Chapter III: Introduction (1)

The interest of Englishmen in the Malay language began with the early ventures of the East India Company in the Far East, in the first years of the seventeenth century. It was the language of commerce everywhere east of the Bay of Bengal, and our earliest adventurers found it spoken at the trading ports which they visited. The Portuguese had preceded them by a century, and the Dutch had been a little earlier in the same field. Our countrymen seem to have been indebted to the latter for their first Malay vocabulary. The minutes of the East India Company record how, on the 22d January 1614, "a book of dialogues, heretofore translated into Latin by the Hollanders, and printed with the Malacca tongue, Mr. Hakluyt having now turned the Latin into English, and supposed very fit for the factors to learn, was ordered to be printed before the departure of the ships."[1]

[Footnote 1: Calendar of State Papers, Colonial Series, East
Indies, p. 272.]

At present the use of Malay, as far as Englishmen are concerned, is chiefly confined to the officers of the Colonial Government in the British possessions in the Straits of Malacca and in the native states adjoining them, and to other residents in those parts, and in the Dutch settlements in the East. To these may be added the English communities of Labuan and Sarawak, and merchants, traders, and seamen all over the Eastern Archipelago. The limited extent of our Malay possessions, when they are compared with the magnificent islands which make up Netherlands India, excuse us, no doubt, for the secondary place which we occupy in all researches connected with the language and literature of the Malays. To the Dutch their colonies in the Eastern seas are what our Indian Empire is to us; and with them the study of Malay, Javanese, Kawi, &c., takes the place of Persian, Hindustani, Tamil, Sanskrit, &c., which occupy our civilians in India. The extent and value of Dutch works on Malay subjects is, however, but little known to Englishmen in the East, owing to their general ignorance of the Dutch language. It is not too much to say that any one aiming at a thorough knowledge of the language, literature, and history of the Malay people should commence his task by learning Dutch.

Malay is the language not of a nation, but of tribes and communities widely scattered in the East, and is probably spoken with greatest purity in the states of Kedah and Perak, on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula. It is spoken in all the states of the Peninsula, in Sumatra, Sunda, Java, Borneo, Celebes, Flores, Timor, and Timor Laut, the Moluccas, and the Philippines. Traces of it are found among the numerous Polynesian dialects, and in the language of the islanders of Formosa. Siam proper has a large Malay population, descendants mainly of captives taken in war, and the language is therefore in use there in places; it is found also here and there on the coasts and rivers of Anam and Cochin-China. No other language of the Eastern Archipelago is understood over such an extensive area, and it is the common means of communication between the numerous tribes and races of the Malay family whose languages and dialects differ.

Logan supposes that the earliest inhabitants of the Archipelago were tribes of Africo-Indian origin, who peopled the Eastern islands as well as the more accessible portions of the Continent, descendants of whom he recognises in the negro and quasi-negro tribes that are still preserved in some of the mountains of the Malay Peninsula, Siam, and Anam. To these succeeded immigrant tribes from Mid-Asia, by way of the Irawadi, whom Logan designates by the term of the Tibeto-Anam family, all the races and languages from Tibet to Anam being included under it. "By a long-continued influx this family spread itself over the Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and Celebes; but its farther progress over the many islands to the north and east appears to have been checked by the older races. It was probably only by slow steps and by settling at many points that it gained a firm footing even in the western islands, and a long period must have elapsed before its tribes became so populous and spread so far into the interior as to enable them to absorb and destroy the earlier occupants."[2] The variety which exists among the languages and dialects in the region affected by these movements is thus accounted for by Logan:-- "The languages imported by the Tibeto-Anamese settlers differed as did those of the natives, and the combinations formed in different places from the contact of the two families varied in the proportions of each which entered into them. But the structures of the native tongues had strong affinities amongst themselves, and predominated in all these new combinations."[3]

[Footnote 2: Journ. Ind. Arch., iv. 311.]

[Footnote 3: Idem, p. 315.]

The idea presented by this sketch of the origin of the aboriginal Malay language is that of a mixed dialect, borrowing something from the Tibeto-Anam languages (the influence of which would be more apparent in the western settlements), and gradually approaching the Africo-Indian forms farther east.[4] "Lastly," Logan supposes, "a later Indian influence, belonging to a far more advanced civilisation, flowed in a great stream into the Western Archipelago, and cut off that of the Irawadi, before its linguistic operation had made much progress."[5] It is to this epoch that we must ascribe the introduction of the Sanskrit element into the Malay language.

[Footnote 4: Journ. Ind. Arch., v. p. 569.]

[Footnote 5: Idem.]

Malay is mainly dissyllabic, but there are not wanting evidences of a former monosyllabic tendency. The syllable _bu_, _bun_, or _bung_, for instance, occurs in a considerable number of words conveying an idea of roundness:--

_Bu-lan_ the moon.
_Bu-lat_ round.
_Bu-ah_ fruit.
_Bu-yong_ a jar.
_Bu-tir_ a grain, globule.
_Bu-sar_ an arch.
_Bu-kit_ a hill.
_Bu-sut_ an anthill.
_Bun-tar_ round.
_Bun-ting_ pregnant.
_Bun-chit_ pot-bellied.
_Bun-tut._ the buttocks.
_Bun-toh_ a numeral affix implying rotundity
(cf. _lún_, Burmese), used with such
words as _chin-chin_, a ring; and _kail_,
a fishhook.
_Bung-kok_ hump-backed.
_Bung-kus_ a bundle.

Many others might be cited.[6]

[Footnote 6: These remarks do not, of course, affect foreign
words, such as _bumi_ and _bujang_ derived from the Sanskrit
_bhumi_ and _bhujangga_.]

Another characteristic list of words might be made, compounded with the monosyllable _tang_ (which in Sakai and Semang means "_hand_"), and conveying an idea of seizing or holding.

_Tang-an _ the hand.
_Tang-kap_ to seize.
_Tang-kei_ a stalk.
_Tang-gong_ to support.
_Tang-gal_ to drop off (having left hold).
_Tong-kat_ a walking-stick, &c.

The history of the Malay people is to be discovered in the language itself, for no authentic records of pre-Muhammadan times exist. Just as an insight into the early history of our own nation may be obtained by analysing the component parts of the English tongue, and assigning to each of the languages which have contributed to make it what it is their due proportion of influence, so, by resolving the Malay language into its separate elements, of which native, Sanskrit, and Arabic are the chief, and by examining the words contributed by each, it is possible to follow with some approach to historical accuracy the successive advances which the Malay people have made on the path of civilisation.

The aboriginal dialect, prior to the admixture of Sanskrit, must have been but the poor vocabulary of men hardly raised above savage life. The purely native element in Malay furnishes all the necessary terms to express the physical objects surrounding men leading a primitive life in the forest, and all that has to do with their food, dwellings, agriculture, fishing, hunting, and domestic affairs.

The use of a Sanskrit word for "plough" seems to record a revolution in agriculture. The primitive cultivation of the Malays was carried on by clearing and burning the hill-sides (a system still largely adopted in native states where land is plentiful and timber valueless), and the cultivation of the wet ricefields of the plains, which necessitates the use of the plough, would thus seem to have been resorted to only after the arrival of the Hindus.

