Chapter V: Introduction (3)

_Sahaya lari_, I run, or I was running.
_Lari-lah dia_, he ran, or was running.
_Ber-lari_, run, running.
_Ber-lari-lari_, running about incessantly.
_Sahaya sudah lari_, I have or had run.
_Dia telah lari_, he had run.
_Sahaya mahu lari_, I will run, or I want to run.
_Sahaya handak lari_, I will run, or I am about to run.
_Dia akan lari_, he will run.
_Lari-lah_, run thou.
_Mahu lah angkau lari_, you must run.
_Biar iya lari_, let him run.
_Handak-lah di lari-nia_, it must be run by him, _i.e._, he intends
to run.
_Me-lari-kan_, to carry off (transitive).
_Lari-an_, a running, a course.
_Ber-lari-an_, the act of running; there was running on the part
of ----.
_Ber-lari-lari-an_, incessant running; running to and fro; there was
incessant running on the part of ----.
_Ka-lari-an_, flight; act of running.
_Pe-lari_, a runaway, a fugitive.
_Pe-lari-an_, flight.
_Di-lari-kan_ (passive), is, are, was, were, have, has, or had been
run away with.
_Di-lari-kan-nia_, is, are, was, were, have, has, or had been run
away with by him, her, or them.
_Ter-lari_, run, run away (past).
_Bawa lari_, to carry off, run off with. (Here _lari_ is the past
participle after _bawa_, to take, bring, and may be used with that
verb in all its forms.)

_Ada_, be.

_Sahaya ada_, I am or was.
_Ber-ada_, have (possess.), has or had.
_Meng-ada_, to cause to be, to make, invent.
_Sudah ada_, have got, have been.
_Telah ada_, was, have been.
_Mahu ada_, must be.
_Meng-ada-ngada_, to make or invent repeatedly.
_Meng-ada kan_, to create, to cause to exist.
_Ber-ada-kan_, possess, own.
_Mem-per-ada-kan_, to produce, to cause to exist.
_Ter-ada-kan_, produced, created.
_Ada-an_, being, existence.
_Ka-ada-an_, state, existence.

_Bawa_, bring.

_Sahaya bawa_, I bring or was bringing.
_Mem-bawa_, bring, to bring.
_Sudah bawa_, has brought.
_Telah bawa_, had brought.
_Mahu bawa_, will or must bring.
_Aku handak bawa_, I will bring, or am about to bring.
_Bawa-lah_, bring thou.
_Biar iya bawa_, let him bring.
_Mem-bawa-kan_ or _mem-bawa-i_, to cause to be brought or taken.
_Pem-bawa_, a bringer.
_Bawa-an_, that which is brought; a burden.
_Pem-bawa-an_, act of bringing, transport.
_Di-bawa_ and _di-bawa-kan_, brought, passive.
_Di-bawa-nia_ and _di-bawa-kan-nia_, is, are, was, were, have, has,
or had been brought by him, her, or them.
_Ter-bawa_, brought.

_Ambil_, take.

_Sahaya ambil_, I take.
_Meng ambil_, take, to take.
_Sudah ambil_, has or had taken.
_Telah ambil_, had taken.
_Mahu ambil_, will or must take.
_Handak ambil_, shall take or about to take.
_Ambil-lah_, take thou.
_Mahu-lah angkau ambil_, you must take.
_Biar iya ambil_, let him take.
_Handak-lah di ambil-nia_, he must take or intends to take.
_Meng-ambil-kan_, to take or cause to take.
_Ambil-an_, a thing taken.
_Peng-ambil-an_, the act of taking.
_Di-ambil_ or _di-ambil-kan_, is or was, &c., taken (passive).
_Di-ambil-nia_ or _di-ambil-kan-nia_, is or was. &c., taken by him,
her, or them.
_Ter-ambil_, taken, having been taken.

_Suroh_, order.

