Chapter I: Part 1

A SHORT BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY OF ENGLISH LITERATURE

BY JOHN W. COUSIN

LONDON: PUBLISHED

by J.M. DENT & SONS. LTD

AND IN NEW YORK

BY E.P. DUTTON & CO

INTRODUCTION

The primary aim of this book is to give as much information about English authors, including under this designation American and Colonial writers, as the prescribed limits will admit of. At the same time an attempt has been made, where materials exist for it, to enhance the interest by introducing such details as tend to illustrate the characters and circumstances of the respective writers and the manner in which they passed through the world; and in the case of the more important, to give some indication of the relative place which they hold and the leading features of their work.

Including the Appendix of Living Writers, the work contains upwards of 1600 names; but large as this number is, the number of those who have contributed something of interest and value to the vast store of English Literature is larger still, and any attempt to make a book of this kind absolutely exhaustive would be futile.

The word "literature" is here used in a very wide sense, and this gives rise to considerable difficulty in drawing the line of exclusion. There are very many writers whose claim to admission may reasonably be considered as good as that of some who have been included; but even had it been possible to discover all these, their inclusion would have swelled the work beyond its limits. A line had to be drawn somewhere, and the writer has used his best judgment in making that line as consistent as possible. It may probably, however, be safely claimed that every department of the subject of any importance is well represented.

Wherever practicable (and this includes all but a very few articles), various authorities have been collated, and pains have been taken to secure accuracy; but where so large a collection of facts and dates is involved, it would be too sanguine to expect that success has invariably been attained.

J.W.C.

_January_, 1910.

The following list gives some of the best known works of Biography:--

Allibone, Critical Dictionary of English Literature and English and
American Authors, 1859-71, Supplement, by J.F. Kirke, 1891; W.
Hazlitt, Collections and Notes of Early English Literature, 1876-93;
R. Chambers, Cyclopædia of English Literature, 1876, 1901; Halkett
and Laign, Dictionary of Anonymous and Pseudonymous Literature,
1882-88; Dictionary of National Biography, ed. by Leslie Stephen and
Sidney Lee, 1885, etc., re-issue, 1908, etc.; Appleton's Cyclopædia
of American Biography, ed. by J. Grant Wilson and John Fiske, 1887,
etc.; J. Thomas, Universal Dictionary of Biography and Mythology,
1887-89; Men and Women of the Time, 15th edit., ed. by Victor G.
Plarr, 1889.

LIST OF CONTRACTIONS USED THROUGHOUT THE WORK

_b._ born Edin. Edinburgh
_c._ _circa_ _fl._ flourished
Camb. Cambridge Glas. Glasgow
Coll. College _m._ married
_coll._ collected Oxf. Oxford
_cr._ created pres. president
_d._ died _pub._ published
_dau._ daughter Prof. Professor
_ed._ educated sec. secretary
{ edition _s._ son
ed. { editor Univ. University
{ edited

ABBOTT, JACOB (1803-1879).--Educationalist and miscellaneous author, _b._ at Hallowell, Maine, _ed._ at Bowdoin Coll. and Andover, entered the ministry of the Congregational Church, but was best known as an educationist and writer of religious and other books, mainly for the young. Among them are _Beechnut Tales_ and _The Rollo Books_, both of which still have a very wide circulation.

ABBOTT, JOHN STEVENS CABOT (1805-1877).--Historian, etc., _b._ Brunswick, Maine, and _ed._ at Bowdoin Coll. He studied theology and became a minister of the Congregational Church at various places in Massachusetts and Connecticut. Owing to the success of a little work, _The Mother at Home_, he devoted himself, from 1844 onwards, to literature, and especially to historical writing. Among his principal works, which were very popular, are: _History of Napoleon Bonaparte_ (1852-55), _History of the Civil War in America_ (1863-66), and _History of Frederick the Great_ (1871).

À BECKETT, GILBERT ABBOTT (1811-1856).--Comic writer, _b._ in London, the _s._ of a lawyer, and belonged to a family claiming descent from Thomas à Becket. Destined for the legal profession, he was called to the Bar. In addition to contributions to various periodicals and newspapers, including _Punch_, _The Illustrated London News_, _The Times_, and _Morning Herald_, he produced over fifty plays, many of which attained great popularity, and he also helped to dramatise some of Dickens' works. He is perhaps best known as the author of _Comic History of England_, _Comic History of Rome_, _Comic Blackstone_, etc. He was also distinguished in his profession, acted as a commissioner on various important matters, and was appointed a metropolitan police magistrate.

ABERCROMBIE, JOHN (1780-1844).--Physician and writer on mental science, _s._ of a minister, was _b._ at Aberdeen, and _ed._ at the Grammar School and Marischal College there. He studied medicine at Edinburgh, in which city he practised as a physician. He made valuable contributions to the literature of his profession, and _pub._ two works, _Enquiry Concerning the Intellectual Powers_ (1830) and _The Philosophy of the Moral Feelings_ (1833), which, though popular at the time of their publication, have long been superseded. For his services as a physician and philanthropist he received many marks of distinction, including the Rectorship of Marischal College.

ABERCROMBIE, PATRICK (1656-1716).--Antiquary and historian, was physician to James II. in 1685; he was a Jacobite and opposed the Union in various pamphlets. His chief work was _Martial Achievements of the Scots Nation_ (1711-16).