As soon as the analysis reaches moral ideas, or objects requiring some advance in civilisation, it is found that they are expressed by words of foreign origin. These are, for the most part, Sanskrit or Arabic. The latter require no notice here, for they are of comparatively recent introduction. For the most part, they consist of terms incidental to the ethical and religious teaching of the Muhammadans. The Arabic element in Malay is not accurately determinable, for new expressions are constantly being introduced.

A sketch of the Sanskrit element in Malay is all that there is space for here.

A careful classification of the principal Sanskrit words which are found in Malay helps to indicate what must have been the condition of society when the Aryan came into contact with the islanders of Sumatra. It shows, independently of other proof, that Hindu colonisation must have gradually introduced the Malay races to institutions, ideas, pursuits, and wants to which they had hitherto been strangers. Many of the incidents of commerce, most of the metals and precious stones, the pomp and ceremony of royalty, and the use of the elephant, are shown, by the Sanskrit nomenclature employed in describing them, to be of Hindu importation. From this it is not difficult to infer the primitive condition of a people to whom all these things were unknown. So, the Sanskrit names of many weapons indicate a period when the rude weapons of savage Malay tribes--blowpipes, spears, &c.--were supplemented by arms of a more formidable character, for which they were indebted to India. Other groups of words show, independently of other proof, that the Hindu religion was successfully planted among the Malays and flourished for a time, and that the monarchical form of government was introduced in Malay countries by Hindu settlers and rulers.

The word "rulers" is used advisedly, for the theory of Marsden as to the manner of the introduction of Hinduism seems to possess greater claims to general acceptance than that advocated by certain other writers, notably Leyden and Crawfurd. Crawfurd asserted that the Sanskrit words adopted in Malay came originally through the Hindu priesthood, and that the priests through whom this was effected belonged to the Telugu race, this, in his opinion, being the people who, commencing by trading with the Malays, proceeded to partial settlement in their country, and ended by converting them to Hinduism and introducing the language and literature of the Hindus. He entirely discountenances the idea that Sanskrit could have been introduced by a people of whom it was the vernacular language.[7] He admits, however, that in Southern India Sanskrit was itself a foreign tongue; that Sanskrit has found its way into Javanese and Malay in a state of comparative purity, and not intermixed with Telugu; and that there is no trace whatever of any extensive settlement of the Telugus in the Malay Archipelago.

[Footnote 7: Crawfurd, Malay Grammar, Dissertation xxxix., xliii.]

Marsden's contention, on the other hand, points to Gujarat as the quarter from which Hindu civilisation penetrated to the far East, and to conquest as the mode in which the way was cleared for its introduction.[8]

[Footnote 8: "Innovations of such magnitude, we shall venture to
say, could not have been produced otherwise than by the entire
domination and possession of these islands by some ancient Hindu
power, and by the continuance of its sway during several ages. Of
the period when this state of things existed we at present know
nothing, and judging of their principles of action by what we
witness in these days, we are at a loss to conceive under what
circumstances they could have exerted an influence in distant
countries of the nature here described. The spirit of foreign
conquest does not appear to have distinguished their character and
zeal, for the conversion of others to their own religious faith
seems to be incompatible with their tenets. We may, however, be
deceived by forming our opinion from the contemplation of modern
India, and should recollect that, previously to the Mohametan
irruptions into the upper provinces, which first took place about
the year 1000, and until the progressive subjugation of the
country by Persians and Moghuls, there existed several powerful
and opulent Hindu states of whose maritime relations we are
entirely ignorant at present, and can only cherish the hope of
future discoveries from the laudable spirit of research that
pervades and does so much honour to our Indian establishments."
--_Marsden, Malay Grammar_, xxxii.]

Before proceeding to classify some of the Sanskrit words which are found in Malay, and to deduce any theories from their presence, it is necessary, in order to avoid misconception, to notice several difficulties which cannot be overlooked.

In the first place, it is not meant to be asserted that the Malays have obtained all the words enumerated further on direct from the people of India. All theories founded upon the presence of Sanskrit words in Malay must apply with equal force to Javanese, which contains a larger proportion of Sanskrit words than Malay. "Sanskrit words are found in greatest purity in the Javanese, and next to it in the Malay, their corruption increasing as we recede from Java and Sumatra."[9] It may be assumed, therefore, that in addition to the influence which Hinduism exerted among the Malays of Sumatra by means of direct intercourse with India, there was also a second source from which the Malays derived a great portion of their Hindu nomenclature, namely, the ancient Hindu kingdoms of Java.[10]

[Footnote 9: Crawfurd. See also Marsden, Malay Grammar, xxxiii.]

[Footnote 10: "The Hindu religion and Sanskrit language were, in
all probability, earliest introduced in the western part of
Sumatra, the nearest part of the Archipelago to the continent of
India. Java, however, became eventually the favourite abode of
Hinduism, and its language the chief recipient of Sanskrit.
Through the Javanese and Malays Sanskrit appears to have been
disseminated over the rest of the Archipelago, and even to the
Philippine Islands. This is to be inferred from the greater number
of Sanskrit words in Javanese and Malay--especially in the first
of these--than in the other cultivated languages, from their
existing in greater purity in the Javanese and Malay, and from the
errors of these two languages, both as to sense and orthography,
having been copied by all the other tongues. An approximation to
the proportions of Sanskrit existing in some of the principal
languages will show that the amount constantly diminishes as we
recede from Java and Sumatra, until all vestiges of it disappear
in the dialects of Polynesia. In the ordinary written language of
Java the proportion is about 110 in 1000; in Malay, 50; in the
Sunda of Java, 40; in the Bugis, the principal language of
Celebes, 17; and in the Tagala, one of the principal languages of
the Philippines, about one and a half." --_Crawfurd, Malay
Grammar, Dissertation_ xlvii. _Sed quære_ as to the total absence
of Sanskrit in the Polynesian dialects. Ellis' "Polynesian
Researches," i. 116.]

These remarks may be illustrated by reference to the fourth column of the lists of words which follow.

Again, some of the Sanskrit words in the following lists are synonyms merely, there being native or Arabic words, or both, in common use to express the same object.

In some instances, too, the words quoted are not often heard in the colloquial dialect, but occur in books to which in many cases they have been transplanted from Javanese romances.

All these circumstances seriously modify the possibility of drawing general conclusions from an analysis of the body of Sanskrit vocables found in Malay. The questions to be decided seem to be (1) whether it is possible that such a mass of terms for common objects (for they are by no means confined to words incident to the Hindu religion) could have been imported into Malay by any means except by oral communication with a Sanskrit-speaking people; (2) supposing that this could have been effected through some later Indian dialect, itself largely tinged with Sanskrit (as the Latin words in English came to us with the Norman speech), what dialect was this? Telugu, as Crawfurd thinks, Gujarati, to which Marsden inclines, or what?

It is in order to contribute to the settlement of such questions as these that a classification of some of the Sanskrit terms in Malay has been attempted in this Introduction.[11] It is hoped that the subject may attract the attention of those more competent to deal with it, and that the researches of Sanskrit scholars may facilitate a decision which there is no pretension to pronounce here.