_Sehaya suroh_, I order.
_Menyuroh_, order, to order.
_Sudah suroh_, has ordered.
_Telah suroh_, had ordered.
_Mahu suroh_, will or must order.
_Handak suroh_, shall order or about to order.
_Suroh-lah_, order thou.
_Mahu-lah angkau suroh_, you must order.
_Biar iya suroh_, let him order.
_Handak-lah di suroh-nia_, he must order or intends to order.
_Menyuroh-kan_, to issue orders, to commission.
_Pe-suroh_ and _penyuroh_, one who is commissioned; a messenger.
_Penyuroh-an_, an order, command; the act of commanding.
_Suroh-suroh-an_, people who are at the orders or command of another.
_Suroh-menyuroh_, to issue orders incessantly.
_Di-suroh_ or _di-suroh-kan_, is or was, &c., ordered.
_Di-suroh-nia_ or _di-suroh-kan-nia_, is, or was, &c., ordered by
him, her, or them.
_Ter-suroh_, ordered, having been ordered.

The facts to be derived from a careful study of the foregoing examples may be summarised as follows:--

1st. The tense of the verb standing alone is indefinite. It may be present, imperfect, present or past, &c., according to the context; as _dia ada_, he is; _tatkala sahaya ada di sana_, when I was there; _kalau sahaya ada d[)e]kat_, if I am, should be, were, or had been near. This applies equally to the forms created by prefixing _ber-_ and _me-_, _mem-_, _men-_, _meng-_, _meny-_ to the radical. Examples: _kita ber-jalan_, we _are_ or _were_ walking; _nanti sampei sahaya ber-balik_, wait till I _shall have_ returned; _mati-mati ber-minyak_, if you _should_ use oil; _raja meng-angkat kalmarin dahulu_, the raja _set_ out the day before yesterday.

2d. The Imperfect may sometimes be expressed by making the verb, followed by the particle _-lah_, precede the pronoun; as _diam-lah dia orang_, they were silent; _maka pergi-lah raja kapada tuan putri_, and the king went to the princess.

3d. _Past._-- Though the past may be expressed by the primitive verb, as shown above, if the context shows that the act spoken of is past, it is, nevertheless, more emphatically marked by the use of the auxiliaries _sudah_ and _t[)e]lah_, has or had; as _dia sudah tidor_, he has gone to sleep; _telah lari-lah pe-rompah sumua_, the pirates have (or had) all run away.

4th. _Future._-- The verb standing alone may express the future when there is something in the sentence which indicates that a future tense is meant, such as the word "to-morrow" or "hereafter;" as _esok hari kita ber-p[)e]rang pula_, to-morrow we shall be fighting again.

The future is also expressed by the auxiliaries _mahu_ and _handak_; as _dia mahu jual_, he will sell it; _tiada mahu dia datang_, he would not come; _kapal handak masok sungei_, a ship is about to enter the river; _di-panggil-nia orang-besar-besar mushawarat handak di-buat meligei_, he summoned the chiefs to consult about building a palace.

Another mode of forming the future is by the word _nanti_ (lit. wait), placed, like the French verb _aller_, before the verb; as _sahaya nanti chahari_, _je vais chercher_, I am going to seek, or _j'irai chercher_, I shall go to seek.

The preposition _akan_, in order to, in order that, is sometimes used to convey the sense of the future; as _penyakit itu tiada akan semboh_, that disease is not to be cured; _siapa akan tahu?_ who shall know? (= who can tell?); _jikalau raja yang anyaya naraka akan tampat-nia_, if a king is unjust hell will be his place hereafter.

5th. _Imperative._-- To convey an order or command the radical is used either by itself or with the affix _-lah_; _kamu_, thou, being either expressed or understood. The particle adds additional emphasis to the command. Examples: _pergi_, go; _pergi-lah_, be off, get away; _ka-luar_ or _ka-luar-lah_, go out; _ka-luar-kan-lah_, take (it) out, or turn (him) out.