ACTON, JOHN EMERICH EDWARD DALBERG-ACTON, 1ST LORD (1834-1902).--Historian, _s._ of Sir Richard A., and grandson of Sir John A., who was Prime Minister of Naples, was _b._ at Naples. He belonged to an ancient Roman Catholic family, and was _ed._ first at Oscott near Birmingham under Dr. (afterwards Card.) Wiseman. Thence he went to Edinburgh, where he studied privately, and afterwards to Munich, where he resided in the house of Dr. Dollinger, the great scholar and subsequent leader of the Old Catholic party, by whom he was profoundly influenced. While at Edinburgh he endeavoured to procure admission to Cambridge, but without success, his religion being at that time a bar. He early devoted himself to the study of history, and is said to have been on terms of intimacy with every contemporary historian of distinction, with the exception of Guizot. He sat in the House of Commons 1859-65, but made no great mark, and in 1869 was raised to the peerage as Lord Acton of Aldenham. For a time he edited _The Rambler_, a Roman Catholic periodical, which afterwards became the _Home and Foreign Review_, and which, under his care, became one of the most learned publications of the day. The liberal character of A.'s views, however, led to its stoppage in deference to the authorities of the Church. He, however, maintained a lifelong opposition to the Ultramontane party in the Church, and in 1874 controverted their position in four letters to _The Times_ which were described as the most crushing argument against them which ever appeared in so condensed a form. A.'s contributions to literature were few, and, in comparison with his extraordinary learning, comparatively unimportant. He wrote upon _Cardinal Wolsey_ (1877) and _German Schools of History_ (1886). He was extremely modest, and the loftiness of his ideals of accuracy and completeness of treatment led him to shrink from tasks which men of far slighter equipment might have carried out with success. His learning and his position as a universally acknowledged master in his subject were recognised by his appointment in 1895 as Professor of Modern History at Cambridge. Perhaps his most valuable services to historical literature were his laying down the lines of the great _Cambridge Modern History_, and his collection of a library of 60,000 vols., which after his death was purchased by an American millionaire and presented to Lord Morley of Blackburn, who placed it in the University of Cambridge.

ADAMNAN, ST. (625?-704).--Historian, _b._ in Donegal, became Abbot of Iona in 679. Like other Irish churchmen he was a statesman as well as an ecclesiastic, and appears to have been sent on various political missions. In the great controversy on the subject of the holding of Easter, he sided with Rome against the Irish Church. He left the earliest account we have of the state of Palestine in the early ages of the Church; but of even more value is his _Vita Sancti Columbæ_, giving a minute account of the condition and discipline of the church of Iona. He _d._ 704.

ADAMS, FRANCIS, W.L. (1862-1893).--Novelist, was _b._ at Malta, and _ed._ at schools at Shrewsbury and in Paris. In 1882 he went to Australia, and was on the staff of _The Sydney Bulletin_. In 1884 he _publ._ his autobiographical novel, _Leicester_, and in 1888 _Songs of the Army of the Night_, which created a sensation in Sydney. His remaining important work is _Tiberius_ (1894), a striking drama in which a new view of the character of the Emperor is presented. He _d._ by his own hand at Alexandria in a fit of depression caused by hopeless illness.

ADDISON, JOSEPH (1672-1719).--Poet, essayist and statesman, was the _s._ of Lancelot Addison, Dean of Lichfield. _B._ near Amesbury, Wilts., A. went to the Charterhouse where he made the acquaintance of Steele (_q.v._), and then at the age of fifteen to Oxford where he had a distinguished career, being specially noted for his Latin verse. Intended at first for the Church, various circumstances combined to lead him towards literature and politics. His first attempts in English verse took the form of complimentary addresses, and were so successful as to obtain for him the friendship and interest of Dryden, and of Lord Somers, by whose means he received, in 1699, a pension of £300 to enable him to travel on the continent with a view to diplomatic employment. He visited Italy, whence he addressed his _Epistle_ to his friend Halifax. Hearing of the death of William III., an event which lost him his pension, he returned to England in the end of 1703. For a short time his circumstances were somewhat straitened, but the battle of Blenheim in 1704 gave him a fresh opportunity of distinguishing himself. The government wished the event commemorated by a poem; A. was commissioned to write this, and produced _The Campaign_, which gave such satisfaction that he was forthwith appointed a Commissioner of Appeals. His next literary venture was an account of his travels in Italy, which was followed by the opera of _Rosamund_. In 1705, the Whigs having obtained the ascendency, A. was made Under-Secretary of State and accompanied Halifax on a mission to Hanover, and in 1708 was appointed Chief Secretary for Ireland and Keeper of the Records of that country. It was at this period that A. found his true vocation and laid the foundations of his real fame. In 1709 Steele began to bring out the _Tatler_, to which A. became almost immediately a contributor: thereafter he (with Steele) started the _Spectator_, the first number of which appeared on March 1, 1711. This paper, which at first appeared daily, was kept up (with a break of about a year and a half when the _Guardian_ took its place) until Dec. 20, 1714. In 1713 the drama of _Cato_ appeared, and was received with acclamation by both Whigs and Tories, and was followed by the comedy of the _Drummer_. His last undertaking was _The Freeholder_, a party paper (1715-16). The later events in the life of A., viz., his marriage in 1716 to the Dowager Countess of Warwick, to whose son he had been tutor and his promotion to be Secretary of State did not contribute to his happiness. His wife appears to have been arrogant and imperious; his step-son the Earl was a rake and unfriendly to him; while in his public capacity his invincible shyness made him of little use in Parliament. He resigned his office in 1718, and, after a period of ill-health, _d._ at Holland House, June 17, 1719, in his 48th year. Besides the works above mentioned, he wrote a _Dialogue on Medals_, and left unfinished a work on the Evidences of Christianity. The character of A., if somewhat cool and unimpassioned, was pure, magnanimous, and kind. The charm of his manners and conversation made him one of the most popular and admired men of his day; and while he laid his friends under obligations for substantial favours, he showed the greatest forbearance towards his few enemies. His style in his essays is remarkable for its ease, clearness, and grace, and for an inimitable and sunny humour which never soils and never hurts. The motive power of these writings has been called "an enthusiasm for conduct." Their effect was to raise the whole standard of manners and expression both in life and in literature. The only flaw in his character was a tendency to convivial excess, which must be judged in view of the laxer manners of his time. When allowance has been made for this, he remains one of the most admirable characters and writers in English literature.

SUMMARY.--_B._ Amesbury, _ed._ Charterhouse and Oxford; received travelling pension, 1699; _Campaign_ (1704) leads to political office; goes to Ireland, 1708; assists Steele in _Tatler_, 1709; _Spectator_ started, 1711; marries Lady Warwick, 1716; Secretary of State, 1716-18; _d._ 1719.

Lives in _Biographica Britannica_, _Dict. of Nat. Biog._, _Johnson's Lives of Poets_, and by Lucy Aikin, Macaulay's _Essay_, Drake's _Essays Illustrative of Tatler, Guardian, and Spectator_; Pope's and Swift's Correspondence, etc.

