sovereignty. The freedom and independence of this place lasted to
about 100, when it fell under the dominion of the kings of Pontus,
and afterwards under that of the Romans. The principal source from
which it derived its wealth were the shoals of migratory fish
([Greek: pelamydes],) which, issuing from the Palus Maeotis, spread
along the shore of the Black sea down to the Thracian Bosporus.--In
Pontus was Amisus, the mother city of Trapezus, and which shared
the fate of Sinope.--On the eastern coast stood the cities of
Phasis, Dioscurias, and Phanagoria: this last was the principal
mart of the slave trade, and, during the Macedonian period, the
staple for Indian commodities imported across the Oxus and the
Caspian sea.--In the Chersonesus Taurica stood Panticapaeum, capital
city of the little Grecian kingdom of Bosporus, whose kings (among
whom Spartacus, about 439, and more especially Leucon, about 350,
are celebrated) remained in alliance with Athens till Mithridates
the Great laid there the foundation of his dominion.--On the
northern coast was the city of Tanais, on the mouth of a river of
the same name at the bottom of the Palus Maeotis. Olbia was situated
at the mouth of the Borysthenes. These two places, and Olbia in
particular, were of the highest importance for the inland trade,
which issuing from thence in a northern and easterly direction, was
extended to the very centre of Asia.--The colonies of the western
coast, such as Apollonia, Tomi, and Salmidessus, were of less
notoriety.

8. The coast of Thrace and Macedonia, washed by the Aegaean sea, was likewise covered with Grecian colonies, from various cities, and especially from Corinth and Athens. The Athenians having obtained in the Persian war the sovereignty of the sea, endeavoured to establish their dominion in this part of the world; hence the cities in that quarter were closely implicated in the quarrels and wars excited, first by the jealousy between Sparta and Athens, and afterwards by that which sprang up between Athens and Macedonia, in the reign of Philip.

On the Thracian coast of the Chersonesus, regarded as the key of
Europe, and ranging along the Hellespont, were the towns of Sestos,
Cardia, and Aegospotamos; farther to the west stood Maronea and
Abdera, the latter a colony of Teos. Of far greater importance,
however, were the towns on the Macedonian coast, Amphipolis,
Chalcis, Olynthus, Potidaea. The first of these towns, founded about
B. C. 464, was a colony from Athens, which endeavoured to keep it
in a state of dependence. Chalcis was a colony from a city of the
same name in Euboea. In 470 it was dependent on Athens; but in 432,
the inhabitants having raised the standard of rebellion, forsook
their houses and voluntarily withdrew to Olynthus.--Olynthus
derived its name from the founder, one of the sons of Hercules: in
the course of time it ranked among the most powerful cities of
Thrace, although it was tributary to the Athenians. It took a share
in the war between Athens and Sparta, and continued to be a
flourishing city until 348, when it was taken by Philip of Macedon,
and destroyed.--Potidaea was a colony of Corinth, from which it
received annual magistrates, ([Greek: epidemiourgoi],) having
become tributary to Athens after the Persian war, it revolted in
431: obliged to yield to the Athenian arms, its inhabitants were
expelled, and their place supplied by an Athenian colony. It now
became a possession of Athens, and remained so till it was taken by
Philip in 358.

9. The Grecian settlements westward of the mother country were, almost without exception, made at a later period than those in the Aegean and Black seas: they reached nevertheless to an equal degree of splendour; and though their trade was not so extensive, it was equally profitable: these colonies not only rivalled those we have above described, in wealth, but surpassed them in power, being generally characterized by the wisdom and prudence displayed in their respective constitutions. The foundation of most of them may be dated between B. C. 750 and 650; consequently at a period when all the cities in the mother country had already been republicanized: and at a time when there could be no lack of domestic troubles, which would furnish sufficient motives for emigration.

1. Grecian settlements in Lower Italy. The most numerous and
important of these were scattered around the bay of Tarentum; they
extended likewise along the western coast of Italy up to Naples.
These colonies were variously traced to the Dorian, Achaean, and
Ionian families: they were likewise distinguished by political
characteristics, the government in the Dorian settlements being
generally more aristocratic, in the rest more democratic: it must
be observed, however, that, with respect to the various revolutions
which the respective constitutions underwent, it is hardly possible
to give any general information, excepting so far as regards the
earliest times. Of Dorian origin were Tarentum, and its colonies
Heraclea and Brundusium. Of Achaean origin were Sybaris and Croton,
together with the colonies of the latter, Laus, Metapontum,
Posidonia; which last founded in its turn, Terina, Caulonia, and
Pandosia. Of Ionian origin were Thurii, (built on the site where
Sybaris had formerly stood,) Rhegium, Elea, Cumae, and its branch
settlement of Neapolis. Locri Epizephyrii, a colony of the Locri
Ozolae, may be regarded as an Aeolian city. The most remarkable of
these cities in respect of general history are:

_a._ Tarentum, founded by the Parthenii, from Sparta, about 707. It
waged several wars with the aboriginal tribes in the vicinity, the
Messapians, Lucanians, etc. and grew to be one of the richest and
most powerful of the maritime towns. The brilliant period of
Tarentum appears to have fallen between 500 and 400. Excess of
wealth subsequently introduced luxury, which extinguished the
national spirit. Nevertheless Tarentum preserved its independence
until 273, when, after the war with Pyrrhus, it fell under the
Roman dominion. The constitution was originally a moderate
aristocracy; but was commuted soon after the Persian war into a
democracy, which was, however, curbed by prudent restrictions.
Tarentum had its senate, ([Greek: boule],) without whose consent
war could not be undertaken; its magistrates elected half by lot,
half by majority of votes given in the assemblies of the commons.
Among its most celebrated citizens is reckoned the Pythagoraean
Archytas, who, after the year B. C. 390, was frequently at the head
of the state, filling the offices of general and supreme
magistrate. The constitution appears to have preserved its form
until the Roman period, although the national spirit was greatly
corrupted by a luxury almost exceeding the limits of credibility.

_b._ Croton, founded 710 by the Achaeans, under the guidance of
Myscellus from Rhype in Achaia. This city must have attained to
very great power during the very first century of its existence;
since in the battle of Sagra against the Locrians, which may with
probability be dated about 600, the Crotoniates were able to set on
foot an army of 120,000 men. Neither does the defeat which they
there suffered appear to have debilitated the settlement for any
length of time; for in 510, with nearly the same number of forces,
they attacked the Sybarites, and destroyed their city. The original
constitution was, no doubt, a moderate democracy; but we are
unacquainted with the details of its organization. Pythagoras was
the reformer of customs, moral and political, not only at Croton,
but in several other of the Italico-Greek cities. This philosopher
arrived at Croton about 540, and there laid the foundation of the
league or secret association named after him; the object of which
was, not to change the form of government in the Italian cities,
but to create men capable of managing the helm of state. This
reform and influence of the Pythagoraeans lasted about thirty years,
when their order underwent the same fate as generally befalls a
secret association founded with a political view. Probably about
510 the Pythagoraeean league was broken asunder by the democratic
faction under Cylon. The consequence was universal anarchy, not
only in Croton, where, about 494, a certain Clinias usurped the
supreme power, but likewise in the other cities: these disorders,
however, were quelled by the intervention of the Achaeans; and the
Achaean colonies not only adopted the laws of their mother cities,
but likewise soon afterwards signed a league in the temple of
Jupiter Homorius, about 460: it appears that Croton, having already
recovered from the blow it had received, was at the head of this
league. In this happy posture affairs remained till about 400.
After the kings of Syracuse had commenced their attacks on Magna
Graecia, Croton was repeatedly captured; as in B. C. 389 by
Dionysius I. and about 321; and again, in 299, by Agathocles.
Finally, after the war with Pyrrhus, 277, it became dependent on
Rome.

_c._ Sybaris was founded about 720, like the foregoing, by the
Achaeans, who were mingled with Troezenians: this settlement existed
till 510, when it was destroyed by Croton. Soon after its
foundation it became one of the most extensive, populous, and
luxurious cities, so much so, that the effeminacy of the Sybarites
became proverbial. Sybaris appears to have been at the height of
her prosperity from about 600-550; she then possessed a respectable
territory, comprising four of the neighbouring tribes, and
twenty-five cities or places. The extraordinary fertility of the
soil, and the admission of all strangers to the rights of
citizenship, tended to increase the population so much, that
Sybaris, in the war against Croton, is said to have brought into
the field 300,000 men. The vast wealth possessed, not only by
Sybaris, but by the other cities in this quarter, was probably
derived from the great trade in oil and wine carried on with Africa
and Gaul: that such was the case at Agrigentum we know with
certainty. The constitution of Sybaris was likewise, it appears, a
moderate democracy: towards the year 510 one Telys took possession
of the supreme power, and drove out five hundred of the optimates,
who fled to Croton. The Crotoniates received the exiles, and the
Sybarites having put to death their ambassadors, a war was kindled
between the two cities, and ended in 510 by the defeat of the
Sybarites and the destruction of their city.

_d._ Thurii, founded near the site of ancient Sybaris in 446 by
Athens, although the inhabitants were of mixed origin; a
circumstance which gave rise at first to many domestic broils, the
citizens disputing as to who was the real founder; at last, 433,
the Delphian oracle declared the city to be a colony of Apollo. The
constitution was at first a moderate democracy; but this was soon
converted into an oligarchy, all the power and the best lands
having been taken possession of by the Sybarite families who had
joined the settlement. The Sybarites were, however, again expelled,
and Thurii grew into importance by the confluence of several new
colonies out of Greece; its constitution was meliorated by the
adoption of the laws of Charondas of Catana. The principal enemies
of the Thurians were the Lucanians, by whom they were beaten, 390.
The desultory attacks of that tribe obliged them, 286, to crave the
assistance of the Romans, which soon after afforded the Tarentines
an excuse for attacking them. Thurii now formed a part of the Roman
dependencies, and after suffering much in the Carthaginian wars,
was at last, B. C. 190, occupied by a Roman colony.