_Mahu_ and _handak_ with the affix _-lah_ signify must; as _mahu-lah kamu turut_, ye must obey; _handak-lah ayam yang puteh_, there must be a fowl that is white, or, the fowl must be a white one; _handak-lah segala pegawei raja itu duduk dengan adab dan diam_, the king's officers must sit with reverence and in silence.

The third person of the imperative mood, which we express by "let him," may be rendered in Malay by the use of the word _biar_ or _biar-lah_, with the verb in the manner shown by the following examples:-- _Biar-lah dia masok_, let him come in; _biar-lah aku mati_, let me die.

6th. From many verbs are formed verbal nouns by prefixing the particle _pe-_ (_peng_, _pem_, _pen_, _peny_) to the radical. This prefix operates like the syllable _-er_ in such words as robber, purchaser, teacher; as _churi_, to steal; _pen-churi_, a robber; _b[)e]li_, to buy; _pem-b[)e]li_, a purchaser; _ajar_, to teach; _peng-ajar_, a teacher. Substantives of this kind and others formed from the verb with the particles _ka-_ and _-an_ have already been noticed under the head of the Substantive. But the form arrived at by prefixing to the simple verb the particle _ka-_ and annexing the particle _-an_ is not merely a noun, but, as Marsden says, "a gerund in form as well as in sense, being in fact a verbal noun infinitively applied in construction;" as, _ka-dengar-an sampei Sayong_, it was to be heard as far as Sayong; _tiada ka-tahu-an_, not to be understood; _mata-hari tiada ka-lihat-an sebab ka-lindong-an-lah sayap-nia_, the sun was not to be seen by reason of the shadowing of its wings.

7th. _Passive._-- In Malay the passive voice is denoted by the particle _di-_ prefixed to the verb. The place of the nouns which express the agent and subject respectively will be understood from the following examples:--

_Hamba di-pukul orang_, I was beaten by men.
_Orang di-pukul hamba_, the men were beaten by me.
_Rumah di-makan api_, the house was consumed by fire.
_Api di-padam-kan orang_, the fire was extinguished by men.

Here the personal pronoun or other agent follows the verb and the subject precedes it.

Sometimes the preposition "by" finds an equivalent in Malay, the word _uleh_ being expressed instead of being understood (as in the preceding sentences). Examples:--

_Maka uleh baginda pun di-sambut dengan seperti `adat_, they were
received by the king with the customary ceremony.
_Di-titah-kan-lah uleh baginda_, it was commanded by the king.

The passive participle is formed by prefixing to the verb the inseparable particle _ter-_; as _ter-pukul_, struck; _ter-tulis_, written. When _ter-_ precedes _per-_, one of the particles drops its final letter; as _te-per-sayang_, compassionated; _ter-pe-lanting_, sent flying.

_Other forms of the Verb._-- In the preceding paradigms generally those changes have been inserted which result from the application of inseparable particles. But there are moods and tenses of the English verb which are translatable in Malay, though they are not included above because they involve the use of other words, which, though united to the verb in construction, do not form part of it.

_Conditional or Potential._-- In expressing a conditional or potential sense the verb undergoes no change, though following such conjunctions as "if," "provided that," "in order that;" as _jika tuan datang_, if you come; _kalau raja me-larang_, if the king should forbid; _dapat kami ber-untong_, provided we are successful; _sapaya jangan hamba k[)e]na rugi_, in order that I may not incur a loss; _agar sapaya anak-nia menjadi `alim_, in order that his children may become learned.

_Optative._-- An optative sense is generally indicated by such words as _apa-lah_, _apa-lah kira-nia_, prithee, expressions of entreaty, or _garangan_, forsooth, conveying the notion of a doubt or query; as _barang di-sampei-kan Allah apa-lah kira-nia_, may God in his goodness cause it to arrive. But sometimes these are understood; as _di-bri Allah kamarau sadikit_, may God grant a little fair weather.