The best edition of the books is that in _Bohn's British Classics_ (6 vols., 1856); others are Tickell's (4 vols., 1721); _Baskerville_ edit. (4 vols., 1761); Hurd's (6 vols., 1811); Greene's (1856); Dent's _Spectator_ (1907).

ADOLPHUS, JOHN (1768-1845).--Historian, studied law and was called to the Bar in 1807. He wrote _Biographical Memoirs of the French Revolution_ (1799) and _History of England from_ 1760-1783 (1802), and other historical and biographical works.

ÆLFRED (849-901).--King of the West Saxons, and writer and translator, _s._ of Ethelwulf, _b._ at Wantage. Besides being the deliverer of his country from the ravages of the Danes, and the restorer of order and civil government, _Æ._ has earned the title of the father of English prose writing. The earlier part of his life was filled with war and action, most of the details regarding which are more or less legendary. But no sooner had he become King of Wessex, in 871, than he began to prepare for the work of re-introducing learning into his country. Gathering round him the few scholars whom the Danes had left, and sending for others from abroad, he endeavoured to form a literary class. His chief helper in his great enterprise was Asser of St. David's, who taught him Latin, and became his biographer in a "life" which remains the best original authority for the period. Though not a literary artist, Æ. had the best qualities of the scholar, including an insatiable love alike for the acquisition and the communication of knowledge. He translated several of the best books then existing, not, however, in a slavish fashion, but editing and adding from his own stores. In all his work his main desire was the good of his people. Among the books he translated or edited were (1) _The Handbook_, a collection of extracts on religious subjects; (2) _The Cura Pastoralis_, or Herdsman's book of Gregory the Great, with a preface by himself which is the first English prose; (3) _Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English_; (4) _The English Chronicle_, which, already brought up to 855, he continued up to the date of writing; it is probably by his own hand; (5) Orosius's _History of the World_, which he adapted for English readers with many historical and geographical additions; (6) the _De Consolatione Philosophiæ_ of Boethius; and (7) a translation of some of the Psalms. He also made a collection of the best laws of his predecessors, Ethelbert, Ine, and Offa. It has been said "although King Alfred lived a thousand years ago, a thousand years hence, if there be England then, his memory will yet be precious to his country."

ÆLFRIC (955-_c._ 1022).--Called Grammaticus (10th century), sometimes confounded with two other persons of the same name, Æ. of Canterbury and Æ. of York, was a monk at Winchester, and afterwards Abbot of Cerne and Eynsham successively. He has left works which shed an important light on the doctrine and practice of the early Church in England, including two books of homilies (990-94), a _Grammar_, _Glossary_, _Passiones Sanctorum_ (Sufferings of the Saints), translations of parts of the Bible with omissions and interpolations, _Canones Ælfrici_, and other theological treatises. His writings had an influence on the formation of English prose. He filled in his age somewhat the same position that Bede did in his, that of a compiler and populariser of existing knowledge.

AGUILAR, GRACE (1816-1847).--Novelist and writer on Jewish history and religion, was _b._ at Hackney of Jewish parents of Spanish descent. She was delicate from childhood, and early showed great interest in history, especially Jewish. The death of her _f._ threw her on her own resources. After a few dramas and poems she _pub._ in America in 1842 _Spirit of Judaism_, and in 1845 _The Jewish Faith_ and _The Women of Israel_. She is, however, best known by her novels, of which the chief are _Home Influence_ (1847) and _A Mother's Recompense_ (1850). Her health gave way in 1847, and she _d._ in that year at Frankfort.

AIKIN, JOHN (1747-1822).--Miscellaneous writer, _s._ of Dr. John A., Unitarian divine, _b._ at Kibworth, studied medicine at Edinburgh and London, and received degree of M.D. at Leyden. He began practice at Yarmouth but, one of his pamphlets having given offence, he removed to London, where he obtained some success in his profession, devoting all his leisure to literature, to which his contributions were incessant. These consisted of pamphlets, translations, and miscellaneous works, some in conjunction with his sister, Mrs. Barbauld. Among his chief works are _England Delineated_, _General Biography_ in 10 vols., and lives of Selden and Ussher.

AIKIN, LUCY (1781-1864).--Historical and miscellaneous writer, _dau._ of above and niece of Mrs. Barbauld (_q.v._). After _pub._ a poem, _Epistles on Women_, and a novel, _Lorimer_, she began the historical works on which her reputation chiefly rests, viz., _Memoirs of the Courts of Elizabeth, James I., and Charles I._ (1818-33) and a _Life of Addison_. She also wrote lives of her father and of Mrs. Barbauld. She was remarkable for her conversational powers, and was also an admirable letter-writer. Like the rest of her family she was a Unitarian.

AINGER, ALFRED (1837-1904).--Biographer and critic, _s._ of an architect in London, _grad._ at Cambridge, entered the Church, and, after holding various minor preferments, became Master of the Temple. He wrote memoirs of Hood and Crabbe, but is best known for his biography of Lamb and his edition of his works in 6 vols. (1883-88).

AINSWORTH, WILLIAM HARRISON (1805-1882).--Novelist, _s._ of a solicitor, was _b._ in Manchester. He was destined for the legal profession, which, however, had no attraction for him; and going to London to complete his studies made the acquaintance of Mr. John Ebers, publisher, and at that time manager of the Opera House, by whom he was introduced to literary and dramatic circles, and whose _dau._ he afterwards married. For a short time he tried the publishing business, but soon gave it up and devoted himself to journalism and literature. His first successful novel was _Rookwood_, _pub._ in 1834, of which Dick Turpin is the leading character, and thenceforward he continued to pour forth till 1881 a stream of novels, to the number of 39, of which the best known are _The Tower of London_ (1840), _Old St. Paul's_ (1841), _Lancashire Witches_, and _The Constable of the Tower_. The titles of some of his other novels are _Crichton_ (1837), _Jack Sheppard_ (1839), _Guy Fawkes_, _The Star Chamber_, _The Flitch of Bacon_, _The Miser's Daughter_ (1842), and _Windsor Castle_ (1843). A. depends for his effects on striking situations and powerful descriptions: he has little humour or power of delineating character.