_e._ Locri Epizephyrii. The question of their origin is subject to
dispute: the causes of this uncertainty are, that here, as in most
other of the cities, various bands of colonists arrived at various
times, and those bands themselves were composed of a mixture of
several Grecian stocks. The chief colony was sent out, B. C. 683,
by the Locri Ozolae. After suffering much from violent internal
commotions, Locri found, about 660, a lawgiver in Zaleucus, whose
institutions remained more than two centuries inviolate. The
constitution was aristocratic, the administration being in the
hands of a hundred families. The supreme magistrate was called
cosmopolis. The senate consisted of a thousand members, probably
elected from the commons, with whom resided, either wholly or
partially, the legislative power. The maintenance of the laws was,
as in other Grecian cities, committed to the nomophylaces. Locri
was certainly neither so wealthy nor so luxurious as the cities
above mentioned; but she was honourably distinguished by the good
manners and quiet conduct of her citizens, who were contented with
their government. The flourishing period of this city lasted till
the time of Dionysius II. who having been driven out of Syracuse,
fled with his dependents to Locri, the native country of his
mother: by his insolence and licentiousness of manners the city was
brought to the verge of ruin; after his return to Syracuse, 347,
the Locrians avenged their wrongs upon his family. Locri afterward
maintained its recovered independence until the time of Pyrrhus,
who, 277, placed a garrison in the town; the Locrians, however, put
the troops to the sword, and passed over to the Roman side: the
city was in consequence sacked by Pyrrhus in 275. From that time
Locri remained a confederate town dependent on Rome, and suffered
much in the second Punic war.

_f._ Rhegium, a colony from Chalcis in Euboea, 668: here also the
government was aristocratic, the supreme power being in the hands
of a council of a thousand men, selected only from Messenian
families, which had joined the original settlers. Hence arose an
oligarchy, of which Anaxilaus took advantage to assume the sole
dominion, 494, in which he was succeeded by his sons. These having
been driven out, 464, commotions ensued, which, after a time, were
quelled by adopting the laws of Charondas. Rhegium now enjoyed a
period of happiness, which lasted till B. C. 392, when it was
captured and destroyed by Dionysius I. Dionysius II. restored it in
some measure; but in 281 the city was taken possession of by a
Roman legion, who being sent for the purpose of garrisoning the
place, murdered the inhabitants. The soldiers were punished with
death, 271; but Rhegium thenceforth remained in a state of
dependence upon Rome.

_g._ Cumae, founded as early as 1030, from Chalcis in Euboea. This
city attained at an early period to a high degree of power and
prosperity; its territory being of considerable extent, its navy
respectable, and Neapolis and Zancle (or Messana) among its
colonies. The government was a moderate aristocracy: this
constitution was subverted about 544, by the tyrant Aristodemus;
but restored after his assassination. Cumae was subject to repeated
annoyances from the petty Italian nations; and in 564 she was
invaded and defeated by the Etruscans and Daunians combined; in 474
she beat the Etruscans at sea: but in 420 was captured by the
Campanians; together with whom she became a dependent of Rome in
345. Cumae, nevertheless, in consequence of its harbour of Puteoli,
preserved a share of importance, even under the Roman dominion.

HEYNE, _Prolusiones 16 de civitatum Graecarum per magnam Graeciam et
Siciliam institutis et legibus_. Collected in his _Opuscula_, vol.
vii.

2. Grecian settlements in Sicily. These occupied the eastern and
southern shores of the island: they were founded in the same period
as those of Magna Graecia, and belonged partly to the Dorian, partly
to the Ionian stocks. Of Dorian origin were Messana and Tyndaris,
from Messene; Syracuse, who in her turn founded Acrae, Casmenae, and
Camarina, from Corinth; Hybla and Thapsus from Megara; Segesta from
Thessaly; Heraclea Minoa from Crete; Gela, which founded
Agrigentum, from Rhodes; and Lipara, on the small island of that
name, from Cnidus. Of Ionian origin were Naxus, the founder of
Leontini; Catana and Tauromenium, from Chalcis; Zancle, (after its
occupation by Messenian colonists, called Messana,) founded by
Cumae, and in its turn founder of Himera and Mylae. The most
remarkable of these towns in ancient history are:

_a._ Syracuse, the most powerful of all the Greek colonies, and
consequently that concerning which our information is the most
copious. The history of Syracuse, on which, as that town was for a
long time mistress of the greatest part of the island, depends
nearly the whole history of Sicily, comprises four periods. 1. From
the foundation, B. C. 735, to Gelon, 484; a space of two hundred
and fifty-one years. During this period Syracuse was a republic,
but does not appear to have risen to any very great height of
power: yet she founded the colonies of Acrae, 665, Casmenae, 645, and
Camarina, 600. The assistance of her parent city, Corinth, and
Corcyra, alone prevented her falling a prey to Hippocrates,
sovereign of Gela; and even then she was obliged to cede Camarina,
497. The constitution was aristocratic; but not free from domestic
troubles. The administration was in the hands of the opulent,
([Greek: gamoroi?]) but these were, about 485, expelled by the
democratic faction and their own mutinous slaves. They fled to
Casmenae, and by the help of Gelon, sovereign of Gela, were restored
to their homes; Gelon retaining the power in his own hands. 2. From
Gelon to the expulsion of Thrasybulus, 484-466. The three brothers,
Gelon, Hiero, and Thrasybulus, successively ruled over Syracuse.
Gelon, 484-477. He was at once the founder of the greatness of
Syracuse, and of his own power: this he effected partly by
increasing the population, bringing in new inhabitants from other
Greek cities, and partly by the great victory he won over the
Carthaginians, in alliance with the Persians, 480. At this early
period Syracuse was so powerful, both by sea and by land, as to
justify Gelon in claiming the office of generalissimo of Greece,
when Sparta and Athens came to solicit his aid. His beneficent
reign not only gained him the love of the Syracusans during his
life, but likewise procured him heroic honours after death at the
hands of a grateful people. He died in 477, and was succeeded by
his brother Hiero I. who had till then ruled over Gela. The reign
of this prince was splendid, his court was brilliant, and a
fostering protection was extended to arts and sciences. Hiero's
power strengthened by the establishment of new citizens, both in
Syracuse and its subordinate towns of Catana and Naxus, whose
original inhabitants are translated to Leontini.--Wars waged
against Thero, 476, and his son Thrasidaeus, tyrants of Agrigentum:
after the expulsion of Thrasidaeus, that town forms an alliance with
Syracuse; the Syracusan fleet sent to the assistance of Cumae, wins
a victory over the Etruscans. Hiero, dying in 467, was succeeded by
his brother Thrasybulus, who, after a short reign of eight months,
was expelled for his cruelty by the Syracusans and the confederate
cities. 3. From the expulsion of Thrasybulus to the elevation of
Dionysius I.; Syracuse a free democratic state: from 466-405.
Reestablishment of republican forms of government in Syracuse and
the other Grecian cities; accompanied, however, with many
commotions and civil wars, proceeding from the expulsion of the new
citizens and the restoration of the ancient inhabitants to their
property.--Increasing power and prosperity of Syracuse, who is now
at the head of the confederate Grecian cities in the island, and
soon endeavours to convert her precedence into supremacy. The new
democratic constitution quickly suffers from the diseases incident
to that form of government; a vain attempt is made to apply a
remedy by the introduction of the petalismus, B. C. 454; in the
mean time the Siculi, aboriginal inhabitants of Sicily, unite in
closer league under their leader Ducetius; attempting to expel the
Greeks, 451, they engage the Syracusans in reiterated wars; the
arms of Syracuse are successful, her authority is confirmed by the
subjection of the ambitious Agrigentum, 446, and by her naval
victory over the Etruscans. First but unsuccessful attempt of the
Athenians to interpose in the domestic affairs of Sicily, by siding
with Leontini against Syracuse, 427; eleven years afterward occurs
the great expedition against Syracuse, 415-413, caused by the
disputes between Segesta and Selinus; the expedition ends in the
total rout of the Athenian fleet and army, (see below,) and the
power of Syracuse reaches its zenith. A constitutional reform takes
place, 412, brought about by Diocles, whose laws were subsequently
adopted by several other of the Sicilian cities. The magistrates
were chosen by lot. The rest of the laws, which appear to have had
reference to the criminal code, were the production of a committee
over which Diocles presided; these enactments were so beneficial to
Syracuse, that the author of them was honoured with a temple after
his death. Yet as early as 410, a renewal of the differences
between Segesta and Selinus afforded a pretext for war with
Carthage, from whom the Segestani had besought assistance; by this
war the whole state of affairs in Sicily was subverted. The rapid
strides made by the Carthaginians, who, under the command of
Hannibal the son of Gisgo, took, 409, Selinus and Himera, and even
Agrigentum, 406, engendered domestic factions and commotions within
Syracuse; and amid those disorders the crafty Dionysius succeeded
first in obtaining the office of general, and then, after
supplanting his colleagues, the sovereign power of Syracuse, 405.
4. From Dionysius I. to the Roman occupation, 405-212. Dionysius
I. 405-368. Ominous commencement of his reign, by a defeat at Gela
and the mutiny of his troops.--A plague wasting the Carthaginian
army, he is enabled to patch up a peace, B. C. 405, by which it is
agreed, that Carthage, besides her territory in the island, shall
retain all the conquests made during the war, together with Gela
and Camarina. But the project of expelling the Carthaginians out of
Sicily, in order to subject the whole island, and to fall upon
Magna Grecia, kindles a long series of wars both with Carthage and
the cities of Magna Grecia. Second war with Carthage against
Hannibal and Himilco, 398-392. Dionysius loses all that he before
had conquered, and is himself besieged in Syracuse; but a plague