_Participle Present._-- Continuity or existing duration of action is often expressed by the use of such words as _lagi_, still more, _sambil_, _seraya_, and _serla_, whilst at the same time the verb remains unaltered in form; as _lagi datang_, coming; _lagi tidor_, sleeping or still asleep; _ber-jalan sambil ber-sinnyum_, walked on smiling; _meniambah serta meniapu ayer mata-nia_, made obeisance, at the same time wiping away her tears.

_Tengah_, half, middle, is often used with the verb in a similar way; as _dia tengah makan nasi_, he was in the act of eating his dinner.

VI. ADVERBS.

Adverbs in Malay are not distinguished by any prevailing termination corresponding to the English _-ly_ or the French _-ment_. Many adjectives and some prepositions are used adverbially.

The following are some of the most useful adverbs:--

ADVERBS OF TIME.

_sakarang_, now.
_tadi_, just now.
_dahulu_, before, formerly.
_sa'buntar_, presently.
_b[)e]lum_, not yet.
_pagi-pagi_, early.
_esok_, _besok_, to-morrow.
_kalmarin_,[4] yesterday.
_tatkala_, _sa-katika_, when (_relative_).
_kemdian_, afterwards.
_pernah_, ever.
_ta'pernah_, never.
_s[)e]dang_, while.
_kadang_, sometimes.
_apa-bila_, _apa-kala_, _bila-mana_, _bila_, when? (_interrogative_).
_kalmarin dahulu_, the day before yesterday.
_lusa_, the day after to-morrow.
_tulat_, the third day from this.

[Footnote 4: In Perak _kalmarin_ means "formerly." _P[)e]tang_ is
"yesterday."]

ADVERBS OF PLACE.

_sini_, _ka-mari_, here.
_situ_, _sana_, _nun_, there.
_mana_, where, wherever (_rel._).
_di-mana_, where? (_inter._).
_hampir_, near, nearly.
_luar_, outside.
_dalam_, inside.
_sab[)e]rang_, across.
_jauh_, far.
_atas_, above.
_bawah_, below.
_sab[)e]lah_, beside.
_balik_, behind.
_d[)e]kat_, near.

MISCELLANEOUS.

_bagini_, like this.
_bagitu_, like that.
_bageimana_, how?
_ya_, yes.
_bukan_, no, not.
_sahaja_, only.
_makin_, so much the more.
_naschaya_, certainly.
_tidak_, no.
_tentu_, certainly.

Adverbs expressing intensity will be found enumerated in Lesson 4.

Among the examples above given several are also prepositions, and will be found under that heading.

VII. PREPOSITIONS.

The principal prepositions of place and motion are _di_, at, in, on; _ka_, to, towards; _deri_, from. A great many so-called prepositions are formed from these three compounded with certain other words, such as:--

_di-atas_, on the top of.
_ka-atas_, to the top of.
_deri-atas_, from the top of.
_di-dalam_, in the interior of.
_ka-dalam_, to the interior of.
_deri-dalam_, from the interior of.
_di-b[)e]lakang_, at the back of.
_ka-b[)e]lakang_, to the back of.
_deri-b[)e]lakang_, from the back of.
_di-sab[)e]rang_, on the farther side of.
_ka-sab[)e]rang_, to the farther side of.
_deri-sab[)e]rang_, from the farther side of.
_di-bawah_, at the bottom of.
_ka-bawah_, to the bottom of.
_deri-bawah_, from the bottom of.
_di-hadap-an_, in front of.
_ka-hadap-an_, to the front of.
_deri-hadap-an_, from the front of.
_di-luar_, at the outside of.
_ka-luar_, to the outside of.
_deri-luar_, from the outside of.

These twenty-one words are used like prepositions, and are often classified as such, but the true prepositions are the three initial words.

_Atas_, _bawah_, _dalam_, _hadap-an_, _b[)e]lakang_, _luar_, and _sab[)e]rang_ here are really substantives governed by the prepositions _di_, _ka_, and _deri_. Some of these words aptly illustrate the difficulty of classifying Malay words according to the parts of speech usually recognised by grammarians. _Dalam_, for instance, has already been classified in the preceding section as an adverb. It is also substantive, adjective, and preposition.