AIRD, THOMAS (1802-1876).--Poet, _b._ at Bowden, Roxburghshire, went to Edinburgh, where he became the friend of Professor Wilson, Carlyle, and other men of letters. He contributed to _Blackwood's Magazine_, and was editor of the _Dumfries Herald_ (1835-63). His chief poem is _The Captive of Fez_ (1830); and in prose he wrote _Religious Characteristics_, and _The Old Bachelor in the Old Scottish Village_ (1848), all of which were received with favour. Carlyle said that in his poetry he found everywhere "a healthy breath as of mountain breezes."

AKENSIDE, MARK (1721-1770).--Poet, _s._ of a butcher at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, gave early indications of talent, and was sent to the University of Edinburgh with the view of becoming a dissenting minister. While there, however, he changed his mind and studied for the medical profession. Thereafter he went to Leyden, where he took his degree of M.D. in 1744. While there he wrote his principal poem, _The Pleasures of the Imagination_, which was well received, and was subsequently translated into more than one foreign language. After trying Northampton, he settled as a physician in London; but was for long largely dependent for his livelihood on a Mr. Dyson. His talents brought him a good deal of consideration in society, but the solemn and pompous manner which he affected laid him open to some ridicule, and he is said to have been satirised by Smollett (_q.v._) in his _Peregrine Pickle_. He endeavoured to reconstruct his poem, but the result was a failure. His collected poems were _pub._ 1772. His works, however, are now little read. Mr. Gosse has described him as "a sort of frozen Keats."

ALCOTT, LOUISA M. (1832-1888).--Writer of juvenile and other tales, _dau._ of Amos Bronson Alcott, an educational and social theorist, lecturer, and author, was _b._ in Pennsylvania. During the American civil war she served as a nurse, and afterwards attained celebrity as a writer of books for young people, of which the best is _Little Women_ (1868). Others are _Little Men_ and _Jo's Boys_. She also wrote novels, including _Moods_ and _Work_.

ALCUIN or EALHWINE (735-804).--Theologian and general writer, was _b._ and _ed._ at York. He wrote in prose and verse, his subjects embracing educational, theological, and historical matters. Returning from Rome, to which he had been sent to procure the _pallium_ for a friend, he met Charlemagne at Parma, and made upon him so favourable an impression that he was asked to enter his service as preceptor in the sciences to himself and his family. His numerous treatises, which include metrical annals, hagiographical and philosophical works, are not distinguished by originality or profundity, but he is the best representative of the culture and mental activity of his age, upon which, as the minister of education of the great emperor, he had a widely-spread influence.

ALDRICH, THOMAS BAILEY (1836-1906).--Poet and novelist, _b._ at Portsmouth, N.H., was for some time in a bank, and then engaged in journalism. His first book was _The Bells, a Collection of Chimes_ (1855), and other poetical works are _The Ballad of Babie Bell_, _Cloth of Gold_, _Flower and Thorn_, etc. In prose he wrote _Daisy's Necklace_, _The Course of True Love_, _Marjorie Daw_, _Prudence Palfrey_, etc.

ALESIUS, ALEXANDER (1500-1565).--Theologian and controversialist. His unlatinised name was Aless or Alane, and he was _b._ at Edinburgh and _ed._ at St. Andrews, where he became a canon. Originally a strong and able defender of the Romish doctrines, he was chosen to argue with Patrick Hamilton, the proto-martyr of the Reformation in Scotland, with the object of inducing him to recant. The result, however, was that he was himself much shaken in his allegiance to the Church, and the change was greatly accelerated by the martyrdom of H. His subsequent protest against the immorality of the clergy led to his imprisonment, and ultimately, in 1532, to his flying for his life to Germany, where he became associated with Luther and Melancthon, and definitely joined the reforming party. Coming to England in 1535, he was well received by Cranmer and other reformers. While in England he studied medicine, and practised as a physician in London. On the fall of T. Cromwell in 1540 he again retired to Germany, where, at Leipzig, he obtained a professorship. During the reign of Edward VI. he re-visited England and was employed by Cranmer in connection with the 1st Liturgy of Edward VI. Returning to Leipsic he passed the remainder of his days in peace and honour, and was twice elected Rector of the University. His writings were both exegetical and controversial, but chiefly the latter. They include _Expositio Libri Psalmorum Davidis_ (1550). His controversial works refer to such subjects as the translation of the Bible into the vernacular, against Servetus, etc.

ALEXANDER, MRS. CECIL F. (HUMPHREYS) (1818-1895).--_dau._ of Maj. H., _b._ in Co. Waterford, _m._ the Rev. W. Alexander, afterwards Bishop of Derry and Archbishop of Armagh. Her _Hymns for Little Children_ had reached its 69th edition before the close of the century. Some of her hymns, _e.g._ "There is a Green Hill" and "The Roseate Hues of Early Dawn," are known wherever English is spoken. Her husband has also written several books of poetry, of which the most important is _St. Augustine's Holiday and other Poems_.

ALFORD, HENRY (1810-1871).--Theologian, scholar, poet, and miscellaneous writer, _s._ of a clergyman, was _b._ in London. After passing through various private schools, he proceeded to Cambridge, where he had a distinguished career, and after entering the Church and filling various preferments in the country, became minister of Quebec Chapel, London, whence he was promoted to be Dean of Canterbury. His great work was his _Greek Testament_ in 4 vols., of which the first was _pub._ in 1849 and the last in 1861. In this work he largely followed the German critics, maintaining, however, a moderate liberal position; and it was for long the standard work on the subject in this country. A. was one of the most versatile men, and prolific authors, of his day, his works consisting of nearly 50 vols., including poetry (_School of the Heart_ and _Abbot of Munchelnaye_, and a translation of the _Odyssey_), criticism, sermons, etc. In addition to the works above mentioned he wrote _Chapters on the Greek Poets_ (1841), the _Queen's English_ (1863), and many well-known hymns, and he was the first editor of the _Contemporary Review_. He was also an accomplished artist and musician. His industry was incessant and induced a premature breakdown in health, which terminated in his death in 1871. He was the friend of most of his eminent contemporaries, and was much beloved for his amiable character.