[Footnote 11: A selection of words only is given. There are
numbers of Sanskrit words in Malay which have no place in these
lists.]

The centre of Hindu influence in Malay states would seem to have been the court. From the governing classes the use of Sanskrit expressions would gradually spread among the people. To this day there are certain Sanskrit words which are applied to royalty alone, there being native equivalents when the non-privileged classes are intended. The words _putra_ and _putrî_ afford an instance in point. Meaning simply "son" and "daughter" in Sanskrit, they have, from the fact of Sanskrit nomenclature having been affected at Malay courts, come to mean "_prince_" and "_princess_," and are applied only to the sons and daughters of rajas.

At the chief seats of Hindu government, there must have been Brahmans conversant with the sacred writings, whose teaching would gradually be the means of introducing a taste for Hindu learning and literature. _Bacha_, to read (from _bach_, to speak), is Sanskrit, but _tulis_, to write, is a native word,[12] and _surat_, a writing, is Arabic. Language, therefore, in this instance does not throw much light on the progress made by the Malays in the art of writing in the pre-Muhammadan stage of their history. Rock-inscriptions found in Province Wellesley and Singapore prove, however, that at some remote period an ancient Indian character was known on the Peninsula,[13] though it was probably confined to religious purposes.

[Footnote 12: Unless the Sansk. root _likh_, to write, may be
detected in the second syllable.]

[Footnote 13: Journal Royal As. Soc., Bengal, vi. 680; xvii. part
i. 154 and 232; Idem, part ii. 62, 66.]

Crawfurd, writing in 1852, stated that Malay can be written or spoken without the least difficulty, without a word of Sanskrit or Arabic, and described the foreign elements in Malay as "extrinsic and unessential."[14] But several words of the first necessity are Sanskrit. It would be difficult to speak Malay intelligibly, while avoiding the use of the relative pronouns _yang_ (Sansk. _yas_, _ya_, _yat_, who, which) and _mana_ (Sansk. _mâna_, measure), or of the common auxiliary _sudah_ (Sansk. _çuddha_,[15] pure, acquitted), which denotes the past tense. A long list might be made of common words not included in any of the following groups, which are almost pure Sanskrit, such as _bawa_, to bring (_vaha_, bearing, carrying); _kata_, to say (_kath_, to tell, talk); _biasa_, accustomed (_abhyâsa_, reflection); _langkah_, to step, stride (_langh_, to stride over); _kelahi_, to fight (_kalaha_, quarrel); and _niala_, to blaze, to burn (_jval_). Nor is the influence of Sanskrit in Malay confined to words which have been adopted in comparative purity. An extension of the sphere of research reveals whole groups of Malay words which seem to be formed from some Sanskrit root, and to retain to some extent its signification. Thus the Sanskrit root _ju_ (to push on, impel) may perhaps be detected in such words as _juwang_, to rush against; _jungur_, prominent, a beak; _jungang_, prominent (of teeth); _juring_, sharp, pointed; _jurus_, to pull, course, direction; _juluk_, to thrust upwards; _julir_, a kind of harpoon; _julur_, to wag, to wriggle; &c.

[Footnote 14: Malay Grammar, Dissertation vi.]

[Footnote 15: This is the derivation given in Favre's Dictionary.
Another from _so[d.]ha_, (borne, undergone) might perhaps be
suggested with equal probability.]

_Ap_ is a common termination of Malay words, e.g., _tangkap_, to seize; _chakap_, to speak; _silap_, to mistake, &c. The presence of the Sanskrit root _âp_ (to attain, obtain) is not indeed to be assumed in every case, but it is difficult to resist the conviction that it does form a part of many Malay derivations. D{ap}at, to obtain; r{ap}at, to approach; as{ap}, smoke (cf. vy{âp}ta); aw{ap}, steam; tangk{ap}, to seize, grasp; a{lap}(Jav.), to take; are instances which, among others, might be cited.

_Gal_ (Sansk., to drop, to distil, percolate, to fall) is another root which seems to enter into the composition of Malay words, _e.g._, tang{gal}, to fall off, to drop out; ting{gal}, to leave, forsake; tung{gal}, solitary; pang{gal}, to chop off, a portion chopped off. Compare also _gali_, to dig; teng{gal}am, to sink; tu{gal}, to sow rice by putting seeds into holes made with a sharp stick; {gal}ah, a pole; {gal}a-{gal}a, pitch.

If it be correct to assign a Sanskrit origin to all or any of these words, they belong to a much earlier epoch than the comparatively pure Sanskrit words, the importation of which into Malay is the subject now under discussion.

The presence of Sanskrit words in the Malay language was first remarked by Sir William Jones,[16] and the subject received more attention at the hands of Marsden, who gives a short list of fifteen words, "taken, with little pains in the selection, from a Malayan dictionary."[17] Many of the Sanskrit words are, as Marsden observes, "such as the progress of civilisation must soon have rendered necessary, being frequently expressive of the feelings of the mind, or denoting those ordinary modes of thought which result from the social habits of mankind, or from the evils that tend to interrupt them." This assertion might have been put in more forcible terms had it occurred to the author to include not only words expressive of thought and feelings, but even some signifying natural objects, though doubtless most of these are expressed by aboriginal words. _Hari_, day, is clearly identical with the Sanskrit _hari_, "the sun," which is also used as a name of Vishnu or Krishna. _Mata-hari_, the sun (Malay), is thus "the eye of Hari," and is a compound formed of the native word _mata_ and the Sanskrit _hari_. _Halilintar_, a thunderbolt, seems to be compounded similarly of _hari_ and _lontar_ (to hurl), "hurled by Hari." Here the _r_ has been softened into _l_. The Sanskrit _kapala_ has almost entirely superseded the use of the old native word _ulu_ or _hulu_, the head; the latter, however, is found in composition with a Sanskrit word in the substantive _hulubalang_, a war-chief, from _hulu_, head, and _bala_, an army.

[Footnote 16: Asiatic Researches, iii. 11, 12.]

[Footnote 17: On the Traces of the Hindu Language and Literature
extant among the Malays, As. Res. iv. See also, On the Languages
and Literature of the Indo-Chinese Nations, Leyden, As. Res. x.]

The extent to which the Malays are indebted to Sanskrit for words to express the human body and members is shown in the following list:--

|English.
| |Malay.
| | |Sanskrit.
| | | |Other Languages[18]
|The body
| |salîra
| | |çarîra
| | | |J. _sarira_; Bat. _sorira_.
|Limb, member, body
| |anggûta
| | |angga
| | | |J. _ongga_.
|Form, appearance
| |rûpa
| | |rûpa
| | | |J., S., Bat., Mak., and Bu. _rupa_.
|Joint
| |sendi
| | |sa[m.]dhi
| | | |S. _sandi_; D. _sandik_, bound; Tag. and Bis. _sandig_,
| | | |unite.
|Head
| |kapâla
| | |kapâla (the skull)
| | | |J., S., D., Mak. _kapala_, chief; Bat. _kapala_, thick.
|Tongue
| |lîdah
| | |lih (to lick), lîdha (licked)
| | | |J. _lidah_; Bat. _dila_; Mak. and Bu. _lila_; D. _jela_;
| | | |Tag. and Bis. _dila_.
|Pulse
| |nâdî
| | |nâ[d.]î (artery, vein, intestine)
|Shoulder
| |bâhû
| | |bâhu (the arm)
| | | |J. _bahu_; S. and D. _baha_.
|Hair of the body
| |rôma
| | |roman
|Foot
| |pâda
| | |pâda
| | | |Kw. _pada_.