_Dalam_ (subs.), interior, depth; as _penghulu dalam_, the guardian
of the interior (inner apartments); _dalam-nia tiga depa_, its
depth is three fathoms.
_Dalam_ (adj.), deep; as _ter-lalu dalam sungei ini_, this river is
very deep.
_Dalam_ (adv.), inside; as _ada orang dalam_, there are people inside.
_Dalam_ (prep.), in; as _kain yang dalam g[)e]dong itu_, cloth in that
warehouse.

In Malay a substantive in the possessive case immediately follows the substantive denoting the possessor (_supra_, p. 47). In the sentences _b[)e]lakang gunong_, the back of the mountain; _hadap-an raja_, the presence of the king; _sab[)e]rang sungei_, the farther side of the river, all the words are substantives, _gunong_, _raja_, and _sungei_ being in the possessive case.

Now let the prepositions _di_, _ka_, and _deri_ be added to these sentences.

_Di-b[)e]lakang gunong_, at the back of the mountain, may be more shortly translated _behind_ the mountain; so _ka-hadap-an raja_ may be rendered _before_ the king, and _deri-sab[)e]rang sungei_ _from beyond_ the river.

Here, though the purport of the Malay phrases _di-b[)e]lakang_, _ka-hadap-an_, and _deri-sab[)e]rang_ are correctly rendered by English prepositions, only the first portion of each phrase is a Malay preposition.

Of the remaining prepositions the following are the chief:--

_pada_, _kapada_, at, to, on, towards.
_deri-pada_, from, than.
_akan_, to, for, as to, as for.
_uleh_, by.
_atas_, on, upon.
_datang_, }
_sampei_, } until, as far as.
_hingga_, }
_antara_, between.
_samantara_, until.
_ganti_, instead of.
_balik_, behind.
_serta_, with.
_sama_, with, to.
_dengan_, with.
_dalam_, in, into.
_l[)e]pas_, after.
_karana_, }
_krana_, } on account of.
_sebab_, }
_sa-kadar_, according to.
_demei_, by.
_d[)e]kat_, near.
_tentang_, concerning, opposite.
_bagi_, to.
_trus_, through.

VIII. CONJUNCTIONS.

The following list includes the most useful of the conjunctions in Malay:--

_dan_, and.
_kalau_, }
_jika_, } if.
_jikalau_, }
_antah_, } perhaps.
_kunun_, }
_sapaya_, in order that.
_pula_, also, again.
_sambil_, } whilst.
_selang_, }
_seraya_, at the same time.
_tambah-an_, furthermore.
_karana_, } because.
_s[)e]bab_, }
_serta_, and, also.
_asal-kan_, provided that.
_atau_, or.
_t[)e]tapi_, but.
_me-lain-kan_, except.
_hania_, but, except.
_yang_, that.
_k[)e]lak_, forsooth.
_juga_, _jua_, also.
_sahaja_, only.
_lagi_, again, even.
_lagi pula_, again, too.
_lagi pun_, besides, also.
_saperti_, as, like.
_laksana_, } like.
_bagei_, }
_iya-itu_, that is to say.
_lamun-kan_, although.

There are also a number of conjunctions which are met with almost exclusively in the written language, and which it would be pedantic to use in conversation. Of such are:--

_maka_, _bahwa_, _[h.]ata_, _shahadan_, seldom necessary to the sense,
and not always requiring translation. They answer in some degree
to such words as "now," "next," "but," "then," "again," "so."
_sa-ber-mula_, first, now.
_sa-bagei-lagi_, further, again.
_arkian_, now, then.
_agar_, in order that.
_y`ani_, that is to say.
_wab`adahu_,[5] and then, afterwards.
_walakin_ (Arab. _wa_, and _lakin_, but), but, though, nevertheless.