ALISON, ARCHIBALD (1757-1839).--Didactic and philosophical writer, was _b._ in Edinburgh and _ed._ at Glasgow University and Oxford. After being presented to various livings in England, A. came to Edinburgh as incumbent of St. Paul's Episcopal Chapel, where he attained popularity as a preacher of sermons characterised by quiet beauty of thought and grace of composition. His chief contribution to literature is his _Essay on the Nature and Principles of Taste_ (1790), in which the "association" theory is supported.

ALISON, SIR ARCHIBALD (1792-1867).--Historian, _s._ of the above, was _b._ at Kenley, Shropshire, and after studying under a private tutor, and at Edinburgh University, was, in 1814, called to the Bar, at which he ultimately attained some distinction, becoming in 1834 Sheriff of Lanarkshire, in which capacity he rendered valuable service in times of considerable difficulty. It was when travelling in France in 1814 that he conceived the idea of his _History of Europe_, which deals with the period from the outbreak of the French Revolution to the restoration of the Bourbons, and extends, in its original form (1833-42), to 10 vols. The work is one of vast industry, and gives a useful account of an important epoch, but is extremely diffuse and one-sided, and often prosy. Disraeli satirises the author in _Coningsby_ as Mr. Wordy, who wrote a history to prove that Providence was on the side of the Tories. It had, however, an enormous sale. A continuation of it (1852-59) brought the story down to the accession of Louis Napoleon. A. was also the author of a life of Marlborough, and of two standard works on the criminal law of Scotland. In his private and official capacities he was highly respected, and was elected Lord Rector successively of Marischal Coll., Aberdeen, and of Glasgow University. He was created a baronet by Lord Derby in 1852.

ALLEN, CHARLES GRANT (1848-1899).--Scientific writer and novelist, _b._ in Canada, to which his _f._, a clergyman, had emigrated, and _ed._ at Birmingham and Oxford. For a time he was a professor in a college for negroes in Jamaica, but returning to England in 1876 devoted himself to literature. His first books were on scientific subjects, and include _Physiological Æsthetics_ (1877) and _Flowers and Their Pedigrees_. After assisting Sir W.W. Hunter in his _Gazeteer of India_, he turned his attention to fiction, and between 1884 and 1899 produced about 30 novels, among which _The Woman Who Did_ (1895), promulgating certain startling views on marriage and kindred questions, created some sensation. Another work, _The Evolution of the Idea of God_, propounding a theory of religion on heterodox lines, has the disadvantage of endeavouring to explain everything by one theory. His scientific works also included _Colour Sense_, _Evolutionist at Large_, _Colin Clout's Calendar_, and the _Story of the Plants_, and among his novels may be added _Babylon_, _In all Shades_, _Philistia_ (1884), _The Devil's Die_, and _The British Barbarians_ (1896).

ALLINGHAM, WILLIAM (1824-1889).--Poet, the _s._ of a banker of English descent, was _b._ at Ballyshannon, entered the customs service, and was ultimately settled in London, where he contributed to _Leigh Hunt's Journal_. Hunt introduced him to Carlyle and other men of letters, and in 1850 he _pub._ a book of poems, which was followed by _Day and Night Songs_ (1854), _Laurence Bloomfield in Ireland_ (1864) (his most ambitious, though not his most successful work), and _Collected Poems_ in 6 vols. (1888-93). He also edited _The Ballad Book_ for the _Golden Treasury_ series in 1864. In 1870 he retired from the civil service and became sub-editor of _Fraser's Magazine_ under Froude, whom he succeeded as editor (1874-79). His verse is clear, fresh, and graceful. He married Helen Paterson, the water colourist, whose idylls have made the name of "Mrs. Allingham" famous also. He _d._ in 1889. Other works are _Fifty Modern Poems_ (1865), _Songs, Poems, and Ballads_ (1877), _Evil May Day_ (1883), _Blackberries_ (1884), _Irish Songs and Poems_ (1887), and _Varieties in Prose_ (1893). A selection from his diaries and autobiography was _pub._ in 1906.

ALLSTON, WASHINGTON (1779-1843).--Painter and poet, _b._ in S. Carolina, became a distinguished painter, and also wrote a good deal of verse including _The Sylphs of the Seasons_, etc. (1813), and _The Two Painters_, a satire. He also produced a novel, _Monaldi_. He was known as "the American Titian."

AMORY, THOMAS (1691(?)-1788).--Eccentric writer, was of Irish descent. In 1755 he _publ._ _Memoirs containing the lives of several ladies of Great Britain, a History of Antiquities and Observations on the Christian Religion_, which was followed by the _Life of John Buncle_ (1756), practically a continuation. The contents of these works are of the most miscellaneous description--philology, natural science, theology, and, in fact, whatever occurred to the writer, treated without any system, but with occasional originality and felicity of diction. The author, who was probably more or less insane, is described as having a very peculiar aspect, with the manner of a gentleman, scarcely ever stirring abroad except at dusk. He reached the age of 97.

ANDERSON, ALEXANDER (1845-1909).--Poet, _s._ of a quarrier at Kirkconnel, Dumfriesshire, became a surfaceman on the railway. Spending all his leisure in self-culture, he mastered German, French, and Spanish sufficiently to read the chief masterpieces in these languages. His poetic vein, which was true if somewhat limited in range, soon manifested itself, and his first book, _Songs of Labour_, appeared in 1873, and there followed _Two Angels_ (1875), _Songs of the Rail_ (1878), and _Ballads and Sonnets_ (1879). In the following year he was made assistant librarian in the University of Edinburgh, and after an interval as secretary to the Philosophical Institution there, he returned as Chief Librarian to the university. Thereafter he wrote little. Of a simple and gentle character, he made many friends, including the Duke of Argyll, Carlyle, and Lord Houghton. He generally wrote under the name of "Surfaceman."