[Footnote 18: The words in this column have been taken from the
Malay and French Dictionary of the Abbé Favre. J. signifies
Javanese, S. Sundanese, Bat. Battak, Mak. Makassar, Bu. Bugis, D.
Dayak, Bis. Bisaya, Tag. Tagala, and Malg. Malagasi.]

Time and its division and measurement have supplied a number of Sanskrit terms to the Malay language, most of which are so necessary in everyday life that it is difficult to conceive the poverty of a dialect which contained no words to express them. The following list contains the greater number of them:--

|English.
| |Malay.
| | |Sanskrit.
| | | |Other Languages.
|Time
| |kâla, kâli
| | |kâla
| | | |J. and S. _kala_.
|When
| |tatkâla
| | |tad (this) kâla
|Time, period
| |katika
| | |ghatikâ (a division of time)
| | | |Bat. _katika_; D. _katika_.
|Time, period, hour
| |dewâsa
| | |divasa (a day)
| | | |J. _diwasa_, adult; Mak. _rewusa_.
|Just now
| |tâdî
| | |tad (this, that)
| | | |S. _tadi_.
|Day
| |hârî
| | |hari (the sun)
| | | |J. and B. _hari_.
|Day
| |dîna
| | |dina
| | | |J. _dina_.
|Dawn
| |dînahârî
| | |from dina and hari
|Evening, sunset
| |senja, or senja- kala
| | |sa[m.]dhyâ (twilight)
| | | |Bat. _sonja_; J. _chandik-kala_, evg. twilight.
|Always
| |santîasa
| | |nityaças
| | | |J. _nityasa_.
|Old, former
| |sadîa
|Former time
| |sadîa-kâla
| | |sâdhya (from sâdh, to finish, accomplish)
|Continually
| |sada-kâla
| | |sâda (perishing)
|Time (when)
| |bîla
| | |velâ
|Time, season, period
| |mâsa
| | |mâsa (month)
| | | |J. and S. _mangsa_; Tag. _masa_.

Another group of Sanskrit words found in Malay is that comprising articles of commerce, weights and measures, &c. Their presence suffices without other evidence to show that for their knowledge of the commercial value of many products the East Indian islanders were indebted to traders from Hindustan, who, indeed, probably introduced not only the names of, but the use of, their weights and measures. _Buah pala_, the Malay phrase for the "nutmeg," is in strictness a pleonasm, for _phala_ signifies "fruit" in Sanskrit, as _buah_ does in Malay.

TERMS OF COMMERCE.

|English.
| |Malay.
| | |Sanskrit.
| | | |Other Languages.
|Nutmeg
| |pâla
| | |phala (fruit)
| | | |J. and S. _pala_.
|Clove
| |lawang
| | |lava[m.]ga
|Eagle-wood
| |g[)a]hârû
| | |aguru
| | | |J., S., and Mak. _garu_; D. _garo_, perfume.
|Camphor
| |kâpur, kâpur bârus
| | |karpûra
| | | |J., S., and D. _kapur-barus_; Mak. _kaporo barusu_
|Sandalwood
| |chandâna
| | |chandana
| | | |J. and S. _chendana_; Tag. and Bis. _sandana_
|Musk
| |kastûrî
| | |kastûrî
| | | |J. and S. _kasturi_; Mak. _kasaturi_; Tag, and Bis.
| | | |_kastoli_.
|Charcoal
| |ârang
| | |a[.n]gâra
| | | |J. and S. _areng_; S. _arang_; Bat. _agong_; D. _aring_;
| | | |Tag. and Bis. _oling_.
|Sugar
| |gûla
| | |gu[d.]a (molasses)
| | | |J., S., and D. _gula_; Mak. _golla_.
|Saltpetre
| |sandâwa
| | |saindhava (rocksalt)
| | | |J. _sendawa_; S. _chindawa_.
|Silk
| |sûtra
| | |sûtra (thread, fibre)
| | | |J. and S. _sutra_; Bat. _suntora_; Mak; and Bu. _sutara_;
| | | |Tag. _sutla_.
|Cotton
| |kâpas
| | |karpâsa
| | | |J., S., and D. _kapas_ Bat. _hapas_; Mak. _kapasa_;
| | | |Bis. _gapas_.
|Gunny-bag
| |gônî
| | |go[n.]i
| | | |S. _goné_
|Price
| |harga
| | |argha
| | | |S. and Bat. _harga_; J. and D. _rega_; Mak. _angga_;
| | | |Tag. and Bis. _halaga_.
|Profit
| |lâba
| | |lâbha
| | | |Kw., Bat., Mak., and D. _laba_; Tag. and Bis. _laba_,
| | | |increase, usury.
|Scales for weighing
| |narâcha
| | |nârâchî (a gold smith's scales)
| | | |Kw. _naracha_; J. and S. _traju_
|A bhar (native weight = 3 pikuls)
| |b[)a]hâra
| | |bhâra (a load, a weight)
| | | |Kw. and Mak. _bara_ 100 millions: Bis. _bala_, to load
| | | |on the back.
|A cubit
| |hasta
| | |hasta
| | | |J. and S. _asta_.
|A number, figure
| |ângka
| | |a[.n]ka (a mark, a cipher)
| | | |J. _ongka_; S., Mak., Bu., and D. _angka_.
|Ten thousand
| |laksa
| | |laksha (100,000)
| | | |J. _leksa_; S., D., Tag. and Bis. _laksa_; Bat. _loksa_;
| | | |Mak., _lassa_.
|A million
| |jûta
| | |ayuta (10,000)
| | | |J. and S. _yuta_.

Many of the metals and most of the precious stones are known to the Malays by their Sanskrit names, even those which are found in Malay countries.