[Footnote 5: Arabic _wa_, and, _b`adahu_, afterwards--often used
by a pleonasm with _kemdian_, afterwards; _wab`adahu kemdian
deri-pada itu_, and after that.]

IX. INTERJECTIONS.

The interjections in most common use are:--

_hei!_ O! _ya!_ O! (Arabic).
_aho!_ O! (Sansk.).
_aduh!_ _aduhi!_ oh! alas! (pain, lamentation).
_niah!_ _niah-lah!_ be off! begone!
_ai!_ _wah!_ oh! alas! (astonishment or affliction).
_ayo!_ _ayohi!_ ah! (affection).
_cheh!_ fie!
_wayi!_ alas!
_demei Allah!_ by God!
_nah!_ there! take it!
_jum!_[6] forwards!

[Footnote 6: This is a Kedah word. _Mah!_ is used in the same
sense in Perak.]

Many other words are used like interjections; such as _kasi-han_ (lit. affection), what a pity! _sayang_ (lit. concern), 'tis pity! alas! _karam_ (lit. wrecked), woe to thee! _me-rachun_ (may I be poisoned), no! (emphatic denial), &c., &c.

A number of Arabic expressions common to all Muhammadans in all parts of the world are used by Malays, such as _In sháa-lláh_, if it be the will of God; _Alláhu a`alam_, God is all-knowing; _Astaghfir alláh_, I beg forgiveness of God; _Wa-llahi_ and _Wa-llah_, by God! _Yá rabb_, O Lord! _Bi-smi-llah_, in the name of God! _El-[h.]amdu li-llah_, praise be to God! _Alláhu akbar_, God is most great.

X. NUMERALS.

The numerals in Malay are exceedingly simple. The first ten are:--

1. _sa_, _satu_, _suatu_, one.
2. _dua_, two.
3. _tiga_, three.
4. _ampat_, four.
5. _lima_, five.
6. _anam_, six.
7. _tujoh_, seven.
8. _d[)e]lapan_, eight.
9. _sambilan_, nine.
10. _sapuloh_, ten.

From eleven to nineteen inclusive the numerals are formed from the digits with the termination _b[)e]las_:--

11. _sa-b[)e]las_, eleven.
12. _dua-b[)e]las_, twelve.
13. _tiga-b[)e]las_, thirteen.
14. _ampat-b[)e]las_, fourteen.
15. _lima-b[)e]las_, fifteen.
16. _anam-b[)e]las_, sixteen.
17. _tujoh-b[)e]las_, seventeen.
18. _d[)e]lapan-b[)e]las_, eighteen.
19. _sambilan-b[)e]las_, nineteen.
20. _dua-puloh_, twenty.

Multiples of ten up to ninety inclusive have the termination _puloh_, ten:--

20. _dua-puloh_, twenty.
30. _tiga-puloh_, thirty.
40. _ampat-puloh_, forty.
50. _lima-puloh_, fifty.
60. _anam-puloh_, sixty.
70. _tujoh-puloh_, seventy.
80. _d[)e]lapan-puloh_, eighty.
90. _sambilan-puloh_, ninety.

The intermediate numbers are formed simply by adding the units; as--

21. _dua-puloh-satu_, twenty-one.
32. _tiga-puloh-dua_, thirty-two.
43. _ampat-puloh-tiga_, forty-three.
54. _lima-puloh-ampat_, fifty-four.
65. _anam-puloh-lima_, sixty-five.
76. _tujoh-puloh-anam_, seventy-six.
87. _d[)e]lapan-puloh-tujoh_, eighty-seven.
98. _sambilan-puloh-d[)e]lapan_, ninety-eight.

Above a hundred the numbers proceed with equal regularity:--

100. _sa-ratus_, one hundred.
200. _dua-ratus_, two hundred.
300. _tiga-ratus_, three hundred.
400. _ampat-ratus_, four hundred.
1000. _sa-ribu_, one thousand.
2000. _dua-ribu_, two thousand.
3000. _tiga-ribu_, three thousand.
4000. _ampat-ribu_, four thousand.