ANDREWES, LANCELOT (1555-1626).--Churchman and scholar, was _b._ in London, and _ed._ at Merchant Taylor's School and Cambridge, where he took a fellowship and taught divinity. After receiving various other preferments he became Dean of Westminster, and a chaplain-in-ordinary to Queen Elizabeth, who, however, did not advance him further on account of his opposition to the alienation of ecclesiastical revenues. On the accession, however, of James I., to whom his somewhat pedantic learning and style of preaching recommended him, he rose into great favour, and was made successively Bishop of Chichester, of Ely, and, in 1618, of Winchester. He attended the Hampton Court Conference, and took part in the translation of the Bible, known as the _Authorised Version_, his special work being given to the earlier parts of the Old Testament: he acted, however, as a sort of general editor. He was considered as, next to Ussher, the most learned churchman of his day, and enjoyed a great reputation as an eloquent and impassioned preacher, but the stiffness and artificiality of his style render his sermons unsuited to modern taste. His doctrine was High Church, and in his life he was humble, pious, and charitable. Ninety-six of his sermons were published in 1631 by command of Charles I.

There are lives by A.T. Russell (1863), and R.L. Ottley (1894); _Devotions_ were edited by Rev. Dr. Whyte (1900).

ANSTEY, CHRISTOPHER (1724-1805).--Poet, _s._ of Dr. A., a wealthy clergyman, rector of Brinkley, Cambridgeshire, was _ed._ at Eton and Cambridge. He _pub._ in 1766 a satirical poem of considerable sparkle, _The New Bath Guide_, from which Smollett is said to have drawn largely in his _Humphrey Clinker_. He made many other excursions into literature which are hardly remembered, and ended his days as a country squire at the age of eighty.

D'ARBLAY, FRANCES (BURNEY) (1752-1840).--Novelist, _dau._ of Dr. Charles B., a musician of some distinction, was _b._ at Lynn Regis, where her _f._ was organist. Her mother having died while she was very young, and her _f._, who had come to London, being too busy to give her any attention, she was practically self-educated. Her first novel, _Evelina_, _pub._ anonymously in 1778, at once by its narrative and comic power, brought her fame, and, through Mrs. Thrale (_q.v._), she made the acquaintance of Dr. Johnson, with whom she became a great favourite. Her next literary venture was a comedy, _The Witlings_; but, by the advice of her _f._, it was not put upon the stage. In 1782, however, she produced _Cecilia_, which, like its predecessor, had an enormous sale, and which, though not perhaps so popular as _Evelina_, added to her fame. She now became the friend of Burke and other distinguished persons, including Mrs. Delaney, through whom she became known to the royal family, and was offered the appointment of Second Keeper of the Robes, which, with some misgivings, she accepted. This situation did not prove a happy one, the duties being menial, the society uncongenial, and the court etiquette oppressive and injurious to her health, and in 1791 she obtained permission to retire on a pension of £100. She had, during her connection with the court, continued her _Diary_, which she had begun in girlhood, and continued during her whole life, and which during this period contains many interesting accounts of persons and affairs of note. She married (1793) Gen. D'Arblay, a French _emigré_, their only income being her slender pension. This she endeavoured to increase by producing a tragedy, _Edwy and Elvira_, which failed. In 1795 she _pub._ by subscription another novel, _Camilla_, which, though it did not add to her reputation, considerably improved her circumstances, as it is said to have brought her £3000. After some years spent in France, where her husband had obtained employment, she returned to England and _pub._ her last novel, _The Wanderer_, which fell flat. Her only remaining work was a life of her father, written in an extraordinarily grandiloquent style. She died in 1840, aged 87.

ARBUTHNOT, JOHN (1667-1735).--Physician and satirist, was _b._ in Kincardineshire, and after studying at Aberdeen and Oxford, took his degree of M.D. at St. Andrews. Settling in London, he taught mathematics. Being by a fortunate accident at Epsom, he was called in to prescribe for Prince George, who was suddenly taken ill there, and was so successful in his treatment that he was appointed his regular physician. This circumstance made his professional fortune, for his ability enabled him to take full advantage of it, and in 1705 he became physician to the Queen. He became the cherished friend of Swift and Pope, and himself gained a high reputation as a wit and man of letters. His principal works are the _Memoirs of Martinus Scriblerus_, partly by Pope, but to which he was the chief contributor, the _History of John Bull_ (1712), mainly against the Duke of Marlborough, _A Treatise concerning the Altercation or Scolding of the Ancients_, and the _Art of Political Lying_. He also wrote various medical treatises, and dissertations on ancient coins, weights, and measures. After the death of Queen Anne, A. lost his court appointments, but this, as well as more serious afflictions with which he was visited, he bore with serenity and dignity. He was an honourable and amiable man, one of the very few who seems to have retained the sincere regard of Swift, whose style he made the model of his own, with such success that writings by the one were sometimes attributed to the other: his _Art of Political Lying_ is an example. He has, however, none of the ferocity of S.

ARGYLL, GEORGE JOHN DOUGLAS CAMPBELL, 8TH DUKE OF (1823-1900).--Statesman and writer on science, religion, and politics, succeeded his _f._, the 7th duke, in 1847. His talents and eloquence soon raised him to distinction in public life. He acted with the Liberal party until its break-up under the Irish policy of Mr. Gladstone, after which he was one of the Unionist leaders. He held the offices of Lord Privy Seal, Postmaster-General, and Indian Secretary. His writings include _The Reign of Law_ (1866), _Primeval Man_ (1869), _The Eastern Question_ (1879), _The Unseen Foundations of Society_ (1893), _Philosophy of Belief_ (1896), _Organic Evolution Cross-examined_ (1898). He was a man of the highest character, honest, courageous, and clear-sighted, and, though regarded by some professional scientists as to a certain extent an amateur, his ability, knowledge, and dialectic power made him a formidable antagonist, and enabled him to exercise a useful, generally conservative, influence on scientific thought and progress.

ARMSTRONG, JOHN, M.D. (1709-1779).--Poet, _s._ of the minister of Castleton, Roxburghshire, studied medicine, which he practised in London. He is remembered as the friend of Thomson, Mallet, and other literary celebrities of the time, and as the author of a poem on _The Art of Preserving Health_, which appeared in 1744, and in which a somewhat unpromising subject for poetic treatment is gracefully and ingeniously handled. His other works, consisting of some poems and prose essays, and a drama, _The Forced Marriage_, are forgotten, with the exception of the four stanzas at the end of the first part of Thomson's _Castle of Indolence_, describing the diseases incident to sloth, which he contributed.