|English.
| |Malay.
| | |Sanskrit.
| | | |Other Languages.
|Gold
| |âmas, mas
| | |mas (to mete, to measure)
| | | |J. _emas_; S. _mas_; Bat. _omas_; D. _amas_; Tag. and Bis.
| | | |_amas_, gold, weight.
|Gold
| |kanchâna
| | |kânchana
| | | |Kw. and S. _kanchana_.
|Copper
| |tambâga
| | |tâmra
| | | |J. _tembaga_; S. _tambaga_; Bat. _tombaga_;
| | | |Mak. _tambaga_; Tag. and Bis. _tumbaga_.
|Tin
| |tîmah
| | |tîvra
| | | |J., S., and D. _timah_; Bat. _simbora_; Mak. _timbera_;
| | | |Tag. and Bis. _tingga_.
|Quicksilver
| |râsa
| | |rasa
| | | |J., S., Mak., and D. _rasa_.
|Pinchbeck
| |suwâsa
| | |suvarchasa (brilliant)
| | | |J., S., Bat., and Mak. _suwasa._
|Glass
| |kâcha
| | |kâcha
| | | |J., S., Mak., and Bu. _kacha_; D. _kacha_; and _kasa_;
| | | |Tag. _kasa_, blue and green stone.
|Mica
| |âbrak[19]
| | |abhra (amber, talc)
|Crystal
| |golega
| | |golaka (globule)
|Jewel, precious stone
| |mânî
| | |ma[n.]i
| | | |J. _mani_.
| |mânikam
| | |ma[n.]ika
| | | |Kw. and S. _manikem_; Mak. _manikang_.
| |kamâla
| | |kamala (lotus)
| | | |Kw. _kuma`a_; Bat. _humala_, snake-stone.
|Sapphire
| |nîlam (nîla, blue)
| | |nîla (blue)
| | | |J. and S. _nila_; Mak. _nyila_, blue.
|Opal
| |bidûri
| | |vidûra (a mountain which produces lapis lazuli)
|Ruby
| |dalîma
| | |dâlima (pomegranate)
|Jewel, brilliant
| |mustîka
| | |mushtika (goldsmith)
|Topaze
| |pusparâgam
| | |pushparâga
|Pearl
| |mutia, mutiara
| | |muktâ
|Jewel, precious stone
| |permâta
| | |paramata (excellence)
| | | |Kw. _pramati_, a very beautiful object.
|Jewels of five kinds
| |panchalôgam
| | |panchaloha (five metals)

[Footnote 19: Favre derives _abrak_ from the Arabic.]

The implements, utensils, instruments, &c., the names of which, if not the things themselves, the Malay races have borrowed from their Indian conquerors and rulers, are as follows:--

|English.
| |Malay.
| | |Sanskrit.
| | | |Other Languages.
|A lock
| |kunchî
| | |kunchikâ (a key)
| | | |J., S., and D. _kunchi_; Bat. _hunsi_; Mak. _konchi._
|A bell
| |ganta
| | |gha[n.][t.]â
| | | |J. and S. _genta_; Bat. _gonta_; D. _ganta_;
| | | |Mak. _garaganta_.
|A water vessel
| |kindî
| | |ku[n.][d.]î
| | | |J. and S. _kendi_.
|A net
| |jâla
| | |jâla
| | | |J., S., Bat., Mak., and D. _jala_.
|A box
| |petî
| | |pe[t.]î (basket, bag)
| | | |S. _peti_; Mak. _patti_; D. _pati_.
|Name of a sword
| |chora
| | |kshura (a razor)
|A plough
| |tanggâla
| | |hala
| | | |Bat. _tinggala_; Mak. _nangkala_.
|Chess
| |châtur
| | |chatur (four)
| | | |J. and S. _chatur_.
|Dice
| |jûdî
| | |dyûta (game at dice)
| | | |J. _judi_; Bat. _juji_.
|A saw
| |gargâjî
| | |krakacha
| | | |J. _graji_; S. _gergaji_; Bat. and Mak. _garagaji_.
|An awl
| |jâra
| | |ârâ
| | | |J. and S. _jara_.
|A coffin
| |karanda
| | |karanda (basket)
| | | |Bat. _hurondo_.
|Royal umbrella
| |chatrâ
| | |chhattra
|Salver with a pedestal
| |charâna
| | |chara[n.]a (a foot)
| | | |S. _charana_; Bat. _sarano_; D. _sarana_.
|A wheel
| |jantrâ
| | |yantra (an engine or machine)
| | | |J. _jontra_; S. _jantra_.
|Chariot
| |râta
| | |ratha
| | | |J. _rata_.
|Lyre, lute
| |kechâpî
| | |kachchhapi
| | | |S. _kachapi_; Bat. _husapi_; D. _kasapi_.
|Flute
| |bangsî
| | |vançî
|Pipe, flute
| |mûri
| | |muralî

The terms of adulation common in India in the mouths of inferiors addressing superiors have no equivalents in Malay. It is noticeable, however, that some of the most ordinary Malay phrases of politeness are Sanskrit. _Tâbek_ (J. and S. _tabé_; Bat. _santabi_; Mak. _tabeya_; D. _tabi_; Tag. and Bis. _tabi_; Tag. _santabi_, to show respect), which corresponds to the Indian _salaam_ in communications between Europeans and Malays, means properly "pardon," and is derived from the Sanskrit _kshantavya_, excusable; _sîla_, to sit cross-legged[20] (the respectful attitude indoors), is the Sanskrit _çîl_, to meditate, to worship; and _sîla_, a Malay term of politeness, which in some respects answers to our "if you please," but which also means "to invite," has its origin in the Sanskrit word _çîla_, good conduct, moral practice. The same language, too, supplies a considerable number of words denoting family and relationship:--

|English.
| |Malay.
| | |Sanskrit.
| | | |Other Languages.
|Father
| |âyah
| | |vayas (prime of life)
| | | |J. _ayah_, grandson; S. _aya_; Mak. _aya_, mother.
|Brother
| |sûdâra
| | |sodarya
| | | |J. _saudara_.
|Husband
| |swâmî
| | |svâmin
|Wife
| |istrî
| | |strî (a woman)
| | | |J. _estri_; S. _istri_.
|Virgin
| |ânak dâra
| | |dâra (wife), adâra (unmarried)
| | | |Kw. _dara_; J. _lara_; Bat. _dara_; Mak. _rara_;
| | | |S. _dara_, a young woman who has just got her first child.
|Relationship
| |pangkat
| | |pa[.n]kti (a line, row)
|Race
| |bangsa
| | |va[m.]ça
| | | |J. _wongsa_; S., Bat., and D. _bangsa_; Mak. _bansa_.
|Family
| |kulawarga
| | |kula (family), varga (class)
| | | |J. _kulawarga_.
|Do.
| |kulawangsa
| | |va[m.]ça

[Footnote 20: J., S., and Tag. _sila_; S. _silah_, to invite; Bat.
_sila_, a gift of welcome.]

The few astronomical terms known to the Malays have been borrowed either from Sanskrit or Arabic, the former supplying the following:--

|English.
| |Malay.
| | |Sanskrit.
| | | |Other Languages.
|Eclipse
| |grahana
| | |graha[n.]a
| | | |J. _grahana_.
|Firmament
| |udara
| | |adhara (lower)
|Celestial sphere
| |chakrawâla
| | |chakra-vâla (horizon; a range of mountains supposed to
| | | |encircle the earth and to be the limit of light and
| | | |darkness)
|Atmosphere
| |bumantâra
| | |_cf._ dyumantara (brilliancy)
| | | |Kw. _bomantara_; J. _jumantara_.
|The heavens, æther
| |angkasa
| | |âkâça
| | | |Kw. and S. _akasa_.
|The milky-way
| |bîmasaktî
| | |bhîma (terrible), çakti (strength, power)
| | | |S. _bimasakti_; J. _bimasakti_, the name of a star
|Pleiades
| |kertîka
| | |k[r.]ittikâ (the third of the lunar mansions)
|The sign Cancer in the Zodiac
| |mangkâra
| | |makara
| | | |J. _mangkara_, crab.
|Astrology
| |panchalîma
| | |panchan (five)

To these may be added _Râhû_ (Sansk. _Râhu_, a deity to whom eclipses are ascribed) and _Kedû_ (Sansk. _Ketu_, the mythological name of the descending node, represented as a headless demon), monsters who are supposed by the Malays to cause eclipses by swallowing the moon. To denote the points of the compass the Malays have native, Sanskrit, and Arabic terms. Utâra (_uttara_),[21] the north, and da[k.]sina (_dakshi[n.]a_), the south, are Sanskrit words; and _pa[k.]sina_, the north, has evidently been coined by Malays in imitation of _da[k.]sina_.