once more attacking the Carthaginians, rescues him from his
predicament, 396; deeds of hostility continued notwithstanding till
392, when a peace was signed, by which Carthage ceded the town of
Tauromenium.--From 394, desultory attacks on the confederate
Grecian cities in Lower Italy, particularly on Rhegium, the chief
seat of the Syracusan emigrants, which, after repeated invasions,
is at last compelled to yield, 387. Third war with Carthage, 383,
against Mago; Dionysius wins a victory, which is however followed
by a greater defeat; and the war ends the same year by the adoption
of a peace, according to which each party is to retain what he then
had; the Halycus is fixed as the boundary line; so that Selinus and
a portion of the territory of Agrigentum remain in the hands of the
Carthaginians. Fourth war: inroad upon the Carthaginian states; it
ends, however, in the signing of a treaty. The decision of these
wars generally depended on the side taken by the Siculi, the most
powerful aboriginal race in Sicily. Dionysius I. having died by
poison, 368, was succeeded by Dionysius II. his eldest son by one
of his two wives, Doris of Locri, but under the guardianship of his
step-uncle Dio, the brother of Dionysius's other wife Aristomache.
Neither Dio or his friend Plato, who was three times invited to
Syracuse, were able to improve the character of a prince whose mind
had been corrupted by bad education.--Dio is banished, 360. He
returns, 357, and, in the absence of Dionysius, takes possession of
Syracuse, all but the citadel. Dionysius now has recourse to
stratagem; he excites in the city distrust of Dio, and foments
dissension between him and his general Heraclidas; meanwhile he
himself withdraws to Italy, taking with him his treasures. Dio is
compelled to retire from the city, which is sacked by the troops
garrisoned in the citadel; hereupon the Syracusans themselves fetch
back Dio; he possesses himself of the citadel and wishes to restore
the republican government, but soon falls a victim to party spirit,
being murdered by Callipus, B. C. 354, who usurped the government
till 353, when he is driven out by Hipparinus, a brother of
Dionysius, who keeps possession till 350. After ten years' absence,
Dionysius II. by a sudden attack, becomes once more master of the
city, 346. The tyranny of this prince, and the treachery of Icetas
of Gela, whom the Syracusans called in to their assistance, but who
leagues himself with the Carthaginians, and the formidable
attempts of the latter, compel the citizens to apply to the mother
city Corinth: Corinth sends to their assistance Timoleon with a
small force, 345. Rapid change of affairs wrought by Timoleon: he
beats Icetas and the Carthaginians: in 343 Dionysius is forced to
deliver up the citadel and evacuate the country; he retires to
Corinth, where he leads a private life. Restoration of the
republican government, not only in Syracuse, where the laws of
Diocles are reinstituted, but also in the rest of the Grecian
cities: the revolution confirmed by a great victory over the
Carthaginians, 340. In the midst of the execution of his plans
Timoleon dies, 337, the most splendid example of a republican that
history affords! From 337-317; almost a chasm in the history of
Syracuse. Wars with Agrigentum; the usurpation of Sosistratus,
disturbs the peace, both external and internal. The character of
the Syracusans was already too foully corrupted for one to expect
that liberty could again be established among them, without the
personal superintendence of a Timoleon. They deserved the fate that
befell them, when, in 317, that daring adventurer Agathocles
assumed the sovereign power, which he maintained till 289. Renewal
of the plan for expelling the Carthaginians from the island, and
subjecting Magna Graecia. Hence arises a new war with Carthage, in
which Agathocles is defeated, 311, and besieged in Syracuse: by a
bold stroke he passes over into Africa, accompanied by part of his
fleet and army, and there with general success prosecutes the war
until 307: the insurrection of most of the Grecian cities in Sicily
recalls him from the theatre of war; his views in Africa are
consequently defeated. In the peace of 306 both parties retain what
they had at the beginning of the war. The wars in Italy are
confined to the sacking of Croton, and a victory won over the
Bruttii; and are rather predatory expeditions than regular wars. In
the year 289, Agathocles died by poison, and his murderer, Maenon,
seized the power; he is expelled by the general Icetas, and flies
over to the Carthaginians. Icetas rules as pretor till 278, when,
in his absence, the government is usurped by Thynion, who meets
with a rival in the person of Sosistratus; in the mean while the
mercenaries of Agathocles (the Mamertini) possess themselves of
Messana, and the Carthaginians press forward to the very gates of
Syracuse. The Syracusans invite Pyrrhus of Epirus over from Italy;
that prince takes possession of the whole of Sicily as far as
Lilybaeum; but having by his haughtiness incurred general hatred and
disgust, he is obliged to evacuate the island, B. C. 275. The
Syracusans now appoint Hiero, a descendant of the ancient royal
family, to the office of general: after defeating the Mamertini he
is called to the throne, 269. At the breaking out of the war
between Carthage and Rome, the new king forsakes his alliance with
Carthage, and, passing over to the Roman side, thereby purchases a
long and tranquil reign until 215, when he dies of old age. Under
this wise prince Syracuse enjoyed a degree of happiness and
prosperity which none of her demagogues had been able to effect.
After his death the Carthaginian party became predominant;
Hieronymus the grandson of Hiero is murdered, 214, and Hannibal's
intrigues enable the Carthaginian party to keep the upper hand, by
contriving to place at the head of affairs his friends Hippocrates
and Epicydes, who entangle Syracuse in a war with Rome; and the
city, after a long siege, celebrated by the inventions of
Archimedes, is brought to ruin, 212.--The history of Syracuse is a
practical compendium of politics: what other state ever underwent
so many and such various revolutions?