Any sum, however great, may be expressed by the numerals in juxtaposition without the insertion of a conjunction; as, _sa-ribu-d[)e]lapan-ratus-tujoh-puloh-sambilan_, one thousand eight hundred (and) seventy nine, 1879.

Certain terms for high numbers have been borrowed from the Sanskrit language and misapplied in adoption, namely, _la[k.]sa_ (Sansk. _laksha_, 100,000), _keti_ (Sansk. _ko[t.]i_, 10,000,000), and _juta_ (Sansk. _ayuta_, 10,000).

The numbers represented by these words in Malay are _sa-la[k.]sa_, ten thousand; _sa-keti_, one hundred thousand; _sa-juta_, one million.

In reckoning the numbers from 20 to 30, _lekor_, a score, is sometimes used instead of _dua-puloh_ (especially in mentioning dates), but in that case the unit precedes instead of following the decimal; as _sa-lekor_, twenty-one; _dua-lekor_, twenty-two; _tiga-lekor_, twenty-three, &c.

To express a quantity which approaches what we call a round number, it is sometimes convenient to state the latter qualified by the figure in which it is deficient, as is done in the old-fashioned phrase "forty stripes save one." Thus, instead of _sambilan-puloh-d[)e]lapan_, ninety-eight, the phrase _korang dua sa-ratus_, one hundred save two, may be used.

The use of the word _tengah_, half, before a numeral serves in the same way to reduce it by half of one. Thus, _tengah dua_ signifies "one and a half," or "two, less half a one," as if the full phrase were _korang sa-tengah dua_; so _tengah tiga-puloh_, twenty-five (lit. "three tens save half"); _tengah lima ratus_, four hundred and fifty (lit. "five hundreds save half").

ORDINAL NUMBERS.

_pertama_ (Sansk. _prathama_), first.
_ka-dua_, second.
_ka-tiga_, third.
_ka-sa-b[)e]las_, eleventh.
_ka-dua-puloh_, twentieth.
_ka-sa-ratus_, hundredth.

The word _yang_ placed before ordinals corresponds to the definite article in English; as _yang pertama_, the first; _yang ka-dua_, the second; _yang ka-sa-ribu_, the thousandth.

FRACTIONAL NUMBERS.

_Tengah_, _sa-tengah_, half; _suku_, _sa-suku_, quarter; _sa-per-dua_, one-half; _sa-per-tiga_, one-third; _dua-per-tiga_, two-thirds; _tiga-per-ampat_, three-fourths. Similar fractions may be formed with other numbers by placing the particle _per_ between the dividend and the divisor.

COLLECTIVE NUMBERS.

Phrases like "a score," "a dozen," "a couple," are formed in Malay by the use of the particle _ber_ with the numeral; as--

_ber-dua_, the two, or the pair.
_ber-tiga_, the three.
_ber-puloh-puloh_, by tens.
_be-ratus-ratus_, by hundreds.
_be-ribu-ribu_, by thousands.

The word _ganda_, which in Hindustani is a collective numeral meaning "a four," is used in Malay in conjunction with numerals in a sense corresponding to the English word "times;" as _dua-ganda_, double, twice; _tiga-ganda_, triple, three times.

NUMERAL CO-EFFICIENTS.

In Malay, as in Burmese, Siamese, and Chinese, "there exists a set of specific and technical terms, called by the grammarians _numeral affixes_, some one or other of which is always used as a co-efficient to the numeral, the term being selected according to the class under which the object falls."[7] The use of these terms will be best understood by comparing it with the analogous use in English of such phrases as so many _head_ of cattle; so many _file_ of soldiers; so many _sail_ of ships; so many _stand_ of rifles.

[Footnote 7: Col. Yule, Journ. Anthropol. Inst. Feb. 1880. This
peculiarity in the Indo-Chinese languages has attracted much
attention among ethnologists. See Peschel, Races of Man, 117;
Tylor, Early History of Mankind, 208; Bunsen's Universal History,
i. 409.]