[Footnote 21: J., S., and D. _utara_; Bat. _otara_; Bis. _otala_,
east wind.]

The elephant is most generally known all over the Archipelago by its Sanskrit name _gajah_. Sanskrit terms are also used to signify the driver of an elephant and several articles used in connection with this animal. From these circumstances we may probably conclude, with Crawfurd, that the art of training and domesticating elephants was first learned by the Malays from natives of India.[22]

[Footnote 22: Crawfurd's Malay Grammar, Dissertation clxxxiii.]

|English.
| |Malay.
| | |Sanskrit.
| | | |Other Languages.
|Elephant
| |gâjah
| | |gaja
| | | |J., S., and D. _gajah_; Bat. and Mak. _gaja_;
| | | |Tag. _gadia_; Bis. _gadya_.
|Elephant-driver
| |gambâla-gâjah
| | |gopâla (herdsman)
|Goad
| |ângkus, kwâsa
| | |a[.n]kuça
|Foot-chain
| |ândûwân
| | |andu (chain)
|Front part of the head
| |gomba, kumba
| | |kumbha
|Unbroken, vicious (of an elephant); the condition called _musth_
| |meta
| | |mada (elephant in rut)
| | | |Kw. _meta_, wild elephant.
|Hobbles for securing the feet
| |sengk[)a]la
| | |ç[r.]i[.n]khala (a chain)

The words of command used by elephant-drivers in the Malay peninsula appear, however, to be adapted mainly from the Siamese, and it is from this people that the Malays of the continent have acquired much of their modern knowledge of the art of capturing, subduing, and training the elephant. The names of animals, birds, &c., indicate, as might be expected, that while most of the varieties known to the Malays are indigenous, there are some species which have been imported, or which, belonging to other countries, are known by name only in the Archipelago. The word _morga_, (m[r.]iga) and _satwâ_ (sattva),[23] both meaning "an animal," are Sanskrit, and if the commoner word _benâtang_ is derived, as seems possible, from the Sanskrit _vana_, forest, there is no purely native generic term to signify a beast or animal. While, therefore, the early Malay tribes had names for all the animals domesticated by them, as well as those which they encountered in their forests, it was not until the period of their intercourse with more civilised races from India that they learned to generalise and to comprehend the brute creation under one term. The following Sanskrit words for animals, &c., occur in Malay:--

|English.
| |Malay.
| | |Sanskrit.
| | | |Other Languages.
|Lion
| |sînga
| | |si[m.]ha
| | | |J. and S. _singa_ and _singha_; Mak. and D. _singa_.
|Jackal
| |srîgâla
| | |c[r.]igâla
| | | |Bat. _sorigala_; J. _segawon_, a dog.
|Camel
| |onta
| | |ush[t.]ra (a camel)
| | | |J. and Mak. _unta_; S. _onta_.
|Wild bull
| |ândâka
| | |dhâka
| | | |Kw. _daka_ and _andaka_.
|Ichneumon
| |charpalei
| | |sarpâri (sarpa, a snake)
|A small yellow snake, about a span long
| |chintâ-mani
| | |chintâ-ma[n.]i (a fabulous gem, the possessor of which gets
| | |all he wishes for)
|Scorpion
| |kâla
| | |kâla (black)
| | | |J., S., D., and Malg. _kala_; Bat. _kala_;
| | | |Mak. _pati-kala_.
|Crow
| |gâgak
| | |kâka
| | | |J. and S. _gayak_; Bat. _gak_; Mak. _kala_; D. _kak_.
|Peacock
| |m[)e]ra[k.]
| | |barha, varha
| | | |J. and S. _merak_; Mak. _muraka_; D. _marak_.
|Goose[24]
| |angsa, hangsa, gangsa
| | |ha[m.]sa
| | | |J. _ongsa_; S. _gangsa_.
|Pigeon
| |m[)e]r-[)a]pâti, perapâti
| | |pârâpatî
| | | |S. _japati_; Bat. _darapati_; Tag. _palapati_;
| | | |Bis. _salapati_.
|Eagle-falcon
| |râjawâlî
| | |rajjuvâla (a species of bird)
|Indian cuckoo (_Gracula religiosa_)
| |kokila
| | |kokila
| | | |J. _kokila_.

[Footnote 23: J. _mergu_; J. _sato_; S. _satoa_; D. _satua_; Bat.
_santuwa_, a mouse.]

[Footnote 24: Crawfurd has noticed the fact that the names of the
domesticated animals are native, one exception being the goose,
which, he thinks, may therefore be supposed to have been of
foreign introduction (Crawfurd's Grammar, Dissertation clxxxiii.).
It must be remembered, however, that among the Hindus the goose is
worshipped at the festivals of Brahma, and that, being thus in a
manner sacred, its Sanskrit name would naturally be in use
wherever the Hindu religion spread. Brahma is represented as
riding on a white _ha[m.]sa_.]

Perhaps the Malay word _harîmau_ (Kw. _rimong_; Bat. _arimo_, tiger-cat; D. _harimaung_, panther), a tiger, may have been formed from _Hari_ (Krishna or Vishnu) and _m[r.]iga_ (an animal). Words similarly compounded with _m[r.]iga_ (Malay _morga_) are not uncommon in Sanskrit, _e.g._, _K[r.]ish[n.]a-m[r.]iga_ (the black antelope), _mahâ-m[r.]iga_ (an elephant).[25] The terms in use for "horse" and "sheep" seem to indicate that those animals were first brought to Malay countries from India. _Kûda_, horse (Kw. and S. _kuda_), is derived by Crawfurd from _ghora_ (Hindi), by others from _kudra_ (Tamul). _Bîri-bîri_ (sheep) is said to be borrowed from the Hindi _bher_, which is itself derived from the Sanskrit _bhe[d.]a_, a ram, or from _bhîru_ (Sansk.), a goat. Certain fabulous birds and reptiles which belong to the domain of Hindu mythology have their places also in Malay folk-lore; such as _garu[d.]a_,[26] the eagle of Vishnu, and _Ja[t.]âyu_ (Malay _jintâyu_), a fabulous vulture; _chandrawâsi_, a name given by Malays to a fabulous bird which is heard but never seen, is also evidently of Sanskrit origin. To these _nâga_, a dragon, may be added (J., S., Bat., Mak., Bu., and D. _naga_).

[Footnote 25: Perhaps a more plausible derivation is from the
Tamul _ari-mâ_, a male lion.]

[Footnote 26: J. and S. _garuda_; Mak. _guruda_.]