ARNOLD, SIR EDWIN (1832-1904).--Poet, _s._ of a Sussex magistrate, was _b._ at Gravesend, and _ed._ at King's School, Rochester, London, and Oxford. Thereafter he was an assistant master at King Edward's School, Birmingham, and was in 1856 appointed Principal of the Government Deccan College, Poona. Here he received the bias towards, and gathered material for, his future works. In 1861 he returned to England and became connected with _The Daily Telegraph_, of which he was ultimately editor. The literary task which he set before him was the interpretation in English verse of the life and philosophy of the East. His chief work with this object is _The Light of Asia_ (1879), a poem on the life and teaching of Buddha, which had great popularity, but whose permanent place in literature must remain very uncertain. In _The Light of the World_ (1891), he attempted, less successfully, a similar treatment of the life and teaching of Jesus. Other works are _The Song of Songs of India_ (1875), _With Saadi in the Garden_, and _The Tenth Muse_. He travelled widely in the East, and wrote books on his travels. He was made K.C.I.E. in 1888.

ARNOLD, MATTHEW (1822-1888).--Poet and critic, _s._ of Dr. A., of Rugby (_q.v._), was _b._ at Laleham and _ed._ at Rugby, Winchester, and Balliol Coll., Oxford, becoming a Fellow of Oriel in 1845. Thereafter he was private secretary to Lord Lansdowne, Lord President of the Council, through whose influence he was in 1851 appointed an inspector of schools. Two years before this he had _pub._ his first book of poetry, _The Strayed Reveller_, which he soon withdrew: some of the poems, however, including "Mycerinus" and "The Forsaken Merman," were afterwards republished, and the same applies to his next book, _Empedocles on Etna_ (1852), with "Tristram and Iseult." In 1857 he was appointed to the Professorship of Poetry at Oxford, which he held for ten years. After this he produced little poetry and devoted himself to criticism and theology. His principal writings are, in poetry, _Poems_ (1853), containing "Sohrab and Rustum," and "The Scholar Gipsy;" _Poems, 2nd Series_ (1855), containing "Balder Dead;" _Merope_ (1858); _New Poems_ (1867), containing "Thyrsis," an elegy on A.H. Clough (_q.v._), "A Southern Night," "Rugby Chapel," and "The Weary Titan"; in prose he wrote _On Translating Homer_ (1861 and 1862), _On the Study of Celtic Literature_ (1867), _Essays in Celtic Literature_ (1868), _2nd Series_ (1888), _Culture and Anarchy_ (1869), _St. Paul and Protestantism_ (1870), _Friendship's Garland_ (1871), _Literature and Dogma_ (1873), _God and the Bible_ (1875), _Last Essays on Church and Religion_ (1877), _Mixed Essays_ (1879), _Irish Essays_ (1882), and _Discourses in America_ (1885). He also wrote some works on the state of education on the Continent. In 1883 he received a pension of £250. The rationalistic tendency of certain of his writings gave offence to many readers, and the sufficiency of his equipment in scholarship for dealing with some of the subjects which he handled was called in question; but he undoubtedly exercised a stimulating influence on his time; his writings are characterised by the finest culture, high purpose, sincerity, and a style of great distinction, and much of his poetry has an exquisite and subtle beauty, though here also it has been doubted whether high culture and wide knowledge of poetry did not sometimes take the place of the true poetic fire.

There is a bibliography of A.'s works by T.B. Smart (1892), and books upon him have been written by Prof. Saintsbury (1899), H. Paul (1902), and G.W.E. Russell (1904), also papers by Sir L. Stephen, F. Harrison, and others.

ARNOLD, THOMAS (1795-1842).--Historian, _s._ of an inland revenue officer in the Isle of Wight, was _ed._ at Winchester and Oxford, and after some years as a tutor, was, in 1828, appointed Head Master of Rugby. His learning, earnestness, and force of character enabled him not only to raise his own school to the front rank of public schools, but to exercise an unprecedented reforming influence on the whole educational system of the country. A liberal in politics, and a zealous church reformer, he was involved in many controversies, educational and religious. As a churchman he was a decided Erastian, and strongly opposed to the High Church party. In 1841 he was appointed Professor of Modern History at Oxford. His chief literary works are his unfinished _History of Rome_ (three vols. 1838-42), and his _Lectures on Modern History_. He _d._ suddenly of angina pectoris in the midst of his usefulness and growing influence. His life, by Dean Stanley (_q.v._), is one of the best works of its class in the language.

ASCHAM, ROGER (1515-1568).--Didactic writer and scholar, _s._ of John A., house-steward in the family of Lord Scrope, was _b._ at Kirby Wiske, Yorkshire, and _ed._ first by Sir Humphrey Wingfield, and then at St. John's Coll., Cambridge, where he devoted himself specially to the study of Greek, then newly revived, and of which, having taken a fellowship, he became a teacher. He was likewise noted for his skill in penmanship, music, and archery, the last of which is the subject of his first work, _Toxophilus_, _pub._ in 1545, and which, dedicated to Henry VIII., gained him the favour of the King, who bestowed a pension upon him. The objects of the book are twofold, to commend the practice of shooting with the long bow as a manly sport and an aid to national defence, and to set the example of a higher style of composition than had yet been attempted in English. Soon afterwards he was made university orator, and master of languages to the Lady (afterwards Queen) Elizabeth. He then went abroad in various positions of trust, returning on being appointed Latin Secretary to Edward VI. This office he likewise discharged to Mary and then to Elizabeth--a testimony to his tact and caution in these changeful times. His principal work, _The Schoolmaster_, a treatise on education, was printed by his widow in 1570. He also _pub._ a book on the political state of Germany.

Editions: of _Toxophilus_, Arber; _Schoolmaster_, Arber, also Mayer (1883); English works, Bennet (1767), with life by Dr. Johnson; whole works, Giles (1864-5).