The history of Syracuse was at an early period disfigured by
partiality. For the topography, see # BARTEL'S _Letters from
Calabria and Sicily_, vol. iii. with a plan.

# A. ARNOLD, _History of Syracuse, from its foundation to the
overthrow of liberty by Dionysius_. Gotha, 1816.

MITFORD, _History of Greece_: the fourth volume contains the
history of Syracuse, and a defence of the elder Dionysius. It would
seem that even now it is difficult to write this history in an
impartial spirit.

_b._ Agrigentum, a colony of Gela, founded 582. The first city of
Sicily next to Syracuse, of which it was frequently the rival. Its
first constitution was that of the mother city; that is to say,
Dorian or aristocratic. It fell, however, soon after its
foundation, under the dominion of tyrants; the first of whom
noticed in history is Phalaris, who flourished probably 566-534.
He was succeeded by Alcmanes, 534-488, who was followed by
Alcander, an indulgent ruler, in whose reign the wealth of
Agrigentum seems to have already been considerable. More renowned
than the foregoing was Theron, the contemporary and stepfather of
Gelon; he ruled from B. C. 488-472: in conjunction with Gelon he
routed the Carthaginian army, 480, and subjected Himera. His son
and successor, Thrasydaeus, was beaten by Hiero and expelled, 470;
whereupon the Agrigentines, as allies of Syracuse, introduced a
democracy. The period following, 470-405, is that in which
Agrigentum, blessed with political freedom, attained the highest
degree of public prosperity. She was one of the most opulent and
luxurious cities in the world, and in the display of public
monuments one of the most magnificent. For her wealth she was
indebted to the vast trade in oil and wine that she carried on with
Africa and Gaul, in neither of which were those productions
hitherto naturalized. In the year 446 the Agrigentines, excited by
envy, fell upon the Syracusans, but were defeated. In the war with
Athens they took no share; but in the Carthaginian invasion of
Sicily, 405, Agrigentum was taken and destroyed; from this blow she
recovered but slowly, and never effectually. By Timoleon she was,
in some measure, restored, 340; and under Agathocles, 307, was able
to head the cities combined against him, but was beaten. After the
death of Agathocles, a tyrant, by the name of Phintias, took
possession of the sovereign power; and was attacked, 278, by Icetas
of Syracuse. At the breaking out of the first Punic war, Agrigentum
was used by the Carthaginians as a military depot; but was taken by
the Romans as early as 262.

_c._ The fate of the other Sicilian cities was more or less
dependent on that of Agrigentum and Syracuse: they all had
originally republican forms of government; but though the Ionian
colonies had a celebrated legislator in the person of Charondas,
(probably about 660,) they had the same fortune with the rest, of
being frequently oppressed by tyrants, either from among their own
citizens, or by those of Syracuse, who often used to drive out the
old inhabitants, and introduce a new population more devoted to
their interest: hence must have sprung manifold wars. The foregoing
history shows how grievously they likewise suffered in the wars
between Syracuse and Carthage. Following the dates of their
respective foundations, they may be thus arranged: Zancle, (after
664, known by the name of Messana,) the earliest, though of
uncertain date; Naxus, 736; Syracuse, Hybla, 735; Leontini, Catana,
730; Gela, 690; Acrae, B. C. 665; Casmenae, 645; Himera, 639;
Selinus, 630; Agrigentum, 582. The dates of the rest cannot be
ascertained with any degree of accuracy.