The vegetable kingdom supplies a long list of trees, plants, and flowers which are known to the Malays by Sanskrit names. Some of these are closely connected with another group of words to be noticed presently, namely, those which belong to the department of religion. The use of sweet-smelling flowers is a noticeable feature in the religious worship of the Hindus, and the fact that many flowers held by them to be sacred to the worship of particular gods are called by Malays by the same names which they bear in the temples of India, is a remarkable example of an historical lesson latent in words. It points to the fact, abundantly proved by other evidence, that Brahmanism once held sway where it has long been superseded by the faith of Islam, and that words which have no special significance for the modern Muhammadan Malay were fraught with mystic solemnity for his distant ancestors.

In many cases, indeed, the Sanskrit names have been applied by the Malays to different plants from those designated by the same expressions in India. In other cases, names unknown in classical Sanskrit, but obviously compounded of Sanskrit words, have been given by the Malays or Javanese. The common native Malay term for "flower" is _bûnga_; _sâri_ (Javanese _sari_, Sansk. _kesara_) and _puspa_ (Sansk. _pushpa_) have been borrowed from India.

|English or Latin.
| |Malay.
| | |Sanskrit.
| | | |Other Languages.
|Michelia champaka
| |champaka
| | |champaka (dedicated by the Hindus to Krishna; one of
| | |Kamadeva's arrows is tipped with it)
| | | |J. and S. _champaka_; Mak. _champaga_.
|Jonesia asoka
| |ângsôka
| | |açoka (sacred to Mahadeva, and held in the highest veneration
| | |by the Hindus)
| | | |J. _angsoka_ and _soka_.
|Mesua ferrea
| |nâgasârî (Rigg supposes the Malay plant to be _Acacia
| |pedunculata_; Marsden, _Acacia aurea_).
| | |nâgakesara ("The delicious odour of its blossoms justly
| | |gives them a place in the quiver of Kamadeva." --_Sir William
| | |Jones_)
|Jasminum sambac (jasmine)
| |malâtî
| | |mâlatî (_Jasminum grandiflorum_[27])
| | | |J. _malati_; S. _melati_.
|Arabian jasmine (_Nyctanthes_?)
| |melor
| | |mâdhura (cf. _malura_, Cratæva religiosa)
| | | |J. _menur_; Kw. _menur_, silver.
|Ocymum basilicum (holy basil)
| |sulasi
| | |tulasî (sacred to Krishna)
| | | |J. _selasih_ and _telasih_; S. _selasi_; Mak. _tolasi_;
| | | |Tag. _solasi_.
|Uvaria odorata (or cananga)
| |kenânga
| | |kânana[28] (a forest)
| | | |J. _kenonga_; Mak. and Bu. _kananga_.
|Santalum album, sandal-wood
| |chandâna
| | |chandana ("Perpetually mentioned in the most ancient books
| | |of the Hindus as flourishing on the mountains of Malaya"
| | |--_Sir Wm. Jones_)
| | | |J. and S. _chendana_; Tag. and Bis. _sandana_.
|Plumieria acutifolia
| |kambôja
| | |kâmboja (a kind of _mimosa_)
| | | |S. _kamboja_.
|Nelumbium speciosum, lotus.
| |saroja
| | |saroja
| | | |J. _saroja_.
|Vitex trifoliata
| |lagundi [29]
| | |nirgandhi ("Which Bontius calls _lagondi_." --_Sir Wm.
| | |Jones_) _-Gandhi_ is used in the latter part of a compound
| | |word with same meaning that _gandha_ has: "smell," "odour"
| | | |J. _legundi_; Bat. _gundi_.
|Alpinia galanga, or Curcuma reclinata
| |gâdamâla
| | |_gandha_, smell; _mâlâ_, a garland
|Justicia gandarusa
| |gandarusa
| | |_gandha_, smell; _rusa_ (Malay), a deer(?)
| | | |S. _gandarusa_
|Hibiscus abelmoschus
| |gandapûra
| | |_gandha_, smell; _pura_, calix of a flower
| | | |Mak. _gandapura_
|Hedichium coronarium
| |gandasûlî
| | |_gandha_, smell
| | | |S. _gandasoli_.
|Liquidambar altingiana
| |rasamala
| | |_surasa_, sweet, elegant; _mâlâ_, a garland
|Carthamus tinctorius, safflower
| |kasumba
| | |kusumbha
| | | |J., S., Mak., and D. _kasumba_; Tag. _kasubha_;
| | | |Bis. _kasobha_.
|Crocus sativus, saffron
| |kumkumâ
| | |ku[m.]kuma
| | | |J. _kamkuma_; Mak. _kuma_.
|Alyxia stellata; an odoriferous root used in medicine
| |pûlasâri
| | |phul (_Hind_.), flower; _sari_ (Javanese), from _kesara_
| | |(Sansk.), a flower
|Tectonia grandis, teak
| |jâtî
| | |jâti (synonymous with _malati_), Jasminum grandiflorum
| | | |J., S., Bat., Mak., Bu., and D. _jati_.
|Pterocarpus indicus
| |ângsâna
| | |asana (Terminalia alata tomentosa)
| | | |J. and S. _angsana_.
|Borassus flabelliformis
| |lontar
| | |tâla
| | | |J. and S. _lontar_; Bat. _otal_; Mak. _tala_; Bu. _ta_;
| | | |Tag. _tual_.
|Eugenia jambu, roseapple
| |jambû
| | |jambu
| | | |J., S., Mak., and D. _jambu_; Bu. _jampu_; Tag. _dambo_;
| | | |Bat. _jambu-jambu_, fringe; Bu. _jambo-jambo_, fringe,
| | | |plume.
|Mangifera indica, mango
| |mampelam
| | |from Telugu, _mampalam_; Sansk. _mahâphala_, "great fruit"
| | | |J. _pelem_; S. _ampelem_.
|Spondias myrobolan (or mangifera)
| |âmra
| | |âmra (the mango, _Mangifera indica_); âmrâta (_Spondias
| | |mangifera_)
|Punica granatum, pomegranate
| |dalîma
| | |dâ[d.]ima and dâlima
|Zizyphus jujuba
| |bidâra
| | |vidara
| | | |J. _widara_; S. _bidara_.
|Cucurbita lagenaria, gourd, pumpkin
| |lâbû
| | |alâbu
| | | |S. _labu_; Bat. _tabu-tabu_; Malg. _tawu_.
|Tricosanthes laciniosa
| |patôla
| | |pa[t.]ola
|Cassia fistula
| |biraksa
| | |v[r.]iksha (a tree)
|Emblica officinalis
| |malâka
| | |âmalaka (Emblic myrobalan)
| | | |S. _malaka_; Bat. _malakah_.

[Footnote 27: "Commeline had been informed that the Javans give
the name of _Malati_ to the _Zambak_ (_Jasminum sambac_), which in
Sanskrit is called _Navamalika_, and which, according to Rheede,
is used by the Hindus in their sacrifices; but they make offerings
of most odoriferous flowers, and particularly of the various
_Jasmins_ and _Zambaks_." --_Sir William Jones_, _As. Res._ iv.]