1. _Orang_ (person or persons) is introduced in the enumeration of mankind; as _China tiga orang, Malayu sa'orang_, three Chinese and a Malay; _budak dua orang_, two children.

2. _Ekor_ (tail) is employed in speaking of animals; as _sa-ekor kuching_, a cat; _kuda b[)e]lang dua ekor_, two piebald horses; _ikan kechil-kechil barang lima anam ekor_, about five or six small fish.

3. _Buah_ (fruit) is applied to fruit, houses, ships, places, &c.; as _sa-buah rumah_, a house; _sa-buah n[)e]gri_, a town or kingdom; _lima buah kapal_, five ships.

4. _Biji_ (seed) is applied to small objects more or less round; as _buah manggis lima-puloh biji_, fifty mangostins; _ampat biji telor_, four eggs; _nior muda sa-biji_, one green cocoa-nut.

5. _Halei_ or _lei_, to tenuous objects, such as hair, feathers, leaves, wearing apparel, &c.; as _bulu sa-lei_, a feather; _kain Palembang sa-puloh halei_, ten Palembang sarongs.

6. _Batang_ (stem), to long objects; as _lembing dua batang_, two spears; _tiang ampat batang_, four posts.

7. _Puchuk_ (young shoot), to letters, muskets, cannon, elephants' tusks, &c.; as _tiga puchuk surat_, three letters; _sa-puchuk gading_, one tusk: _snapang lima puchuk_, five muskets.

8. _Keping_ (piece, slice), to pieces of wood, metal, &c.; as _papan sa-keping_, a plank; _timah tiga-puloh keping_, thirty slabs of tin.

9. _Tangga_ (ladder) and _pintu_ (door), to houses; as _rumah dua tangga_, two houses; _rumah batu anam pintu_, six brick houses.

10. _Lapis_ (fold), to clothing; as _kapan sa-lapis_, a shroud.

11. _Rawan_, to nets and cordage; as _pukut sa-rawan_, a seine net; _jala dua rawan_, two casting nets.

12. _Bilah_, to cutting weapons; as _kris sa-bilah_, one kris; _p[)e]dang lima bilah_, five swords.

13. _Buntoh_, to rings, fish-hooks, &c.; as _kail sa-buntoh_, a fish-hook; _chinchin tiga buntoh_, three rings.

14. _Bidang_, to things spread out; as _destar sa-bidang_, one head-cloth.

15. _Butir_, to fruit, seeds, and other small round objects; as _nior sa-butir_, a cocoa-nut; _mutiara sa-butir_, a pearl.

There are many other similar idiomatic terms, examples of which will be given in the more advanced lessons farther on.

XI. PARTICLES.

Most of the particles have been noticed in speaking of the verb, but there are three or four which require special mention.

_Lah_ is affixed to words of all kinds, sometimes merely for the sake of euphony, but more frequently as a particle of intensity.

In the sentence _ada-lah kapada suatu hari_, it happened on a certain day, _lah_ is simply expletive; but in the sentence _dia-lah yang buat_, it was _he_ who did it, the particle serves to emphasise the word _dia_. The latter use of the particle _lah_ is exemplified by its frequent employment to emphasise a command; as _mari-lah_, come; _pergi-lah_, go.

_Kah_ is the interrogative particle. When affixed to words it is the sign of a question or a doubt; as _itu-kah atau lain-kah?_ is it that or another? _Antah sunggoh-kah atau tidak_, it is doubtful whether it be true or not.

_Tah_ is also an interrogative particle, but of less general use than _kah_. _Apa-tah?_ what else? is a common phrase indicating assent.

_Pun_ is annexed to all kinds of words, sometimes merely to give roundness to a phrase, sometimes with the sense of "too," or "also" (where the sentence is affirmative), or "nor," "neither" (where it is negative); as _maka iya-pun datang_, then he came; _aku pun mahu_, I too want it; _siyang pun tidak malam pun tidak_, it was neither day nor night.