ASGILL, JOHN (1659-1738).--Eccentric writer, student at the Middle Temple, 1686, and called to the Bar 1692. In 1699 he _pub._ in an unlucky hour a pamphlet to prove that death was not obligatory upon Christians, which, much to his surprise, aroused the public wrath and led to his expulsion from the Irish and English House of Commons successively. A. thereafter fell on evil days, and passed the rest of his life between the Fleet and the King's Bench, where, strange to say, his zeal as a pamphleteer continued unabated. He _d._ in 1738.

ASHMOLE, ELIAS (1617-1692).--Antiquary, was _ed._ at Lichfield, and became a solicitor in 1638. On the breaking out of the Civil War he sided with the royalists; went to Oxford and studied science, including astrology. The result of his studies in this region of mystery was his _Theatrum Chymicum Britannicum_, which gained him great repute and the friendship of John Selden. His last astrological treatise was _The Way to Bliss_, which dealt with the subject of "the philosopher's stone." He also wrote various works on antiquarian subjects, and a _History of the Order of the Garter_. A. held various posts under government, and presented to the University of Oxford a valuable collection of curiosities now known as the Ashmolean Museum. He also bequeathed his library to the University. His wife was a _dau._ of Sir W. Dugdale, the antiquary.

ASSER (_d._ 909?).--Chronicler, a monk of St. David's, afterwards Bishop of Sherborne, was the friend, helper, and biographer of Ælfred. In addition to his life of Ælfred he wrote a chronicle of England from 849 to 887.

ATHERSTONE, EDWIN (1788-1872).--Poet and novelist. His works, which were planned on an imposing scale, attracted some temporary attention and applause, but are now forgotten. His chief poem, _The Fall of Nineveh_, consisting of thirty books, appeared at intervals from 1828 to 1868. He also produced two novels, _The Sea Kings in England_ and _The Handwriting on the Wall_.

ATTERBURY, FRANCIS (1662-1732).--Controversialist and preacher, was _b._ near Newport Pagnel, Bucks, and _ed._ at Westminster School and Oxford. He became the leading protagonist on the High Church side in the ecclesiastical controversies of his time, and is believed to have been the chief author of the famous defence of Dr. Sacheverell in 1712. He also wrote most of Boyle's _Examination of Dr. Bentley's Dissertations on the Epistles of Phalaris_, and _pub._ sermons, which, with his letters to Swift, Pope, and other friends, constitute the foundation of his literary reputation. During the reign of the Tories he enjoyed much preferment, having been successively Canon of Exeter, Dean of Christ Church, Dean of Westminster, and Bishop of Rochester. His Jacobite principles, however, and his participation in various plots got him into trouble, and in 1722 he was confined in the Tower, deprived of all his offices, and ultimately banished. He _d._ at Paris, Feb. 15, 1732, and was buried privately in Westminster Abbey.

AUBREY, JOHN (1626-1697).--Antiquary, was a country gentleman who inherited estates in several counties in England, which he lost by litigation and otherwise. He devoted himself to the collection of antiquarian and miscellaneous observations, and gave assistance to Dugdale and Anthony à-Wood in their researches. His own investigations were extensive and minute, but their value is much diminished by his credulity, and want of capacity to weigh evidence. His only publication is his _Miscellanies_, a collection of popular superstitions, etc., but he left various collections, which were edited and _publ._ in the 19th century.

AUSTEN, JANE (1775-1817).--Novelist, _dau._ of a clergyman, was _b._ at the rectory of Steventon near Basingstoke. She received an education superior to that generally given to girls of her time, and took early to writing, her first tale being begun in 1798. Her life was a singularly uneventful one, and, but for a disappointment in love, tranquil and happy. In 1801 the family went to Bath, the scene of many episodes in her writings, and after the death of her _f._ in 1805 to Southampton, and later to Chawton, a village in Hants, where most of her novels were written. A tendency to consumption having manifested itself, she removed in May, 1817, to Winchester for the advantage of skilled medical attendance, but so rapid was the progress of her malady that she died there two months later. Of her six novels, four--_Sense and Sensibility_ (1811), _Pride and Prejudice_ (1813), _Mansfield Park_ (1814) and _Emma_ (1816)--were _pub._ anonymously during her life-time; and the others, _Northanger Abbey_--written in 1798--and _Persuasion_, finished in 1816, appeared a few months after her death, when the name of the authoress was divulged. Although her novels were from the first well received, it is only of comparatively late years that her genius has gained the wide appreciation which it deserves. Her strength lies in the delineation of character, especially of persons of her own sex, by a number of minute and delicate touches arising out of the most natural and everyday incidents in the life of the middle and upper classes, from which her subjects are generally taken. Her characters, though of quite ordinary types, are drawn with such wonderful firmness and precision, and with such significant detail as to retain their individuality absolutely intact through their entire development, and they are never coloured by her own personality. Her view of life is genial in the main, with a strong dash of gentle but keen satire: she appeals rarely and slightly to the deeper feelings; and the enforcement of the excellent lessons she teaches is left altogether to the story, without a word of formal moralising. Among her admirers was Sir W. Scott, who said, "That young lady has a talent for describing the involvements of feelings and characters of ordinary life which is to me the most wonderful I ever met with;" others were Macaulay (who thought that in the world there were no compositions which approached nearer to perfection), Coleridge, Southey, Sydney Smith, and E. FitzGerald.

AUSTIN, JOHN (1790-1859).--Jurist, served in the army in Sicily and Malta, but, selling his commission, studied law, and was called to the Bar 1818. He did not long continue to practise, but devoted himself to the study of law as a science, and became Professor of Jurisprudence in London University 1826-32. Thereafter he served on various Royal Commissions. By his works he exercised a profound influence on the views of jurisprudence held in England. These include _The Province of Jurisprudence Determined_ (1832), and his _Lectures on Jurisprudence_.

AYTON, SIR ROBERT (1570-1638).--Poet, _s._ of A. of Kinaldie in Fife. After _grad._ at St. Andrews, he studied law at Paris, became ambassador to the Emperor, and held other court offices. He appears to have been well-known to his literary contemporaries in England. He wrote poems in Latin, Greek, and English, and was one of the first Scotsmen to write in the last. His chief poem is _Diophantus and Charidora; Inconstancy Upbraided_ is perhaps the best of his short poems. He is credited with a little poem, _Old Long Syne_, which probably suggested Burns's famous _Auld Lang Syne_.