[Footnote 28: Ainslie's Materia Medica, Madras, 1813. _Kanana_
occurs in the names of several flowers, _e.g._, _kanana karavira_,
Plumieria alba.]

[Footnote 29: Perhaps a corruption of _nila-gandhi_. Ainslie gives
the Sanskrit name as _jela-nirghoondi_.]

_Pâlas_, _palâsa_, and _palâsang_ are Malay names for trees of different kinds, not one of which corresponds botanically with the Sanskrit _palâça_ (_Butea frondosa_, a tree which is held by Hindus to be peculiarly venerable and holy). The preceding list affords several illustrations of a similar misuse of terms. To it might be added several words borrowed from other Indian languages, such as _nânas_, pine-apple (Hind. _ananas_), _bilimbing_ (Tamul _bilimbi_), &c., &c.[30]

[Footnote 30: J. _nanas_; S. _kanas_; Bat. _honas_; D. _kanas_; J.
and S. _balimbing_; Bat. _balingbing_.]

Marsden has remarked on the number of Sanskrit words expressive of the feelings and emotions of the human mind which occur in Malay, and Arabic also furnishes several. Either their synonymous native terms have been lost, or the Malays, at the period of Indian influence, had not reached that stage of civilisation when man commences to analyse and name the emotions he experiences and sees experienced by others. Good and bad qualities, in the same way and for the same reason, seem often to bear Sanskrit appellations. The following list does not profess to be complete:--

|English.
| |Malay.
| | |Sanskrit.
| | | |Other Languages.
|Pleasure, to be pleased
| |sûka
| | |sukha
| | | |J., S., and D. _suka_
|Joy, rejoiced
| |suka-chita
| | |sukha-chit (chit = thought, the heart)
|Sorrow, grief
| |dûka
| | |duhkha (pain)
| | | |J. and S. _duka_.
| |duka-chita
| | |duhkha-chit
|Care, anxiety, concern
| |chinta
| | |chintâ (thought)
| | | |J. _chipta_; S. _chinta_; Mak. _chita_; D. and Tag.
| | | |_sinta_.
|Passionately in love
| |berâhî
| | |virahin (suffering separation)
| | | |J. _birahi_.
|Angry
| |murka
| | |mûrkha (stupidity)
| | | |J. _murka_, greedy, dissatisfied.
|Hope
| |âsa
| | |âçâ
| | | |Tag. _asa_.
|Love
| |âsmâra
| | |smara
| | | |J. and S. _asmara_.
|Avarice, covetousness
| |lôba
| | |lobha
| | | |Kw. _loba_, voluptuous, luxurious; S. _loba_, abundant.
|Wisdom, understanding
| |bûdî
| | |buddhi
| | | |J. and S. _budi_.
|Stupid, foolish
| |bôdoh
| | |abodha
| | | |J. and S. _bodo_.
|Wise, learned
| |pandei
| | |pa[n.][d.]ita
| | | |J., S., and Bat. _pandé_.
|Lazy
| |malas
| | |alasa
|Charity, benevolence
| |dermâ
| | |dharma
| | | |J. and S. _derma_; Bat. _dorma_, means of gaining
| | | |affection.
|Generous
| |dermâwan
| | |dharmavant
|Fidelity
| |setîa
| | |satya
| | | |J. _satya_ and _secha_; S. _sacha_.
|Faithful, loyal
| |setîâwan
| | |satyavant
|Thought, to think
| |sangka
| | |ça[.n]ka
|To suspect, conjecture
| |tarka
| | |tarka (doubt, reason)
| | | |J. and S. _tarka_ and _terka_.
|Blame
| |chelâ
| | |chhala (fraud)
| | | |J. _chela_; Mak. _challa_.
|Misfortune, vile, base
| |chelâka
| | |chhalaka (deceiving, a deceiver)
| | | |J. and S. _chelaka_; Mak. _chilaka_; D. _chalaka_.
|Sin, crime
| |dôsa
| | |dush (to sin)
| | | |J., S., Bat., Mak., and D. _dosa_.
|False, untrue
| |dusta
| | |dushta
|Merit meritorious actions
| |pahâla
| | |phala (fruit, produce, result)
| | | |Kw. _pahala_, fruit, merit.
|Happiness, good fortune
| |bahagîa
| | |bhâgya (lot, fate)
| | | |J. _bagya_; S. _bagia_; Bat. _badiya_.
|Use, value, quality
| |guna
| | |gu[n.]a (quality)
| | | |J., S., Bat., Mak., and D. _guna_.

Inter-tribal warfare is usually characteristic of savage tribes, and an ample vocabulary of words connected with fighting and the art of war may be looked for in a language like Malay. But though the native terms are numerous, many have also been furnished by Sanskrit, among which may be instanced the following:--

|English.
| |Malay.
| | |Sanskrit.
| | | |Other Languages.
|Army
| |bâla, bâlatantrâ
| | |bala (an army), tantra (series, offspring)
| | | |J. and S. _bala_.
|Fort
| |kôta
| | |kû[t.]a
| | | |J. _kuta_; Bat. _kuta_; S., Mak., D., Tag., and Bis.
| | | |_kota_.
|Bastion, redoubt
| |mâlawâti [31]
| | |balavatî (strong, powerful)?
|Weapon, arm
| |senjâta
| | |sajjâ (armour), sajjatâ, readiness
| | | |Kw. and Mak. _sanjata_; Bat. _sonjata_; D. _sandata_.
|Bow
| |pânah
| | |vâ[n.]a (an arrow)
| | | |J., S., and D. _panah_; Mak. _pana_; Tag. and Bis.
| | | |_pana_, arrow.
|Dagger
| |kris
| | |k[r.]it (to cut, to kill)
| | | |J. and S. _keris_ and _kris_; Bat. _horis_; Mak. _kurisi_;
| | | |Tag. and Bis. _kalis_.
|Discus
| |chakra
| | |chakra
|Club
| |gada
| | |gadâ
| | | |J. _gada_.
|Cross-bow
| |gandî
| | |gâ[n.][d.]iva
| | | |J. _gandewa_.
|Pike
| |sanggamâra
| | |sa[m.]grâma (war, battle)
|Knife
| |churîka
| | |chhurikâ
| | | |Kw. _churika_, a kris.
|Enemy
| |satrû
| | |çatru
| | | |J. and S. _satru_.
|Battlefield
| |râna
| | |ra[n.]a (battle)
| | | |Kw. and S. _rana_.
|Victory
| |jaya
| | |jaya
| | | |J. and S. _jaya_.

[Footnote 31: Crawfurd, very likely correctly, derives this from
the Portuguese _baluârte_, a bulwark.]

Among the Malays the titles of royalty and nobility, and many of the terms in use for the paraphernalia of the court, are Sanskrit. Logan supposes the native Malayan institutions to have been of a "mixed patriarchal and oligarchical" form.[32] Crawfurd was not satisfied that the terms alluded to proved that Hinduism had exercised much influence on Malayan government;[33] but when to these is added a long catalogue of words connected with law, justice, and administration, it will probably be apparent that Indian influence has played an important part in moulding the institutions of the Malays. The following are some of the principal titles, &c., in use about the court of a Malay Raja:--