3. On the other islands and coasts of the Mediterranean we meet
with various insulated Grecian settlements; in Sardinia, the cities
Garalis and Olbia: the date of their foundation unknown; in
Corsica, Alaria, (or Alalia,) a colony of Phocaeans founded, 561;
hither the inhabitants of the mother city betook themselves in
541; and subsequently, after the naval engagement with the
Etruscans and Carthaginians, withdrew, some to Rhegium, others to
Massilia, 536.

4. On the coast of Gaul stood Massilia, founded by the Phocaeans,
who had been driven out of Corsica after the above mentioned naval
engagement, 536; or rather, there was on the same site an old
settlement which was now increased. Massilia rapidly grew in wealth
and power. Our information respecting the wars she waged on the sea
against Carthage and the Etruscans is but of a general kind. Her
territory on the main land, although rich in wine and oil, was
limited in extent; she established, nevertheless, several colonies
along the shores of Spain and Gaul, among which Antipolis, Nicaea,
and Olbia are the best known. The trade of Massilia was carried on
partly by sea, and partly by land, through the interior of Gaul.
The constitution was a moderate aristocracy. The chief power was in
the hands of six hundred individuals; the members of this council
were called timuchi, they held their places for life, were obliged
to be married men with families, and descended at least to the
third generation from citizens. At the head of this council stood
fifteen men, three of whom were chief magistrates. As early as 218
Massilia was in alliance with Rome, under whose fostering
protection she grew in prosperity; her freedom was preserved to her
until the war between Pompey and Caesar; having sided with the
former, she was stormed, 49, by Caesar's army. She soon retrieved
herself, and, under the reign of Augustus, Massilia was the seat of
literature and philosophy, in which public lectures were there
given as at Athens.

AUG. BRUEKNER, _Historia Reipublicae Massiliensium_. Gotting. 1826.
A prize essay.

5. On the Spanish coast stood Saguntum, ([Greek: Zakunthos],) a
colony from the island of Zacynthus; the date of its foundation is
undetermined. It became opulent by its commerce; but at the opening
of the second Punic war, B.C. 219, was destroyed by Hannibal, as
being an ally of Rome.

6. On the coast of Africa lay Cyrene, founded at the suggestion of
the Delphic oracle in 631, by the island of Thera. The constitution
was at first monarchical. Kings: Battus I. the founder, 631-591.
In whose family the sceptre remained. Arcesilaus I. _d._ 575. Under
the reign of his successor, Battus II. surnamed the happy, (_d._
554,) the colony was much strengthened by new comers from Greece.
The Libyans, bereaved of their lands, seek for help at the hands
of Apries, who is defeated by the Cyrenaeans, 570, and in
consequence loses his crown.--Arcesilaus II. _d._ 550. Rebellion of
his brothers, and foundation of Barca, an independent town ruled by
its own separate kings. Secession of the Libyan subjects. He is put
to death by his brother or friend Learchus, who in his turn is
poisoned by Eryxo the widow of Arcesilaus. Her son, Battus III.
surnamed the lame, (_d._ about 529,) succeeds to the throne. The
royal power confined within narrow limits by the laws of Demonax of
Mantinea: the king retains nothing more than the revenue and
priestly office. His son Arcesilaus III. becomes of his own accord
tributary to the Persians; in conjunction with his mother,
Pheretime, he seeks to reestablish the regal supremacy, but is
expelled; nevertheless he regains possession of Cyrene. In
consequence of his cruelty he is assassinated in Barca, about 516.
Pheretime seeks for help from the Persian satrap of Egypt,
Aryandes, who by craft gets possession of Barca; the inhabitants
are carried away and translated into Bactria, 512. Soon after
Pheretime dies. It seems probable that another Battus IV. and
Arcesilaus IV. must have reigned at Cyrene, to whom Pindar's fourth
and fifth Pythian Odes are addressed: their history, however, is
veiled in obscurity. Cyrene then received a republican
constitution, probably somewhere about 450; but we are unacquainted
with the internal details of the government. Yet though Plato was
invited by the Cyrenaeans to give them laws, and though they had for
their legislator Democles of Arcadia, they appear never to have
been blessed with a good and stable constitution. Not only is
mention often made of domestic troubles, as in 400, when amid the
uproar excited by Ariston most of the aristocratic party were cut
off; but we likewise frequently meet with tyrants. Concerning the
external affairs of this state we know nothing but a few general
facts relative to the border wars with Carthage. Subsequently to
Alexander, Cyrene became a part of the Egyptian kingdom; so early
as the reign of Ptolemy I. it was added to that realm by his
general Ophellas, about B.C. 331. It now continued to receive
various rulers from the family of the Ptolemies (see below) until
the reign of Ptolemy Physcon, when it became a separate state, the
bastard son of that prince, Apion by name, having made it over to
the Romans, 97. Cyrene possessed a considerable share of trade,
consisting partly in the exportation of country produce, more
especially the Silphium, (Laser,) partly in a varied intercourse
with Carthage, Ammonium, and thence with the interior of Africa.
The former splendour and importance of this city and the
neighbouring country are testified by an abundance of most noble
ruins; a more accurate research into which every friend of
antiquity must desire.

HARDION, _Histoire de Cyrene_, in _Mem. de l'Academie des
Inscriptions_, t. iii.

J. P. THRIGE, _Historia Cyrenes, inde a tempore quo condita urbs
est, usque ad aetatem, qua in provinciae formam a Romanis redacta
est: particula prior, de initiis coloniae Cyrenen deductae, et
Cyrenes Battiadis regnantibus historia_. Havniae, 1819. The best
work on Cyrene. It is hoped that the author will not disapppoint
our expectations of the second part, which is to contain the period
of republican government. [The whole was completed in 1828. The
learned and ingenious author has neglected no authority whether
ancient or modern, and is particularly cautious and judicious in
his researches.]

A ray of light has lately, for the first time, been thrown on the
remains still found in Cyrenaica by DELLA CELLA, _Viaggio di
Tripoli_; translated by Spieker, in the # _Journal of the latest
travels by sea and by land_, Sept. 1820.

W. BEECHEY, _Proceedings to explore the northern coast of Africa
from Tripoli eastward_, 1827.

F. R. PACHO, _Relation d'un voyage a Marmarique et Cyrenaique_,
1828. A most accurate description.

T. EHRENBERG, _Travels through North Africa_, in the years
1820-1825, by Dr. W. F. Hemprich and Dr. C. G. Ehrenberg. Berlin,
1828.

THIRD PERIOD.

_From the commencement of the Persian wars to the time of Alexander the Great, B. C. 500-336._

Sources. The chief writers in this period are: For the history of
the Persian wars to the battle of Plataeae, 479, Herodotus. For the
period between 479 and the breaking out of the Peloponnesian war,
we must, in the absence of contemporary authors, consider Diodorus
Siculus as the principal authority.--The beginning of the 11th
book, which commences with the year 480, (the 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th,
and 10th books being lost,) to the middle of the 12th; the
chronology of this author, however, must in several cases be
rectified after Thucydides's summary in lib. i. For the period of
the Peloponnesian war, 431-410, the history of Thucydides is the
capital work; but it must be accompanied by Diodorus, from the
middle of the 12th book to the middle of the 13th.--From the year
410 to the battle of Mantinea, 362, the principal sources are the
Hellenics of Xenophon, and occasionally his Anabasis and Agesilaus;
together with Diodorus, from the middle of the 13th book to the end
of the 15th. For the years intervening from 362-336, no
contemporary historian has been preserved; Diodorus's 16th book
must therefore here be considered as the chief source: for the
times of Philip, however, recourse may likewise be had to the
speeches of Demosthenes and Aeschines. The Lives of Plutarch and
Nepos often touch upon this period, but cannot be regarded as
authentic sources; of still less authority are the abridged
documents given by Justin and some others.

The modern authors on this, the brilliant period of Greece, are, of
course, the same as have been enumerated above: (see p. 118.) To
whom must here be added:

POTTER, _Archaeologia Graeca; or the Antiquities of Greece:_ 2 vols.
8vo. Lond. 1722. Translated into German by J. J. Rambach, 3 vols.
1775.

BARTHELEMY, _Voyage du Jeune Anacharsis en Grece_. (Between the
years B. C. 362 and 338.) Paris, 1788, 5 vols. Accompanied with
charts and plans, illustrating the topography of Athens, etc. This
work is conspicuous for a rare union of good taste and erudition;
unattended, however, with an equal share of critical acumen and a
correct appreciation of antiquity.

# _History of the Origin, Progress, and Fall of Science in Greece
and Rome_, by C. MEINERS. Gottingen, 1781. It contains also a
delineation of the political state of affairs; but does not extend
beyond the age of Philip.

The principal works on the monuments of ancient Greece are:

LE ROY, _Les Ruines des plus beaux Monumens de la Grece_. Paris,
1758, 2nd edit. 1770, fol. The first in point of time; but far
surpassed by:

J. STUART, _The Antiquities of Athens measured and delineated_; 3
vols. Lond. 1762: the 4th vol. published in 1816. In beauty and
accuracy of execution superior to all.

R. DALTON, _Antiquities and Views of Greece and Egypt_, 1691, fol.
The Egyptian monuments are confined to those of Lower Egypt.

R. CHANDLER, _Ionian Antiquities_. London, 1796, 1797, 2 vols. fol.
A worthy companion to Stuart.

CHOISEUL GOUFFIER, _Voyage pittoresque dans la Grece_, vol. i,
1779: vol. ii, 1809. Confined principally to the islands and Asia
Minor.